06 Geological Structures

FRACTURES
Earth movements involve plastic folding and brittle
fracture of rocks, as well as uplift and subsidence. These
are tectonic features, caused by large scale movements
of crustal plates (section 09). Under the high confining
pressures at kilometres of depth, and over the long time
scales of tectonic processes, most rocks may show
plastic deformation, and fractures occur when and where accumulate
the plastic limits are exceeded.

Outcrop is an exposure of rock at the surface; or the FEATURES OF FAULTS

area of a rock lying directly beneath a soil cover.
Faults commonly create zones of badly broken ground –
that are weaker and less stable than the adjacent rock –
with implications for foundation bearing capacity, slope
stability and tunnel roof integrity.
Sudden movements along faults (when tectonic stresses
to overcome frictional resistance) cause earthquakes –
vibrations transmitted through the surrounding ground
(section 10).
Old faults (including all those in Britain) cannot displace
ground surface that has evolved subsequent to any fault
movement. Fault line scarps and valleys may appear in a
landscape due to differential erosion across the fault
zone and adjacent contrasting rocks.

Dip is the angle in degrees below the horizontal.
Direction of dip is down the dip.
Strike is direction of horizontal line on a dipping surface.
These refer to bedding or any geological structures.
Rock dip is used to avoid confusion with ground slope.
Faults are fractures that have had displacement of the
rocks along them.
Throw is the vertical component of fault displacement.
Faults are described by reference to their downthrow
side; this is relative movement and may be due to the
other side having moved up.
Strongly folded and faulted rock in Greek road cutting.
Joints are rock fractures with no movement along them.
They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed
in nearly all rocks.
Joint densities and joint lengths are infinitely variable.
Groups of sub parallel joints form joint systems.
Bedding planes are usually the dominant fractures
within sedimentary rocks. Many bedding planes are very
thin bands or partings of shale or clay between units of
stronger rocks. Others are clean breaks, or joints,
developed tectonically along the slightest of contrasts
within the deposition sequence.

Fault types are recognized by relationship of downthrow to dip of the fault plane.
•Normal faults form under tension; downthrow is on downdip side.
•Reverse faults form under compression; downthrow side is opposite to dip.
•Vertical faults are not easily distinguished as either normal or reverse.
•Thrust faults, or thrusts, are reverse faults with low angles of dip.
•Strike-slip (or tear) faults movedhorizontally (nb apparent throw in dipping rocks).
•Grabens are downfaulted blocks between two normal faults.
Slaty cleavage and schistosity are also types of joints. All
joints are structural weaknesses, whose density, extent
and orientation are major influences on rock mass
strength (section 25).
Massive rocks are those that have less fractures, joints or
structural weaknesses of any kind.

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 Fault breccia: coarse angular broken rock debris in zone
(0.1–100 m wide) along a fault; commonly a zone of
enhanced groundwater flow.
Fault gouge: finely ground rock paste within a thin zone
along a fault plane.
Fault drag: disturbance and folding of rock near a fault.
Slickensides: scratches and polishing on fault planes,
and on bedding plane faults within tight folds.
Veins: sheets of mineral infill deposited by hydrothermal
water in fractures or fissures in rock. They occur in joints
or faults. Most veins are of quartz or calcite – white
streaks in rock faces. Larger veins (mostly on faults) can
contain valuable minerals – may have been mined out.

FOLDS
Folds are upward anticlines or downward synclines . Succession of rocks Older rocks generally lie below younger rocks,
and are only exposed by erosion.
They may be gentle , moderate or strong .
Reference to old and young rocks by age avoids any
Folds may be rounded or angular. confusion with high and low outcrops that refer only to
Overfolds and recumbent folds have dips past vertical. their topographical positions.
Isoclines have parallel dips on both sides. Inlier is an outcrop of old rocks surrounded by the
Nappes are recumbent folds sheared along the central outcrops of younger rocks; its presence on a map
line with the development of a thrust fault, usually with indicates either an eroded anticline or a valley.
large displacement.

15
 Outlier is an outcrop of young rocks surrounded by old,
due to either an eroded syncline or a hill.

Unconformity is the plane or break between two

sequences of rocks with different dips. It indicates a
period of earth movements and tectonic deformation
between the times of sediment deposition. It forms a
major structural break – the older rocks must be more
lithified and folded, and perhaps more metamorphosed,
than the younger rocks above the unconformity.

