Eps Merged

ISO 1540:2006- Aerospace – Characterisics of
aircraft electrical systems
Unit 1: Definitions
Aircraft electrical system represents all power supplies and power conversion
equipments, distribution systems and power consuming
equipments (loads).
Electrical power systems or System consists of a combination of electrical power sources

conversion equipment, control and protective devices
and utilization equipment connected via a distribution
network.
Electrical power generating system (EPGS) provides the energy to operate all the electrical
equipments in an aircraft and is a combination of
rotating and static electrical power sources and
the devices which provide their control and
protection. Generally, these are mainly on board
generators and converters.
Electrical Power Systems 1

Distribution system is a collection of interconnection and circuit protection equipment
between power sources and user equipment (load).
Emergency power source consists of generator, power conversion device (or a combination
thereof not involving part of utilization equipment) or battery
installed to provide independent electrical power for essential
purposes during conditions of electrical emergency in flight.
Emergency electric system operation electrical system condition during flight when the
primary electric power system becomes unable to supply sufficient or
proper electrical power, thus requiring the use of independent and
potentially limited source(s) to power a reduced complement of
distribution and utilization equipment selected to maintain safe flight
and personnel safety.
External power unit

Ground power unit (GPU) consists of rotating source (generator) or static source (or
combination of them) supplied by the maintenance facility to source
electrical power demands while the aircraft is not in flight.

DC generators
Depending on
current type AC generators with constant frequency
AC generators with variable frequency

Topologies of
electrical
power primary, (prime mover)
supplies
primary-auxiliary
Depending on
the way of
transformation secondary
of output
energy into
input energy
tertiary

Distribution electrical network consists of the elements that provide the connection
between the supply energy and the loads (wires, cables,
circuit controlling and protection devices, assembly
devices).
Loads are all the on board equipments, or any systems that need electrical power in
operation:
Electric drives;
ECS (Environmental control system);
Lighting system;
Starter-generator system;
Passenger cabin services ;
Measuring instruments, warning indicators;
Avionics;
Navigation equipments;
Automation Flight Control system;
Special equipments.

1.1. Economic and technical requirements enforced to the aircraft
electrical system
Reliability
Minimization of the weight and size without reducing the reliability;

Easy in operation and safety for crew and passengers;
Simple technologies with low cost of repair
Low perturbations level
Minimum duration to get ready for the normal operation
Reduce vulnerability
aggregates and components manufacturing interchangeability unification

Unit 2: On board DC generators
2.1. Fundamentals Principles
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

by an electro-magnetic induction process.
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the
conductor cuts across the magnetic flux lines, a voltage is generated in the conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:
the strength of the magnetic field,

the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field
the speed at which the conductor is moved,
the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

:
'
::::*:: :*. me::gain
. E N
d
constant dt
a
magnetic field B- is
given by :

The magnetic flux, , scalar quantity, a measure for the magnetic flux density
(induction) through a surface in a magnetic field:
0 B A B A cos

Pole pieces
A
B
Brush
Brush
Armature loop
Commutator Load (external
circuit)

d d ( B A cos ) d (cos )
Day
E N N NBA
dt dt dt
d( )
NBA sin NBA sin
dt

2.2. DC generator classification
permanent magnet generators;
separately - excited;
self - excited generators :
series self – excited generators;

parallel (shunt) self – excited generators (self
– excited shunt – wound generators);
compound self – excited generators.

2.3. DC generator construction
A typical shunt-wound self - excited generators four pole generator, with an output
power of 9 kW at a continuous current of 300 A over the speed range of 4,500 to 8,500
rev/min, is illustrated.
It consists of five principal

parts:
yoke;
armature;
two end frames;
brush-gear assembly.
end cover;

2.4. Specific features of the on board DC generator
1. 28 VDC, with the fluctuations in the range 26.5

28.5 VDC (as regulated by ISO 1540, 2006 );
2. The transmission from the gear-box is made it by a drive shafts with serrations or
splines, also known as quill drives, able to absorb mechanical vibration from the
3. The electric machine load (current in windings) is higher than in a common electric
machine (J=15 20 A/mm2 to the 3 8 A/mm2 );
4. The air gap inductance is higher than in a common electric machine (L=1.0 1.5 T to
the 0.6 0.9 T );
5. The rotation speed is also higher than in a common electric machine (n=4,500 9,000
rev/min to the 2,000 3,000 rev/min ).
with air if M< 2

Forced cooling
with oil emulsion if M>2
Electrical Power Systems (fuel) 3
A typical cooling system
The air is forced at high speed into an intake and is led through light-alloy ducts to
The air passes over the brush-gear and the commutator and cools this high
temperature area, and then follows through apertures all the way through the length
of the machine to the exhaust at the drive end of the DC generator.
To assist the cooling and to provide some extra cooling on the ground many types of
DC generators have a fan fitted at the drive end of the armature.

