Design of RC Beam

in Bending

Chapter : Four
Design of Reinforced Concrete Structure
 Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam at Limit State of Strength
 When beam is subjected to transverse load, it bends causing compression at the top and tension at
the bottom of beam.

 When load is small, bending stresses in the fibres of beam are within permissible limits/elastic
limits.

 As the load increases, tensile bending stress in concrete reaches to its cracking strength causing
cracks in tension side of beam. At the stage, concrete in tension share very little load and it is not
considered in design.

 Increase in load may cause the top compression fibre of concrete to yield prior to yielding of
tension bars and leads to crushing of concrete and compression (brittle)failure. It occurs, when
beam is over-reinforced.

 Increase in load may cause the tension bars to yield prior to yielding of concrete fibre in
compression and leads to crushing of concrete and tension (ductile)failure. It occurs, when beam
is under–reinforced.

 It may be possible that the beam may fail due to yielding of steel and crushing of concrete
simultaneously. It occurs , when beam section is balanced.

 At the limit of strength (collapse) of RC Beam, concrete behaves elasto-plastically or plastically. So

at the stage bending stress distribution across the depth of beam is not linear and taken
rectangular and parabolic (Stress Block) according to their respective strains.
 Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam at Limit State of Strength

ec < 0.002 σcb < σcbc ec < 0.002 σcb < σcbc ec < 0.002 σcb = σcbc

D d D D d

et σtb < fcr et σtb = fcr es σtb > fcr

Cross section Strain Bending Stress
of beam Diagram Diagram
At Elastic State

Where,
ec = 0.002 σcb = 0.446 fck ec = 0.0035 σcb = 0.446 fck ec , ec– Strain in extreme fibres of
concrete in compression and
0.002 0.446 fck tension
d d σcb , σtb - Compressive and tensile
bending stress in concrete
fcr – Cracking (Tensile) strength of
concrete
es es ≤ 0.002 + 0.87 fy/ Es
> 0.002 + 0.87 fy/ Es σcbc – Permissible compressive bending
stress of concrete
At Limit State of Strength fck – Characteristic compressive
strength of concrete
fy – Yield strength of steel bar
Basic Assumptions in the Design of RC Beam (Refer to Cl. 38.1)

1. Beam section remains plain after bending

2. Maximum strain and compressive bending stress in outermost compression fibre of

concrete of beam are taken equal to 0.0035 and 0.446 fck at limit state of collapse.

3. Concrete of beam in tension does share any load.

4. Maximum stress (fs)and strain (es)in the steel bar at yield point are taken equal to

fs = 0.87 fy es = 0.002 + 0.87 fy /Es

Bending Stress Distribution

(Stress Block) in RC beam

b ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck

x2 C2 a = 0.416 xu
xu 0.002 0.446 fck
x1 C = 0.36fck bxu
C1
d

Cross section Strain Bending Stress

of beam Diagram Diagram
Stress Block Parameter
Depth of Stress Block Where,
xu – Depth of N.A.
xu = x1 + x2
C1, C2 – Compressive force offered by
From Strain Diagram parabolic and rectangular portion of
x1 = 0.57 xu stress block
x2 = 0.43 xu
C – Compressive force offered by concrete
in stress block

Compressive force offered by x1, x2 – Depth of parabolic and rectangular

concrete in stress block portion of stress block

C = C1 + C2 = a – Distance between extreme fibre of

= x1 b × 2/3 × 0.446 fck + x2 b × 0.446 fck concrete in compression and the total
compressive force offered by concrete
= 0.36fck b xu

Taking moment of compressive forces about the

extreme compression fibre of concrete

C × a = C1 × (x2 + 3/8x1) + C2 × x2/2

a = 0.416 xu
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section of RC Beam

b
ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck Where,
0.416 xu xu – Depth of N.A.
xu C = 0.36fck bxu C – Compressive force offered by
D d concrete in compression
d – 0.416xu M.R. – Moment resisting capacity
of beam
es T = fs Ast
Ast fs – Stress in tension steel
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress Ast – Sectional area of tension
of Beam Diagram Diagram steel

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑵. 𝑨 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴. 𝑹. )

𝐶=𝑇 𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑪 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑜𝑟, 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡
 𝑥𝑢 =
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑻 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
 Balanced, Under-reinforced and Over-reinforced RC Section
Balanced RC Section of Beam

b
ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck
0.416xu,l
xu = xu,l C = 0.36fckbxu,l
D d
d – 0.416xu,l
T = 0.87fy Ast
Ast es = 0.002 + 0.87 fy/ Es

Cross Section Strain Bending Stress

of Beam Diagram Diagram

Depth of N.A. of Balanced Section (xu,l ) 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴𝒖,𝒍 )

From strain diagram

𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 = 𝑪 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖,𝒍
xu,l /d = 0.0035/(0.0035 + 0.002 + 0.87fy / Es )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 . = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢,𝑙 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑙
 xu,l = 0.0035/(0.0035 + 0.002 + 0.87fy / Es ) × d

xu,l = 0.53 d for Fe 250 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 = 𝑻 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖,𝒍