Escarpments, or cuestas, are asymmetrical hills of

dipping beds of strong rock, exposed by differential
erosion of weaker rocks above and below.

07 Geological Maps and Sections

NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES
Localized structures formed in shallow rocks and soils, Glacial drag: shallow local disturbance, with folds, by
erosion processes and shallow ground deformation, overfolds and faults in soils and weak rocks that were unrelated
to regional tectonic structures. over-ridden by Pleistocene glaciers.
Camber folds develop in level or low-dip rocks where Unloading joints: stress-relief fractures close to and a
clay (or soft shale) underlies a strong sandstone or parallel to ground surface due to erosional removal of limestone.
The clay is plastically squeezed out from overburden cover rocks.
beneath the hill due to the differential loads upon it. Landslip fissures: open fissure and normal faults Valley
bulge is the floor lift (since eroded away) and the developed in head zones of slopes prior to failure. structural
disturbance left beneath it. Contraction joints: cooling joints in igneous rocks, Most clay is squeezed out from
close to the valley side including columnar basalt.
(or scarp edge), so that overlying stronger rocks sag and camber towards the valley.
Gulls are open or soil-filled fissures in the strong rocks of
cambered valley sides, opened by camber rotation and
perhaps also by sliding.
Post-glacial cambered ground, or foundered strata, is
common in the sedimentary rocks of England; it causes
fissured rock masses and potential landslides along
many valley sides and scarp faces.

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Geological maps show outcrops (where the rocks meet
the surface). Shapes of outcrops depend on the shape of
the surface and the shape of the rock structure. Surface
shape is known (from topographic contours): therefore
rock structure can be interpreted.
An important rule: where more than one interpretation is
possible, the simplest is usually correct.
Map interpretation is therefore logical and straightforward
if approached systematically. Maps remain the best way
of depicting 3-D rock structure on a piece of paper.
Relationships between a geological map, geological
cross-sections and the three-dimensional structure. The
north-south section is drawn along the strike, so does
not demonstrate the dipping geological structure.
STAGES OF MAP INTERPRETATION
1. Identify faults and unconformities (structural breaks).
2. Identify dips by the V in Valley Rule.
3. Determine succession (unless already given).
4. Identify fold axes (from dips and outcrop bends).
5. Draw stratum contours (if detail is required).
6. Draw cross-section to show sub-surface structure.
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OUTCROP PATTERNS
Six basic concepts cover all outcrop patterns, and enable
most geological maps tdeo be interpreted successfully.
Horizontal beds have outcrops that follow the contours
because they are at constant altitude (limestone on the
Scar Hill map).
Vertical beds have straight outcrops that ignore the
contours (the dyke on the Tan Vale map). Dipping beds
have curved outcrops that cut across, and respond to, the
contours – because outcrops shift down- dip as erosion
lowers the surface (sandstone on both maps).
Dip direction is recognized by the V in Valley Rule: an
outcrop of a dipping rock bends round a V shape where
it crosses a valley, and the V of the outcrop points (like
an arrowhead) in the direction of dip, regardless of the
direction of valley slope and drainage.
This works because the outcrop is shifted furthest down-
dip at its lowest point, where it crosses the valley floor (as
on the Tan Vale map and diagram).
(The rule does not apply in areas of low dip, where
outcrops nearly follow contours, so point upstream.) On
level ground, dipping beds have straight outcrops along
the direction of strike.
Succession is recognized by younger rocks coming to
outcrop in direction of dip. Conversely, if succession is
known, the dip is in the direction of younger outcrops –
the easiest way to recognize dip on most maps.
Width of outcrop is greater at lower dips – and on thicker
beds.
RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURES
Unconformity is recognized where one outcrop (of a
younger bed) cuts across the ends of outcrops of older
beds (as does the limestone on the Scar Hill map). Faults
are usually marked and keyed on maps. They may cut
out, offset or repeat outcrops of beds. Fault dip is
recognized by V in Valley Rule. Downthrow side of a fault
is the side with younger outcrop because the older rocks
have been downthrown to beneath surface level.
Folds are recognized by changes in dip direction, and
also by outliers and inliers not due to topography. Most
important, folds are recognized by bends in outcrop: any
outcrop bend must be due to either a fold or a topographic
ridge or valley. Each outcrop bend should be interpreted
(as on the Scar Hill map).
 Interpretation of the Scar Hill map
Bends in outcrop are used to identify:
1. topographic features, where dip is uniform;
2. direction of dip where crossing a valley; or
3. fold axes if not due to any topographic feature.
purple projection lines, and the large rings around their
end points, are only included to demonstrate the
construction of stages 1 and 2.