2.5. Self-excited Shunt-wound generators
The term “shunt-wound” is derived from the high-resistance field winding that is
connected across or in parallel with the armature.
Ie IL
Ia
Field
Generator
regulator
Terminal voltage
Shunt field
In this case the armature current, Ia, is divided into two currents, one formed by
the field winding circuit (excited circuit, Ie) and other by the external circuit, IL.
0 Ia Ie IL

From the figure it can be observed that the terminal voltage tends to fall with the
increasing of load current. This is due to the voltage drop (I R drop) in the armature
winding and also to a weakening of the main flux by the armature reaction. The fall in
the terminal voltage reduces the field current, the main flux in terminal voltage is
produced.
If the process of increasing the load is continued after the full working load
condition has been reached, the terminal voltage will fall at an increasing rate until it
can no longer sustain the load current and they both fall to zero. With reduced
excitation the external characteristic of a shunt-wound generator falls even more
rapidly so that the point at which the voltage collapse occurs will be reached using a
much smaller load current.
2.6. Voltage Regulation
fundamental requirement that the generator voltage at the distribution busbar system
is maintained constant under all conditions of load and at variable speeds, within the
limits of a preset range.
The device that will regulate the output voltage of a DC generator at the designed
value and within a specified tolerance is called voltage regulator.
A
IL
Ie
Ia
E, Ra

From the basic circuit equation for a generator:
E V Ra I a Vb E
Ia Ie IL
it can be obtained:
V E Ra I a Vb E E Ra I L Ra I e Vb E
The drop voltage is given by:
The loss of voltage in armature in overcoming the resistance of the

armature windings to the flow of the current, also called copper loss in the
armature;
The loss of voltage given by the current used to excite the field coils, also
called losses in shunt-filed winding;

The loss of voltage given by brushes on the commutator and the friction
of the air upon the revolving element (called windage losses), also called
losses in brushes;
The loss of voltage given by Eddy-current, eddy currents are generated in

armature when it moves in a magnetic field, a force acts on these currents
that opposes the motion of the armature, and by hysterezis losses, due to
the friction of the molecules, of the iron in the armature core, on each
other as they align themselves with the lines of force when the armature
is revolved, losses called losses in core .

It is known that:
4pN a n p
E k en p
2a
where: - 2a is the number of parallel current paths of the armature windings;
- p is the number of pole pairs;
- Na is the number of turns in the armature windings;
- n is the rotation speed;
- p is the flux per pole;
- ke is the electrical constant.
By neglecting the core and brushes losses the basic the circuit equation for a
generator will be: constants
V E Ra I a k en p Ra I a
requirement: V constant
Depending on the Depending on the
p k Ie
Voltage regulation is made using
the excited current, Ie
Carbon Pile Regulator
Topologies of
voltage Vibrating Contact Regulator
regulators
Electronic Regulator
Carbon Pile Regulator

IL
Ie
Ia
Ie Ie
m
Ie
FS
Fem

Carbon has a granular surface and the contact resistance between two carbon faces
that are held together depends on numbers of contact points
A C
B p
-controlled
armature.
FEM=0 F=Fs the carbon pile is fully compressed

that pile resistance is minimum the resistance in the generator shunt-filed is minimum
the air gap between the regulator armature and
electromagnet is maximum .
applied to the regulator coil and the resulting field establishes an increasing “pull” on
the armature.
The force which pull the armature is the difference between the electromagnetic
force of the electromagnet and the elastic force of the spring. That is calculated to act
resistance of the shunt-field increases, the excitation current decreases, the flux in
decreases too, also the force which pull the armature decreases. In this case the
resistance of the shunt-field decreases, the excitation current increases, the flux in

Unit 3: Emergencies power systems
Emergencies power systems are the on board batteries.
The battery is a primary electrical supply

-a energy.
The main functions of the battery are:
to assist in damping transient loads in the DC systems – the starting

of powerful DC motor-
requires high input startup current which would lower the busbar
to supply power in system startup mode when no other power source

–
-integrity source during emergencies

-up sources are being brought
off-line – to supply with energy the essential equipments and
installations for 30 minute on day time or 20 minute on night in
radio equipments and the ELT.

The electrochemistry system
Depending on Primary type – electrochemistry;

number of
utilizations
Secondary type –
Topologies of
cells
Depending on Acid battery – most common type are lead-acid battery;

the nature
of the
Alkaline battery – nickel-cadmium battery.
electrolyte
In aircraft applications the batteries used are from secondary type and are either
of the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium type.

The electrochemistry system
Depending on Primary type – electrochemistry;

number of
utilizations
Secondary type –
Topologies of
cells
Depending on Acid battery – most common type are lead-acid battery;

the nature
of the
Alkaline battery – nickel-cadmium battery.
electrolyte
In aircraft applications the batteries used are from secondary type and are either
of the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium type.