0.48 d for Fe 415
0.46 d for Fe 500 𝑜𝑟, 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 . = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑙
 Under-reinforced and Over-reinforced Section of Beam

b
ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck

xu

D d

Ast es fs
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress
of Beam Diagram Diagram

RC Section Balanced Under-reinforced Over-reinforced

Section Section Section
Failure Type Balanced Tension ( Ductile ) Compression (Brittle)
ec 0.0035 0.0035 0.0035
es 0.002 + 0.87fy/ Es > 0.002 + 0.87fy/ Es < 0.002 + 0.87fy/ Es
fs 0.87fy 0.87fy < 0.87fy
σc 0.446 fck 0.446 fck 0.446 fck
xu xu,l < xu,l > xu,l
d dl > dl < dl
Mu Mu,l < Mu,l > Mu,l
 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section of RC Beam
Where,
xu – Depth of N.A.
Cc , Cs – Compressive force offered by
b σc = 0.446 fck
concrete in compression and
ec = 0.0035 compression steel
d' d' Cs = (fsc - fcc) Asc
esc C = Cc +Cs
xu M.R. – Moment resisting capacity of beam
Asc 0.416 xu Cc = 0.36fck bxu
d fs , fsc – Stress in tension and compression
D
steel
d – 0.416 xu
Ast , Asc – Sectional area of tension and
T = fs Ast compression steel
es
Ast d‘ – Effective cover to compression steel
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress (Inset)
of Beam Diagram Diagram fcc – Stress in concrete at the level of
compression steel
esc – Strain in compression steel
jd – Lever arm of force C or T

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑵. 𝑨 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴. 𝑹. )

𝐶=𝑇 𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑪𝒄 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖 + 𝑪𝒔 𝒅 − 𝒅′
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝑠𝑐 𝒅 − 𝒅′
𝑜𝑟, 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝒇𝒔 𝑨𝒔𝒕 − 𝒇𝒔𝒄 −𝒇𝒄𝒄 𝑨𝒔𝒄 𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑻 × 𝒋𝒅
 𝒙𝒖 =
𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 × 𝑗𝑑
 Flanged Section of RC Beam
When a series of beams support a concrete slab, it is common practice to cast the slab and beam together to
give the integral and economically effective structure. In this type of construction, individual beam may have
either T or inverted L section consisting of a vertical web and a horizontal flange.

In such sections, distribution of compressive bending stress over the width of flange is not uniform due to
shear lag phenomenon. In the design of such section, bending stress distribution is taken uniform employing
the effective of flange bf of beam. (Refer to Cl.23.1)

Cross Section of Floor Slab

bf = l0 /6 + bw + 6 Df ≤ bact for T beam
bact
bf = l0 /12 + bw + 3 Df ≤ bact for L beam
Df
Where,
Slab bw l0 – Distance between zero moments of beam
bact – Actual width of flange of beam
Df – Depth of flange of beam
Beam bw – Width of web of beam
bf – Effective width of flange of beam

bf Actual bending stress distribution

Modified bending stress diagram across the width of beam
distribution diagram across Df
the effective width of beam
bw

Design Section
of Beam
 Singly Reinforced Flanged Section of RC Beam
Case I: When N.A. lies in flange of beam ( xu ≤ Df )

bf
ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck
0.416 xu
xu C = 0.36fck bf xu
Df

D d
d – 0.416 xu
bw
Where,
T = fs Ast Df – Depth of flange.
Ast es
bf – Effective width of flange
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress bw – Width of web of beam
of Beam Diagram Diagram

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑵. 𝑨. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴. 𝑹. )

𝐶=𝑇 𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑪 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑜𝑟, 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑓𝑥𝑢 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑓 𝑥𝑢 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡
 𝑥𝑢 =
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑓
𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑻 × 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
 Singly Reinforced Flanged Section of RC Beam
Case II: i) When N.A. lies in web of beam ( xu > Df ) and Df ≤ 0.43 xu

bf
ec = 0.0035 σc = 0.446 fck 0.5D
f
C1
1 1 Df 0.416 xu
2 xu C = C 1 + C2
C2
D d d – 0.416 xu
Where,
bw Df – Depth of flange.
T = fs Ast bf – Effective width of flange
Ast es
bw – Width of web of beam
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress C1 , C2 – Compressive force offered by
of Beam Diagram Diagram area 1 and 2 of concrete

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑵. 𝑨 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴. 𝑹. )