STRATUM CONTOURS
These are lines drawn on a map joining points of equal
height on a bed (or stratum). They are like topographic
contours, except that they show the shape of buried
geological structures. Each contour is labelled with its
altitude and the bed boundary to which it refers.
They are drawn by joining points of known equal height
on one geological boundary – where its outcrop crosses
a topographic contour. The surface information of the
map is therefore used to construct the stratum contours,
which provide data on the underground geology. With
uniform dip, stratum contours are straight, parallel and
equidistant.
Stratum contours have been drawn (below) on part of the
Tan Vale map. Note that:
• they extend right across the map;
• some apply to two boundaries and are double
labelled;
• every boundary/contour intersection has a stratum
contour drawn through it;
• labels refer to the base of a bed.

Stratum contours on part of the Tan Vale map

Information can be read from the stratum contours:
• Dip direction is E, 090 (90° from stratum contours);
• Dip amount is 1 in 5 (10 m contours are 50 m apart); •
Sandstone has vertical thickness of 10 m (sandstone
base 30 is same contour as clay base 40);
• True thickness = vertical thickness × cosine dip.
Depths to any rock can be read off at any point.
The stratum contours indicate that a borehole drilled
at point A would pass through 20 m of clay, and then
reach the sandstone, which would continue to a depth Note two important features of the stratum contours that
of 30 m, below which lies the mudstone. are drawn on the Scar Hill map:

08 Geological Map Interpretation

DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION
A cross-section is drawn by projecting the data from a
single line on the map onto a profile of the same scale (or
with vertical exaggeration if required).
The topography and each geological boundary are
constructed individually from the relevant contours,
whose intersections on the section line are projected to
their correct altitudes on the profile.
Three stages in drawing a cross-section through the
geology on the Scar Hill map are shown below. The
• they do not cross the fault;
• they apply to the lower, folded beds, and do not relate
to the limestone that lies above the unconformity.
Most published geological maps have scales that are
between 1:10,000 and 1:100,000.
Low relief cannot be shown accurately at these scales,
and therefore stratum contours cannot be drawn to show
the geology.

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 Principles of outcrop shape, bed relationships and These are in parallel beds of roughly constant thickness.
structure recognition (from section 07) still apply, but the They are folded and crumpled into parallel curves.
interpretation and section drawing cannot rely on stratum Bed thinning and splitting is rarely seen in small areas.
contours. Beds do not form patternless wedges and blocks.
Heavily faulted areas can provide local complexity.
Geological Map of Oakunder Intrusions and volcanic rocks have more varied shapes.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS Drift sediments form thin, but variable, surface layers.
Most outcrops are laterally uniform sedimentary rocks.
This is an example of a typical geological map: it shows all rock outcrops, and has some dip arrows to show
structure; its stratigraphic column shows the succession and bed thicknesses; simplified topography only shows river
valleys. It is based on the Ashover area; the real map can be seen on BGS Sheet 112 (Chesterfield) at 1:50,000 or
1:63,360. (All maps should have a bar scale, which retains integrity when copied to different sizes.)

INITIAL INTERPRETATION
Follow stages 1 –4 (in section 07 ).
Add interpretation data to map.
Find dips from V in Valley rule.
Find dips from succession rule.
Outcrop widths indicate dip.
Width / thickness = dip gradient.
Three shale beds are distinguished:
numbered in stratigraphic column,
and labelled on map.
Fault and dyke are both straight,
so they are vertical.
Fault is minor – dies out to north,
has small outcrop displacements.
Bed sequences are mirrored across
the axes of each fold.

THREE -POINT INTERPRETATION

Sub-surface structure can be interpreted from a
minimum of three isolated points (usually in boreholes)
on a single horizon.
Assume locally uniform dip to draw stratum contours.
Along lines drawn between any pair of boreholes,
distribute uniformly altitudes of the selected boundary or
bed. Lines joining these interpreted points of equal
altitude are therefore stratum contours.
With three boreholes, can only interpret and draw
straight stratum contours.
With more than three boreholes, can draw curved and
converging stratum contours to show folding and non -
uniform dips. Reliability depends on borehole spacing in
relation to structural complexity.
Useful for initial interpretation of site investigation data.
Applicable to any rock or drift layer, rockhead or f ault.