The battery cell consists of two electrode plates submersed in an electrolyte.
The electrochemistry of the cell generates a difference in the electrical potential

between the electrodes,
circuit.
The
directly into current electricity.
The -hours

3.2. Lead-Acid Secondary Cell
The structure of the components

State of Positive Plate Negative plate Electrolyte
charge
+
charged PbO2 Pb H2SO4
discharged PbSO4 PbSO4 H2SO4
Chemical reactions of the battery during discharge:
PbO2 2H H2SO4 2e- PbSO4 2H2O

SO42 2e- PbSO4
The global chemical reactions of the battery:

discharged
PbO2 2H2SO4 Pb 2PbSO4 2H2O
charged

3.3. Nickel-Cadmium Secondary Cell
The structure of the components

State of Positive Plate Negative plate Electrolyte
charge
+
charged Ni2O2 and Ni2O3 Cd KOH
discharged 2 2 KOH
Chemical reactions of the battery during discharge:
2O2 4e- 2 O2
4K 8H2O 4e- 2 4KOH 4H2
The global chemical reactions of the battery:

discharged
Ni2O2 4KOH 2Cd 8H2O 2 4KOH 2 O2 4H2
charged

3.4. Specifications of the Batteries
Internal electrical
resistance
Ri
Is given by the resistance of the electrolyte, plates, plate separators, strap

connection between cells.
It is decreases with the temperature decreasing due to the viscosity increase and
decrease in ion mobility.
Emf E
Is given by the emf of the galvanic couple between the positive plate and the
negative plate.
Voltage of the
battery
V
Vc E Ep R iI c
Vd E Ep R iI d
where: Ep is the polarization emf produced by the dissociation of water into oxygen
and hydrogen that form a micro cell;
IC the charge current;
Id the discharge current, which in fact is load current (IL) .
Capacity of the
battery
Q
The capacity of a battery (amount of energy available), depends upon the size and
number of plates.
The capacity rating is measured in ampere-hours and it is based on the maximum

current, in amps, delivered in a known period of time, until the discharge of each cell to
a minimum permissible voltage. The time needed for the discharge is called the
discharge rate (td) .
td I d const .
Qd I d dt I d td
0
Efficiency of the
battery td
I d dt
% Q I d average td
Capacity efficiency: Q 100 d 100 0
tc
100
Qc I caverage tc
I c dt
0
td
I d U d dt UU d const .
Energy efficiency: %
c const . U d I d average td
100 0
tc
100
W
U c I caverage tc
I c U c dt
0
3.5. Thermal runaway
Batteries are capable of performing to their rated capacities when temperature

conditions and charging rate are within the specified value. In this case the internal
voltage of the cells rises gradually as the electro-chemical action takes place, and it
opposes the charging voltage until this is decreased to a trickle sufficient to balance
continuous losses from the cells. The energy supplied to a fully charged battery results
in water loss by electrolysis and in heat generation. For a battery in good condition, a
point of stability will be reached where heat as a result of trickle current will just
balance radiated and conducted heat losses.
If the temperature and charging rate are exceeded the stability is lost so a condition
called “thermal runaway” can occur, a condition which causes violent gassing, boiling of
the electrolyte and finally melting of the plates and casing, with consequent danger to
the aircraft structure and also to the electrical system.
Since batteries have low thermal capacity heat can be dissipated and this results in
lowering of the effective internal resistance. Thus, when associated with constant
voltage charging, a battery will draw a higher charging current and thereby set up the
“runaway” condition of ever-increasing charging currents and temperatures.
Other factors which can cause overheating of a battery can be:
i) Voltage regulator of aircraft generating system incorrectly adjusted.
ii) Frequent or lengthy engine starts at very high discharge rates.
iii) Loose link connections between cells.
iv) Leakage currents between a cell and battery container and the airframe structure.
v) Use of unregulated, or poorly regulated, ground support equipment to charge a
battery, particularly a battery which has become hot as a result of excessive engine
cranking or an aborted engine start.
vi) High initial charging currents imposed on a hot battery.
vii)Unbalanced cells (cell unbalance - refers to an apparent loss of capacity and to
variations in cell voltage at the end of charging cycles). These variations can develop
over a period of time, particularly when subjected to operating conditions like those
occurring in aircraft utilizing charging circuits of the constant potential type. Other
factors which may also contribute to cell unbalance are cell position in the battery, e.g.
centre cells run warmer than outer cells, and the self-discharge of individual cells.
In some aircrafts, particularly those using nickel-cadmium batteries, temperature-
sensing devices are located within the batteries to provide a warning of high battery
temperatures and to prevent overcharging by disconnecting the batteries from the
charging source at a predetermined temperature.
3.6. Location of the batteries in an aircraft
Depending on the size of the aircraft and on the power requirements for operating
the essential services under emergency conditions, a single battery or several batteries
may be provided.
When several batteries are provided, most often they are connected in parallel
although in some types of aircrafts it is possible to operate using a series connection, e.g.
in case of two 14-volt batteries.
Batteries are installed in individual compartments specially designed and located to
provide adequate heat dissipation, ventilation of gasses and protection of airframe
structure against corrosive elements. At the same time batteries physically should be
placed as near as possible to the main and the battery busbars in order to avoid the use
of long leads with consequently high resistance
Batteries are normally mounted on, and clamped to, a tray secured to the aircraft
structure. The tray can also collect any acid that may leak from the battery. Trays may
be of any materials which is acid-proof, non-absorbent and resistant to reasonable
impact. Usually they are made from metal treated with an anti-corrosive paint and in
some cases sprayed or coated with p.v.c.
Fumes and gases generated by the battery at the
installation are extracted by the difference of
pressure existing across the aircraft. During normal
flight air tapped from the cabin pressurization
system enters the battery ventilation chamber and
continues through to the outside of the aircraft. On
the ground, when no pressure differential exists, a
non-return valve fitted in the air inlet prevents
fumes and gases from entering into the aircraft.
Unit 4: On board AC generators
4.1. Fundamentals Principles
4.1.1 Cycle and frequency
The values of voltage and current produced by an AC generator are quantities with
a time dependence given by a periodic function
Instantaneous Value or Momentary Value is the value of an alternating quantity at