𝐶=𝑇 𝑫𝒇
𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑪𝟏 𝒅 − 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑜𝑟, C1 + C2 = 𝑇
𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 0.446 fck (bf – bw) Df + 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤 𝑥𝑢 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 0.446 fck (bf – bw) Df × 𝑑 − 𝑓 2
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 − 0.446 fck (bf – b w) Df + 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤 𝑥𝑢 × 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
 𝑥𝑢 =
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤
𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑻 × 𝒋𝒅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 × 𝑗𝑑
 Singly Reinforced Flanged Section of RC Beam
Case II: ii) When N.A. lies in web of beam ( xu > Df ) and Df > 0.43 xu

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑵. 𝑨
𝑪=𝑻 Where,
𝑜𝑟, C1 + C2 = 𝑇 Df – Depth of flange.
𝑜𝑟, 0.446 fck (bf – bw) yf + 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤 𝑥𝑢 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 bf – Effective width of flanged of beam
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 − 0.446 fck (bf – bw) yf bw – Width of web of beam
 𝑥𝑢 = C1 , C2 – Compressive force offered by area 1
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤
and 2 of concrete
When, yf = 0.65Df + 0.15 xu
yf – Modified depth of flange in which
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 − 0.2889 (bf – bw) Df bending stress is taken equal to 0.446 fck
𝑥𝑢 =
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤 + 0.0669 fck (bf – bw) yf = 0.65Df + 0.15 xu ≤ Df (G - 2.2.1)

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑴. 𝑹. )

𝒚𝒇
𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑪𝟏 𝒅 − 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖
𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 0.446 fck (bf – bw) yf × 𝑑 − 𝑓 2
+ 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑤 𝑥𝑢 × 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢

𝑴. 𝑹. = 𝑻 × 𝒋𝒅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑀. 𝑅. = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑡 × 𝑗𝑑
Doubly Reinforced Flanged Section of RC Beam

Asc
bf
ec = 0.0035 fc = 0.446 fck CS
d' esc d' C1
Df 0.416xu
1 2 1 xu C = C 1 + C2 + CS
C2
D d d – 0.416xu
bw
T = fs Ast
Ast es
Cross Section Strain Bending Stress
of Beam Diagram Diagram

Derive the mathematical expression of xu and M.R. of

doubly reinforced flanged section of beam, when
i. xu ≤ Df
ii. xu > Df
 Design of RC Section of Beam in Bending General Rules

Case I When cross sectional dimensions of beam are known

𝒊. 𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝒖 = 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 , 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑺𝑹 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑡 =
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑙
Where,
𝑥𝑢,𝑙 = 𝛼𝑑 (𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚)

𝒊𝒊. 𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝒖 < 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 , 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑺𝑹 𝑼𝑹 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑡 =
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢
Where,
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑥𝑢 =
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
𝒊𝒊𝒊. 𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝒖 > 𝑴𝒖,𝒍 , 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑫𝑹 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

In the case, beam section is divided in to balanced and additional (hypothetical)

sections and agreeing with these sections, area of tension steel and compression
steel required for the DRS of beam are found.

Asc
b b b
Asc
d' x u,l

D d = + d - d'

Ast 1
Ast Ast 2
Cross Section Balanced Section Additional
of Beam of Beam (Hypothetical) Section
of Beam

𝑀. 𝑅. ≥ 𝑀𝑢 = 𝑀𝑢,𝑙 + 𝑀𝐴𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑡 1 + 𝐴𝑠𝑡 2
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒,

𝑀𝑢,𝑙 − 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝑀𝑢,𝑙 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢,𝑙 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑙
𝑀𝑢,𝑙 = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 1 𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑙

𝑀𝐴𝑑𝑑 − 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝑀𝐴𝑑𝑑 = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 2 𝑑 − 𝑑 ′
𝑀𝐴𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝑠𝑐 𝑑 − 𝑑 ′

𝑴𝒖,𝒍 𝑴𝒖 − 𝑴𝒖,𝒍
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = +
𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖,𝒍 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝒅 − 𝒅′

𝑴𝒖 − 𝑴𝒖,𝒍
𝑨𝒔𝒄 =
𝒇𝒔𝒄 − 𝒇𝒄𝒄 𝒅 − 𝒅′
Design of RC Section of Beam in Bending General Rules

Case II When cross sectional dimensions of beam are not known

𝒊. 𝑰𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍, 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒅

𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑺𝑹𝑼𝑹𝑺 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉
𝒅 𝟑𝒅
𝒅 ≥ 𝒅𝒃𝒂𝒍 ; 𝒃= 𝒕𝒐 ≥ 200 mm
𝟑 𝟒
𝑴𝒖 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇 Where, 𝒙𝒖 =
𝒚 𝒅 −𝟎.𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖 𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃

𝒊𝒊. 𝑰𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆, 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒅

𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑫𝑹𝑺 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡

𝑴𝒖,𝒍 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑴𝒖 → 𝒅, 𝒃 = ?
𝑴𝒖,𝒍 𝑴𝒖 − 𝑴𝒖,𝒍
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = +
𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒖,𝒍 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝒅 − 𝒅′
𝑴𝒖 − 𝑴𝒖,𝒍
𝑨𝒔𝒄 =
𝒇𝒔𝒄 − 𝒇𝒄𝒄 𝒅 − 𝒅′