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INTERPRETATION OF A STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN
Data is symbolized to cover variations across the area on the map.
Drift deposits are at the top; their thicknesses are not shown.
Main rock sequence is drawn to scale to show mean thicknesses.
Sandstone E lies unconformably on the Carboniferous rocks.
Middle Coal Measures include sandstones and coals marked individually.
Undifferentiated MCM is a mixture of shales, mudstones and thin sandstones
(these lithological facts are only obtained from an accompanying handbook).
Sandstone D is locally absent where it is cut out by the unconformity.
Sandstone C varies from 6 to 16 m thick, but is present everywhere.
Sandstone B locally splits into two, and the upper unit may thin out.
Sandstone A varies from 0 to 12 m thick, and is missing in part of map area.
Coal 2 locally splits, but the upper leaf may be cut out by sandstone.
Coal 1 has two leafs, with 5 m of shale between, over most of the map area.
Base of MCM is not seen on the map, an unknown thickness continues down.
Igneous rocks are at the bottom, even though they intrude into higher rocks.

STANDARD GEOLOGICAL MAPS ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MAPS

Maps primarily record data observed at outcrops (or in
boreholes). Interpretation is only added where needed;
doubt is shown by broken lines. It is largely left to the
reader to interpret structure from the outcrop data. Drift
boundaries (section 13) are distinguished from rock
boundaries. Rock outcrops beneath drift may lack their
map colour or ornament, but are labelled so that their
boundaries are unambiguous.
Major areas of landslide and camber may be identified.
Larger scale maps may include underground data,
borehole records, drift thickness and mine shafts, etc.
Extra data is available for some locations, with multiple
map sheets covering the same area and individually
showing selected features; these may include major rock
properties, slope stability, subsidence potential, mine
workings, drift thickness, drift bearing capacity, rock
resources and groundwater conditions.
Generalized engineering geology maps may be summary
compilations; these show secondary, interpreted, data to
give useful broad pictures of ground conditions, but serve
only as guidelines towards specific ground investigations
for engineering projects.

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ROCK MECHANICS/ ROCK STRENGTH

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ROCK MASS STRENGTH

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GROUND INVESTIGATION

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DESK STUDY

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GROUND INVESTIGATIONS BOREHOLES

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GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

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*END OF LESSON 16*

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11
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSRY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
DAMS
A DAM may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across
a river valley with a view of impounding water flowing through that river. (1)
generation of hydropower energy;

SELECTION OF SITES

Topographically
• It would be a narrow gorge or a small valley with enough catchments area
available behind so that when a dam is placed there it would easily store a
calculated volume of water in the reservoir created upstream.

This should be possible without involving significant uprooting of population,

loss of cultivable land due to submergence or loss of existing construction.

Technically
• The site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable.
• Strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can
evolve best deigns.
• Impermeable sites ensure better storage inventories.
• Stability with reference to seismic shocks and slope failures around the
dam, especially upstream, are a great relief to the public in general and the
engineer in particular.
• The slips, slides, and slope failures around and under the dam and
susceptibility to shocks during an earthquake could prove highly
hazardous.

Constructionally
• The site should not be far off from deposits of materials which would be
required for its construction.

All types of major dams require millions of cubic meters of natural materials
- earth, sand, gravel and rock -for their construction.

Economically
• The benefits arising out of a dam placed at a particular site should be
realistic and justified in terms of land irrigated or power generated or
floods averted or water stored.
• Dams are invariably costly structures and cannot be placed anywhere and
everywhere without proper analysis of cost-benefit aspects.

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Environmentally
• The site where a dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir created,
should not involve ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of
animals and vegetation and man.
• The fish culture in the stream is the first sector to suffer a major shock due
to construction of a dam. Its destruction may cause indirect effects on the
population.
• These effects require as thorough analysis as for other objects. The dam
and the associated reservoir should become an acceptable element of the
ecological set up of the area.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TUNNELING

Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or passages driven through the

ground without disturbing the overlying soil or rock cover.

Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are classified accordingly.