an arbitrary time t.
v(t ) Vmax sin v
i (t ) I max sin i
Cycle or Period, T, is the time interval in which the alternating quantity v repeats all
values in the same time sequence.
v(t T ) v(t )
i (t T ) i (t )
Frequency, F, is the number of periods in unit time, usually second.
t
F ; F Hz
T

In a conventional generator, the frequency is dependent upon the speed of rotor
rotation within its stator and the number of poles.
n p
F
60
4.1.2 Sinusoidal alternating quantities
An alternating quantity with a sinusoidal time dependence is completely described

by specifying:
Amplitude or Peak Value, Vmax, maximum instantaneous value the alternating

quantity v may take.
Angular frequency or angular velocity, , 2 times the frequency: 2 f.
Zero phase angle, , phase angle at time t 0: 0.

4.1.3 Time average of periodic functions
The calculation of the electrical magnitude in an AC circuit is not as perfectly

straightforward as it in a DC circuit because the value of the current and voltage are
changing throughout the cycle.
For this reason, an arbitrary “mean value” is essential.
The Mean Value, characterizes an alternating quantity v (t) as a value, without

specifying the detailed time behavior.
Several possibilities of averaging:
1T
Mean value or arithmetic mean value v v(t ) dt
T0
1T
Rectified value or absolute mean value v v(t ) dt
T0
Effective value or root-mean-square value 1T

V v(t ) 2 dt
RMS T0
For a sinusoidal alternating quantity, the mean values are:
Mean value Absolute value Effective value

2 1
v 0 v Vmax 0.637 Vmax V Vmax 0.707 Vmax
2

4.1.4 Representation of sinusoidal quantities in a phasor diagram
If a point P moves in an x-y coordinate system along a circle of radius r around the
origin in the mathematically positive sense and with a constant angular velocity, the
projection of this point onto y-axis has a sine-like time behavior, the projection onto
the x-axis a cosine-like time behavior.
Phasor diagram, representation of phasor in the complex plane.
Phasor, determined by:
the physical quantity represented by the phasor;

the magnitude of the physical quantity that gives the length of the
phasor. One selects a representation in terms of either peak value or
effective values;
the zero phase angle 0, the orientation of the phasor with respect to the
real axis at time t 0;
the angular velocity of the phasor, the angular frequency of the
represented quantity;
Transformation between an alternating quantity and its phasor in the complex plane:
the sine function describing the alternating quantity is viewed as the imaginary part of
a complex number whose real part is a cosine function of equal phase and equal
amplitude:
v(t ) Vmax sin t 0 v(t ) Vmax cos t 0 jVmax sin t 0
Vmax e j t 0

4.1.5 Phases and their relationships
Phase is the number of alternating currents being produced and/or carries

simultaneously by the same circuit.
Depending of number of phases the type of generating systems an/or circuit could
be: single-phase when it produces a single-phase current;
poly-phase when it produces a several single alternating currents with
different phases.
Aircraft poly-phase systems and

circuits are normally three-phase, the
three currents varying in phase from
each other by 120 electrical degrees.