Chief classes of tunnels are:

• Traffic Tunnels - This group includes all tunnels which are excavated to
divert the traffic load of whatsoever type from surface to subsurface routes
for a short length with a view of facilitating the flow of traffic at a desired
speed, maximum convenience and at minimum cost. The railway tunnels,
the highway tunnels and the pedestrian tunnels are main sub groups of
traffic tunnels. A few navigational tunnels also fall under this category.
• hydro-power tunnels - During twentieth century most of the tunneling has
been in connection with hydropower generation. Such tunnels are aptly
called “hydropower” tunnels. In most cases these are driven through rocks
for the purpose of conveying water under gravity from one point to
another, as for example, to cross a hill. In such cases they are called
discharge tunnels.
• public utility tunnels -This group includes a variety of underground
excavations made for specific purposes such as for disposal of urban waste
(sewage tunnels), for carrying pipes, cables and supplies of oil, water etc.
A recent development is construction of underground parking places and
storage chambers to overcome space shortage in cosmopolitan cities.

Geological Investigations

These determine to a large extent solution to following engineering problems

connected with tunneling:

Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment).

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 • There might be available many alternate alignments that could
connect two points through a tunnel.
• the final choice would be greatly dependent on the geological
constitution along and around different alternatives.

Selection of Excavation Method.

• Tunneling is a complicated process in any situation and involves
huge costs which would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not
exercised before starting the actual excavation.
• And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the type of
rocks to be excavated.
• Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only when the
nature of the rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully
known.
• This is one of the most important aim and object of geological
investigations.

Selection of Design for the Tunnel.

• The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel
are controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of
the area along the alignment. Whether the tunnel is to be circular,
DShaped, horse-shoe shaped or rectangular or combination of one or
more of these outlines, is more often dictated by the geology of the
alignment than by any other single factor.
• Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks, either, D-shape or
horseshoe shape may be conveniently adopted but these shapes
would be practically unsuitable in soft ground or even in weak rocks
with unequal lateral pressure.

Assessment of Cost and Stability.

• These aspects of the tunneling projects are also closely interlinked
with the first three considerations.
• Since geological investigations will determine the line of actual
excavation, the method of excavation and the dimensions of
excavation as also the supporting system (lining) of the excavation,
all estimates about the cost of the project would depend on the
geological details.
• Similarly, tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even
when left unsupported may be regarded as stable.

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Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to tunneling: (1)
consolidated and (2) unconsolidated or soft ground. Only a brief account is given
below.

Consolidated Rocks

Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly influenced by
following geological conditions: lithology, geological structures and ground
water conditions.

Lithology

It has already been mentioned that information regarding mineralogical

composition, textures and structures of the rocks through which the proposed
tunnel is to pass is of great importance in deciding the method of tunneling and
the strength and extent of lining and, thus the cost of the project.

Hard and Crystalline Rocks

• These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods and also
by tunnel boring method
• In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of the face is
selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth
• These are loaded with predetermined quantities of carefully selected
explosives of known strength.
• The loaded or charged holes are ignited or triggered and the pre-estimated
rocks get loosened as a result of the blast.
• The blasting round is followed by a mucking period during which the
broken rock is hauled out of the excavation so created.
• The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are very often selfsupporting
so that these could be left unlined and next round of blasting in the new
face created is undertaken, ensuring better advance rate.
• Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites, syenites, gabbro,
basalts and all the related igneous rocks, sandstones, limestones, dolomites,
quartzites, arkose, greywackes and the like from sedimentary group and
marbles, gneisses, quartzites, phyllites and slates from the metamorphic
groups.
• When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during folding or
fractured as during faulting, tunneling in these rocks proves greatly
hazardous.

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 • Rock bursts which occur due to falling of big rock blocks from roofs or
sides due to release of stresses or falling of rock block along fractures
already existing in these rocks often cause many accidents.

Soft Rocks
• This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted sandstones, chalk
and porous varieties of limestones and dolomites, slates and phyllites with
high degree of cleavage and also decomposed varieties of igneous rocks.
• Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower than those in
hard rocks.
• Hence, temporary and permanent lining becomes necessary that would
involve extra cost and additional time.
• Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous sandstones, gypsum
bands and cavernous limestones have to be viewed specially with great
caution during tunneling.

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Fissured Rocks
• form a category in themselves and include any type of hard and soft rock
that has been deformed extensively due to secondary fracturing as a result
of folding, faulting and metamorphic changes of shearing type.

Geological Structures Dip and Strike

These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude (disposition in
space) of the rocks and hence influence the design of excavation (tunnel) to a
great extent.

Three general cases may be considered.

Horizontal Strata

When encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of long tunnels,
horizontally layered rocks might be considered quite favorable.

In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very thick, and the tunnel
diameter not very large, the situation is especially favou rable because the layers
would then over bridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams

But when the layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be depended upon as
beams; in such cases, either the roof has to be modified to an arch type or has to
be protected by giving a lining.

Sides of tunnels, however, could be left unsupported except when the rocks are
precariously sheared and jointed.

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Moderately Inclined Strata.
• Such layers that are dipping at angles up to 45 o may be said as moderately
inclined.
• The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction, at right angles
to the dip direction or inclined to both dip and strike directions.
• In the first situation, that is, when the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip
direction the layers offer a uniformly distributed load on the excavation.
• The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring
the load on to sides comes into maximum play.
• Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self-supporting in such cases. It
is a favourable condition from this aspect.
• It also implies that the axis of the tunnel has to pass through a number of
rocks of the inclined sequence while going through parallel to dip

• In the second case, that is, when the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the
beds (which amounts to same thing as at right angles to the dip),
• the pressure distributed to the exposed layers is unsymmetrical along the
periphery of the tunnel opening; one half would have bedding planes
opening into the tunnel and hence offer potential planes and conditions for
sliding into the opening.
• The bridge action, though present in part, is weakened due to
discontinuities at the bedding planes running along the arch
• Such a situation obviously requires assessment of forces liable to act on
both the sides and along the roof and might necessitate remedial measures.
• In the third case, when the tunnel axis is inclined to both the dip direction
and the strike direction, weak points of both the above situations would be
encountered.

Steeply Inclined Strata

• In rock formations dipping at angles above 45°, quite complicated situations
would arise when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip or parallel to strike or
inclined to both dip and strike directions.

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• In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip
direction, the formations stand along the sides and on the roof of the tunnel
as massive girders.
• An apparently favourable condition, of coarse, provided all the formations
are inherently sound and strong

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*END OF LESSON 17*

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Geological Investigations and the Construction of Roads
Roads and highways are always very important projects for any country and an index of its
development. Their planning, designing, construction and maintenance are among the major
duties of civil engineers the world over. As with any other civil engineering project, geological
investigations play important role in the design, stability and economical construction and
maintenance of the roads.
Such investigations are aimed at providing full details regarding topography of the area,
lithological characters of the rocks or soil and the groundwater conditions.
Topography as a Factor for Selection Alignment of a Road Project:
Topography or the landform of a region is single most important factor that controls the selection
of alignment of a road project. Topographic maps would reveal the existence of various land
features like valleys and the inflowing streams, the hills and their undulations, the plateaus and
the plains with all their varying configuration from place to place. Obviously, knowledge of all
such features is not only important but very essential for a right alignment.
Moreover, such a knowledge would also be necessary to decide where cuttings would be
required and in which areas it would be filling that would be necessary, or where the slopes
could be left at their natural inclination and where these would have to be flattened, protected
by giving breast walls or supported by giving retaining walls and so on. Preliminary surveys,
including aerial surveys followed by detailed surveys are often necessary to obtain desired
topographical and other details.
Lithological Character:
Geological surveys should invariably provide all possible details regarding the composition,
texture, structure and origin of rocks and sediments making the ground through which the
proposed alignment of the highways has to pass.

Ground may be divided into two types – consolidated, massive hard rock type and soft,
unconsolidated type.

The Massive groups of rocks include all varieties of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks which can stand even with vertical slopes. For making roads through them, however,
these rocks require extensive blasting operations. They cannot be simply cut out or dug out.
Once cut, especially if they are free from joints and fractures and unfavourably inclined bedding
planes, these rocks stand erect for year without much maintenance.

The Unconsolidated group presents the engineer many complicated problems. Thorough soil
investigations regarding their mode of origin, texture, structures, porosity, permeability, degree
of compaction, consolidation characteristics or compressibility, etc. all are required to be known
within broad limits to design safe and stable roads over them. Residual soils are generally
homogeneous and properties evaluated from selective bore whole samples might prove
sufficient.