Vmax V
Imax
0 3 2
2 2
I
T
Pure resistive – in
phase
The current and voltage in an AC circuit have the same frequency; because the wave
form of the alternating quantities is similar, if the voltage is sinusoidal then the
current is also sinusoidal.
In some circuits the flow of current is affected solely by the applied voltage so that
both voltage and current pass through zero and attain their maximum in the same
direction simultaneously. Under these conditions they are said to be in phase.
In other circuits the flow of current is influenced by magnetic and electrostatic

effects set up in and around the circuit, and although at the same frequency, voltage
and current do not pass through zero at the same time. In these circumstances the
voltage and current are said to be out of phase.
The difference between corresponding points on the wave form being known as phase
difference or phase angle.
Pure resistive in this type of circuit the resistance is constant, so the
magnetic and electrostatic effects are absent. The
applied voltage is the only factor affecting current
Phase relationships flow.
Inductive the voltage and the current are always out-of-phase
because the magnetic field surrounding the conductors is
continually changing in magnitude and direction with the
alternating current. In this case a a self-induced e.m.f. is
set up the circuit to oppose the change of current.
Therefore the wave form of the current is delayed with 90
degrees, or the current “lags” the voltage by 90 degrees.
Capacitive capacitance in an AC circuit also oppose the current flow
and causes a phase difference with reverse effect between
the applied voltage and the current, similar to the inductive
circuits; in this case the current “leads” the voltage by 90
degrees.
Vmax V Vmax V
Imax Imax I
I
0 3 2 0 3 2
2 2 2 2
Self-induced
e.m.f.
Pure inductive – I lags behind E Pure capacitive – I leads E
Interconnections of phases
“star”, or “Y” or “wye” connection “delta” connection

Il I ph Il 3 I ph
L1 L1
Neutral Iph Vl
V ph
3 Vl 208 V
point
Vl V ph
V ph 120 V L2
Vl 3 V ph Iph
L2 Vl V ph
Vph
Vl 208 V
Vl Vl 208 V
V ph
3 L3
Vl V ph
V ph 120 V L3
Vl 3 V ph Il 3 I ph
Il I ph Vl V ph
One end of each phase windings is connected to a common point known as the neutral
point, while the opposite ends of the windings are connected to three separate lines
assigned with L1, L2 and L3.
Electrical Power Systems Vgen 208/120 V. 6
4.1.6 Generator power units
The power ratings of AC generators are generally given in Kilovolt-amperes (kVA)

being the measurement unit of the apparent power, S.
In AC circuits and systems there are three type of powers:
real power (active power), P the real power unit is Watt (W) (in International
or, effective power System of Units, SI); S
P
P V I cos
reactive power, Q appeared when the current and
V
the voltage are not in phase;
the reactive power unit (SI) is volt I
I cos
ampere-reactance (var);
Q V I sin
I sin Q
apparent power, S the product of the effective values of current and voltage;
the apparent power unit (SI) is volt-ampere (VA);
S V I P2 Q2
The Power factor, cos (PF), is the cosine of cur .
Electrical Power Systems P 7
PF cos
S
4.2. Constant Frequency Systems (CFS)
Was designed and developed to allow several generators to operate in parallel
Constant
Shaft Speed
Variable
Shaft Speed
Constant Constant
Speed Frequency
Variable T drive
Engine u e 3-Phase
r n (C S D)
Speed 2:1 b g 115Vac
o i 400Hz
(for f n
Turbofan) a e
n Gear Box Generator
8:10
Integrated Drive Generator (I D G)
The main features and drawbacks of CFS/IDG power are:

constant frequency AC power is most commonly used nowadays on turbofan
airliner today;
single company monopoly on the supply of CSD/IDGs (by Hamilton-Sundstrand);
alternate methods of power generation are under consideration.

The ratio 4:1 for a turbofan engine speed derived from the engine speed between
maximum power and ground idle (for CFM56-3B engine: 22,100 rpm to 5,784 rpm)
The Constant Speed Drive (CSD) in effect acts as an automatic gearbox, maintaining
the generator shaft speed at a constant rpm which results in a constant frequency output
of 400 Hz, usually within approximately 10 Hz or less.

4.2. Constant Frequency Systems (CFS)
Was designed and developed to allow several generators to operate in parallel
Constant
Shaft Speed
Variable
Shaft Speed
Constant Constant
Speed Frequency
Variable T drive
Engine u e 3-Phase
r n (C S D)
Speed 2:1 b g 115Vac
o i 400Hz
(for f n
Turbofan) a e
n Gear Box Generator
8:10
Integrated Drive Generator (I D G)
The main features and drawbacks of CFS/IDG power are:

constant frequency AC power is most commonly used nowadays on turbofan
airliner today;
single company monopoly on the supply of CSD/IDGs (by Hamilton-Sundstrand);
alternate methods of power generation are under consideration.

The ratio 4:1 for a turbofan engine speed derived from the engine speed between
maximum power and ground idle (for CFM56-3B engine: 22,100 rpm to 5,784 rpm)
The Constant Speed Drive (CSD) in effect acts as an automatic gearbox, maintaining
the generator shaft speed at a constant rpm which results in a constant frequency output
of 400 Hz, usually within approximately 10 Hz or less.