In transported type of soils, however, variation in properties both laterally and vertically might
be a rule than exception. Hence, the more complicated nature of these soils. Presence of clay
seams or layers at critical places should be investigated as some types of these rocks often
swell on coming in contact with moisture, and create adverse situations for road stability and
safety.

Geological Structures:

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The structural features of rocks, especially in those of sedimentary and metamorphic origin,
have very important bearing upon the design of cuts as well as on the stability of the road as a
whole. A given rock might be quite hard and otherwise sound for a cut as road foundation.
But, if in the same rock some planes of weakness (such as bedding planes, joints, foliation,
cleavage) are present in such a way that these are inclined towards the free side of the valley,
the rock could likely fail along these planes.

Such structural features include:

• Dip and strike

There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the inclined beds – it can be made
parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip direction.

The relative merits of the cut vis- a-vis its stability would be as follows, assuming other
things are favourable:
(i) Cut is Parallel to the Dip Direction: In such a case, the layers offer a uniform
behaviour on either side of the cut and as such the risk of failure is minimal on
this account.
(ii) Cut is made Parallel to the Strike: Cut is made parallel to the strike, that is, at
right angles to the dip direction. In such a case, strata plunge across the cut,
offering different inclinations of the layers on either side of the cut. On the dipping
inside of the cut, there is always likelihood of slips, especially when the planes
are inclined steeply and get lubricated very often due to rainwater, or
groundwater movement. In some cases where the layers dip into the hill rather
than in the road, the cut is considered quite stable.
(iii) Cutting Inclined to Dip and Strike: In such cases also, the strata will dip across
the cutting and the slope of cutting will be unequal on both sides. Hence such a
condition would give rise to similar difficulties as encountered in cuts parallel to
strike. When there is no alternative to cuts either parallel to or inclined to strike
(other than at right angles), special measure might become necessary to ensure
stability of slopes.

Such measures would include:

(i) Enlarging of the section of the cutting, particularly on the hillside face, to stable
limits;
(ii) Provision of strong, adequately high retaining walls;
(iii) Very efficient drainage system to effectively remove water from the affected
slopes.

• Joints
These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding planes. When
present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest rock to a mass of loosely
held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble down on slight vibrations.

Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous and inclined towards the free side
of the cut, these offer potential surfaces for slips during the presence of moisture. In
major road construction programmes, therefore, jointed rocks have to be provided
artificial support by breastwalls and retaining walls for ensuring stability.

• Fault planes
Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes and shear
zones. Such a condition is, of course, very unfavourable for a cut when it happens to

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 form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut. It worst type of planes of potential
failure.

Weathering:

In some cases, when the strata along or under a cut is composed of layers of rocks of different
hardness, the softer layers get weathered at a faster rate than the overlying or underlying harder
rocks. This generally results in undermining which might cause slips or falls of the whole face.
Sometimes, when the top layers are weathered too heavily, the slope might experience a
persistent rock fall or debris-fall type of situation from above.

In either case, the state of weathering of rocks is of considerable significance and cuts might
need better designing when these happen to pass through weathered zones of the rocks.
Cleaning of slopes from loose debris and flattering for avoiding debris fall shall be needed.
Sometimes constructing concrete walls against the fracture zones may also be adopted
beneficially.

Groundwater Conditions for Roads and Highways:

It is always necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of the area. Not only
that, water bearing qualities should also be known along the proposed route. It is quite likely
that a water bearing zone (aquifer) might be intersecting the base or slopes of an alignment.
Specific care and design would be required for these natural water conduits. These are always
to be taken as weak and hazardous zones in the road.

It is also known that water exerts important influence on the bearing capacity of the rocks and
soil. Hence when the ground is rich with moisture it would not bear the design loads, unless
these properties of ground have also been determined in moist conditions. Sometimes there is
a condition of free flow of ground-water through the soil. This is quite dangerous for the stability
of the road surface laid above such soil.