The CSD is a hydromechanical variable-ratio drive which, in its basic form, consists a
variable-displacement swash plate type of hydraulic pump and a constant displacement
swash plate type motor.
The oil for system operation is supplied by charges pumps and governor systems fed
from a reservoir which is pressurized by air tapped from the low-pressure compressor of
the engine.
The power from the engine is transmitted through an input shaft and gears (drive
from engine), to a hydraulic cylinder block common to both pump and motor, and by the
action of the internal hydraulic cylinder system, is finally transmitted to the generator.

rotation speed, the oil pressure and flow are such that the motor is hydraulically locked
to the cylinder block and they rotate together; thus, the whole transmission system acts
as a fixed coupling.
If, however, there is a change in engine and input shaft speed, the governor system
senses this and applies a greater or smaller pressure to the pump to vary the angle of its
swash-plate.
If engine output is slower than the required generator speed, usually called an
“overdrive” condition, the pressure increases; conversely, in an “underdrive” condition
when engine output is faster, the pressure decreases.
Variations in the angle of the swash-plate also varies the stroke of the pump pistons
as they go round with the cylinder block, so that either a greater or smaller (underdrive)
pressure is transmitted to the motor pistons. These in turn exert a greater or smaller
pressure on the motor swash-plate assembly made up of two stationary plates which
sandwich an eccentric centre plate coupled to the output shaft, and free rotate against
ball bearings.
Thus, assuming that an overdrive condition arises an increased pressure will be
exerted by the motor pistons an the centre plate and there will be a tendency for it to
be squeezed out from between plates. However, since the plate is restrained to rotate
independently about a fixed axis it will do so relative to the cylinder block, and at a
faster rate, thereby overcoming the tendency for the engine to slow the generator down.
In an underdrive condition, the pressure on the eccentric centre plate is decreased so
that it will rotate at a slow rate relative to the cylinder block.
4.3. AC generator construction
4.3.1 Frequency-wild generators
The construction of a typical 3-phase wild-generator with a 22 kVA output at 208 V
an a frequency of 400 Hz, is illustrated.
The principal assemblies are:

rotor; brush assembly;
stator; end frame;
Electrical Power Systems slip ring; bridge rectifier. 7
The circuit diagram of the generator is:
208 V a.c. 28 V d.c.
busbar busbar
Alternator
Voltage
regulator
The principal components and sections of the circuit diagram are:

generator (alternator), composed by: rotor and field windings;
3-phase star-wound stator;
diodes rectifier;
slip rings;
voltage regulator;
control switch and field relay.
When the control switch is switched in the “on” position, the DC from the main busbar
is supplied to the slip rings and the windings of the generator rotor. Thus, the rotor field
coil is energized and the pole piece “fingers” become alternately North and South
magnetic poles.
As the rotor rotates, the field induces a three-phase AC within the stator which is
The level of voltage is regulated by a transistorized type of voltage regulator.
4.3.2 Brushless generators
The use of brushes and slip rings for conveying excitation current to AC generator
field windings presents similar problems to those associated with DC machines and
although not quite as severe, because of the lower values of DC carried, the elimination
of rotating surfaces in contact is desirable.
Thus, the brushless AC generator was conceived, and although not specifically limited
to constant-
system, and is now normally associated with those systems employed in several current
aircraft types.

When the control switch is switched in the “on” position, the DC from the main busbar
is supplied to the slip rings and the windings of the generator rotor. Thus, the rotor field
coil is energized and the pole piece “fingers” become alternately North and South
magnetic poles.
As the rotor rotates, the field induces a three-phase AC within the stator which is
The level of voltage is regulated by a transistorized type of voltage regulator.
4.3.2 Brushless generators
The use of brushes and slip rings for conveying excitation current to AC generator
field windings presents similar problems to those associated with DC machines and
although not quite as severe, because of the lower values of DC carried, the elimination
of rotating surfaces in contact is desirable.
Thus, the brushless AC generator was conceived, and although not specifically limited
to constant-
system, and is now normally associated with those systems employed in several current
aircraft types.

A typical brushless AC generator
consists of three principal
components:
AC exciter which generates
the power for the main
generator filed;
rotating rectifier assembly

mounted on, and rotating
with, the rotor shaft to
convert the exciter output
to DC;
main generator.
Brushless generator Permanent magnets Parallel shunt field Stabilizing feedback
windings windings
Main generator Rotating rectifier AC exciter The exciter (located in the end bell
section of the generator casing)
comprises a stator and a 3-phase star-
wound rotor or exciter armature. The
exciter armature is mounted on the
same shaft as the main generator
rotor and the output from its 3-phase
windings is fed to the rotating
Voltage
sensing and
supply
Current transformer Power transformer and load Exciter output rectifier assembly.
output magnetic amplifier Rectified AC excitation
Electrical Power Systems Main AC output 2

Voltage regulator Excitation current under
To main AC busbar fault condition
Stabilizing feedback signal
The rotating exciter assembly supplies excitation current to the main generator rotor
field coils, and since together with the AC exciter they replace the conventional brushes
and slips ring, they thereby eliminate the problems associated with them. The assembly
is contained within a tubular insulator in the hollow shaft on which the exciter and the
main generator rotors are mounted. Located in this manner they are close to the rotation
axes and are not exposed to excessive centrifugal forces. Also, a suppression capacitor is
connected to the rectifier circuit to suppress the voltage “spikes” created within the
diodes under certain operating conditions. This is mounted at one end of the rotor shaft.
The main generator consists of a 3-phase star-wound stator, and 8-pole rotor and its
associated field windings which are connected to the output of the rotating rectifier.
The leads from the three stator phases are brought directly to the upper surface of an
output terminal board, thus permitting the aircraft wiring to be clamped directly against
the phase leads without current passing through the terminal studs. In addition to the
fields coils, damper windings are fitted to the rotor and are located in the longitudinal
slots in the pole faces. Large copper bands, under steel bands at each end of the rotor
stack, provide the electrical squirrel-cage circuit. The purpose of the damper windings is
to provide an induction motor effect on the generator whenever sudden changes in load
or driving torque tend to cause the rotor speed to vary above or below the normal or
synchronous system frequency. In isolated generator operation, the windings serve to
reduce excessively high transient voltages caused by line-to-line system faults; it also
decreases voltage unbalance, during unbalanced load conditions.

The generator is cooled by ram air entering through the end bell section of the
casing; this air passes then through the windings and also through the rotor shaft to
provide the cooling of the rectifier assembly. The air is exhausted through a perforated
screen around the periphery of the casing.
Some types of aircraft use oil from the CSD hydraulic system for cooling instead of
air; the oil is pumped through the generator for cooling of the rotor windings, diodes and
the stator windings. The oil itself is afterwards cooled by an external cooler through
which air is passed via a tapping produced in the compressor stage of the engine. In one
particular type of aircraft the oil was cooled by passing it through a section of the cooler
medium. This was the case of the Concorde, that flew at a speed of Mach 2, the
C.
4.3.3 Constant- frequency system voltage regulation
Similar to the voltage regulation of a DC generator, the regulation of the output of a

constant-frequency system is also based on the principle of controlling field excitation.
Although the constant-frequency system is of an integrated, and sometimes complex,

form, at this stage we are only concerned with the fundamental method of regulation and
for this purpose the typical circuit shown below will be considered.

Error detector Pre-amplifier Power amplifier
The circuit is comprised of three main subsystems:
a voltage error detector;

a pre-amplifier;
a power amplifier.

The function of the voltage error detector is to monitor the generator output
voltage, compare it with a fixed reference voltage and to transmit any error to the pre-
amplifier. The voltage error detector is made up of a three phase bridge rectifier
connected to the generator output, and a bridge circuit of which two arms contain gas-
filled regulator tubes and two contain resistances. The inherent characteristics of the
tubes is to maintain an essentially constant voltage drop across their connections for a
wide range of current passing through them; in this way they establish the reference
voltage against which the output voltage is continuously compared.
The output of the bridge rectifier in the error detector is a DC voltage slightly lower
than the average of the three AC line voltages; it may also be adjusted by using a
variable resistor RV1 to balance the regulator system to a balanced condition for any
nominal value of line voltage.
A balanced condition is obtained when the voltage applied across the bridge, between
point A and B is exactly twice the voltage drop across each tube. In this case, the
voltage drop across resistors R1 and R2 will be equal to the drop across each tube,
therefore no current will flow in the output of the pre-amplifier. If the AC line voltage
changes above or below the fixed value, the voltage drop across R1 and R2 will differ
causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit and a flow of current to the “error” control
winding of the pre-amplifier.
The direction and magnitude of the current flow will depend on whether the variation,
or the error in the line voltage, is above (positive error signal) or below (negative error
signal) the balanced nominal value, and will also depend on the magnitude of the
variations.
When the current flows through the “error” control winding, the set up magnetic flux
alters the total flux in the cores of the amplifier (both pre-amplifier and amplifier are
3-phase magnetic amplifiers), thereby establishing a proportional change in the amplifier
output which is applied to the signal winding of the power amplifier.
If the error signal is negative it will cause an increase in the core flux, thereby
increasing the power amplifier output current to the generator exciter field winding.
For a positive error signal the core flux and excitation current will be reduced. If the
generator output is adjusted and maintained to the preset value, this will restore the
error detector bridge circuit to the balanced condition

Unit 5: Power Conversion Equipment
In the aircraft electrical installations various types of consumer equipment are used
which require power supplies different from the standard supplies provided by the main
generator. As it has already been discussed in Unit 1, these power supplies are for the
secondary and tertiary – types of electrical power supplies.
Usually these power supplies are called convertors because they convert electrical
power from one form (DC or AC) to another, or convert one form of supply to a higher or
lower value, or another frequency.
For example, in an aircraft having a 28 volts DC primary power supply, certain
operation, and as we have already seen, the DCs cannot be entirely eliminated even for
aircrafts which in concept are primarily AC powered.
The most commonly converting equipment used on board of the aircrafts are the
static converting equipments, which may be grouped in:
rectifiers;
transformers;
static DC/AC converters.