Complicated Regions for Roads:

a. Roads in Hilly Regions:

Meandering: Construction of roads in hilly regions is always a job full of many

complications. Thus, the most important principle for road alignment based on
connecting two visible points by the shortest route is the most difficult to be followed in
hilly regions. In fact, the topographic and the permissible factors necessitate, more than
often a meandering, zig-zag course.
Aerial Survey: Similarly, another very important complication is the area that has to be
surveyed in the specified time. This will require, obviously, use of some quicker methods
of surveying. Hence aerial surveying may become necessary for successful completion
of the project in specified time.
Rock Consideration: If some solid and stratified rocks are encountered along the
alignment, special investigations should be carried out to determine:
(i) Dip and strike of the bed;
(ii) Lithological composition of the rocks;
(iii) Presence and nature of faulting, jointing and permeability due to these secondary
planes of weakness.

b. Roads in Marshy Regions:

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 Subsidence: In some regions, the apparently strong soil might be underlain by weak,
saturated or semi dry or dry and loose material like muds, peat, muck and compressible
clay in good thickness. In such regions the road thickness is of considerable importance
and if it transfers all or greater part of the load to the underlying weaker zones, failure
due to subsidence might be the major threat to the stability of the road. It (subsidence)
has to be predicted and controlled before it takes place.

Geological investigations are especially important and should reveal the presence of
unstable material at critical depths. Such unstable areas include swamps, marshes, peat
bogs, saturated clays and the like.

In areas where such layers or deposits are encountered their geological character and
geometric dimensions should be thoroughly investigated and the cuts and road
foundations designed accordingly. Of great importance to know are the nature of the
soft deposits and their thickness. These could be obtained by test drill holes.

Treatment: In all such regions, the most satisfactory method for ensuring stability is to
excavate the weak soil or peat or other such material and replace it with sound material.
This is, obviously, possible when the area involved is quite small and the deposit is
shallow in character. In other cases, methods aimed at inducing strength by artificial
means may be adopted. Drainage may also contribute effectively in stabilizing such
regions.

c. Roads in Water Logged Areas:

It has been observed that roads situated in water-logged areas get deformed and
damaged due to reasons connected with water-logging. A simple explanation is that due
to rise of water table in such regions, the capillary moisture wets the sub grade soil to
varying degrees depending upon its textures. This leads to unequal reduction in bearing
capacity of the soils which manifests itself in the road deformation. The deformation
becomes more serious when such roads continue to be under heavy traffic.

There are two possible ways to treat this trouble: (i)

Lower down the water-table to the safe limits;
(ii) Increase the thickness of the road crust.

d. Roads in Permafrost Regions:

In permafrost regions the ground remains permanently frozen below some depth. During
the summer, thawing may set up in the top layers. When roads are constructed in such
regions ignoring such facts regarding the ground, these might fail within short span of
time. The reason is simple – when a road is constructed over a frozen ground, the warm
fill material acts as a blanket over the intergranular ice below and thus causes its melting,
which causes subsidence because the soil below becomes temporarily saturated.

Necessary precautions aimed at stopping development of such a situation are required

to be taken. Vegetation, if any, should not be disturbed and a well-planned ‘insulating
layer’ should be given in between the warm fill of the road surface and the ice below. Ice
crystals should be allowed to remain in their original state.

Geological Problems after Road Construction:

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The geological factors are to be considered prior to road construction as these greatly influence
the final alignment of the road.

Two geological problems that affect roads after their construction are: (a)
Frost action

In cold humid regions, road surface fails due to freezing of water within the voids of the
subsoil below. The freezing starts, in cold weather, from surface downwards and
extends from the larger voids to the capillary zone below. The freezing of capillary water
in sub grade soil exerts tremendous pressure (140 kg/cm) on the road above and also
on the particles all around and becomes the major cause of (frost) heaving up of the
solid particles which destroys the surface layer.

In summer, thawing of the ice crystals results in surplus free water that escapes through
the cracks in the road producing what is commonly known as the frost boils of the road.

The treatment of frost action lies in:

(i) Removing the porous soil susceptible to capillary freezing and replacing it with
non-porous, uniformly mixed soil.
(ii) Lowering down of water-table by providing adequate drainage.

(b) Erosion Problems:

Side slopes of the cuts and fills and drainage ditches are most seriously affected due to
erosion by flowing water.

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Erosion is further enhanced if:
(i) The soil of the slopes is soft and incoherent and without a vegetable cover;
(ii) The velocity of water that rushes in the side ditch during different periods
becomes exceedingly high.

The er osion of side slopes can be prevented to a considerable extent by providing

interception ditches that should intercept the water in definite channels and drain it out
properly without flowing over and into the body of the soil on slopes. In case of side
ditches, erosion can be prevented by reducing the velocity of the water flowing through
them by flattening their grades.

*END OF LESSON 18*

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