5.1. Rectifiers
The process of converting an AC supply into a DC supply is known as rectification and

any static device used for this purpose is known as a rectifier.
The rectifying process is based on the principle that when a voltage is applied to
certain elements called semiconductors an exchange of negative and positive charge
carriers (known as “electrons” and “holes”, respectively) takes place at the contact
surfaces. As a result of this exchange, a barrier layer that exhibits different resistance
and conductivity characteristics is formed; it allows the current to flow through the
combination more easily in one direction than in the opposite. Thus when the applied
voltage is an alternating quantity the barrier layer converts the current into
unidirectional flow and provides a rectified output.
The semiconductor is an element that has a resistivity between that of a good

conductor and a good insulator. Semiconductors can be classified by the predominant
number of carriers, i.e. electrons and holes, determined according to their crystalline
lattice structure. Thus, a semiconductor that has the electrons as majority of carriers is
defined as “n-type”, while a semiconductor that has the holes as the majority of carriers
is “p-type”.

If a “p-type” semiconductor is in contact with a “n-type” semiconductor the electrons
diffuses from the n-type to fill the positive holes from the p-type and form neutral
atoms. In the same way the holes from the p-type diffuses in the n area and combine
with the electrons. This results in the appearance of narrow area around the separation
- mm) where both positive and negative ions exist due to the migrations
of the electrons from the n area and of the holes from the p area. This area becomes an
effective insulator called barrier layer or potential barrier and has the variation of the
electric charge as shown in the figure below.
p-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
p-type n-type p-type n-type +
semiconductor semiconductor semiconductor semiconductor +
+
+
+
+
positive “holes” electrons Electron acceptor Electron donor atoms – +

atoms – negative ions positive ions
The value of the potential barrier

When a voltage is applied such that the positive terminal of the power supply is
connected to the n-type and the negative terminal to the p-type the holes from the p
area will be migrating to the negative terminal and the electrons to the positive terminal,
so the barrier potential area is widened. In this case the p-n junction formed is “reverse”
polarized and the flow current (called reverse current) is very small (micro-ampere). Only
by applying a high voltage the reverse current increases abruptly and the junction is
penetrated.
p n p n
_ Ia Ia _
+ +
_ + + _
Ua Ua
a) b)
_
+
A-Anode C-Cathode
Otherwise if the polarity of the power supply is reversed the barrier potential area is
narrowed therefore the flow current (called forward current) is important and the p-n
junction is called “forward” polarized.

In the rectification of the AC power supplies, rectifiers are now invariably of the
type employing using non-metallic semi-conductors like Selenium and Silicon. Rectifiers
temperature is limited and the protection against short duration overloads is difficult,
they are not recommended in main power systems.

Unit 5: Power Conversion Equipment
In the aircraft electrical installations various types of consumer equipment are used
which require power supplies different from the standard supplies provided by the main
generator. As it has already been discussed in Unit 1, these power supplies are for the
secondary and tertiary – types of electrical power supplies.
Usually these power supplies are called convertors because they convert electrical
power from one form (DC or AC) to another, or convert one form of supply to a higher or
lower value, or another frequency.
For example, in an aircraft having a 28 volts DC primary power supply, certain

instruments and electronic equipment used require 115 volts AC supplies for their
operation, and as we have already seen, the DCs cannot be entirely eliminated even for
aircrafts which in concept are primarily AC powered.
The most commonly converting equipment used on board of the aircrafts are the
static converting equipments, which may be grouped in:
rectifiers;
transformers;
static DC/AC converters.

5.1. Rectifiers
The process of converting an AC supply into a DC supply is known as rectification and

any static device used for this purpose is known as a rectifier.
The rectifying process is based on the principle that when a voltage is applied to
certain elements called semiconductors an exchange of negative and positive charge
carriers (known as “electrons” and “holes”, respectively) takes place at the contact
surfaces. As a result of this exchange, a barrier layer that exhibits different resistance
and conductivity characteristics is formed; it allows the current to flow through the
combination more easily in one direction than in the opposite. Thus when the applied
voltage is an alternating quantity the barrier layer converts the current into
unidirectional flow and provides a rectified output.
The semiconductor is an element that has a resistivity between that of a good

conductor and a good insulator. Semiconductors can be classified by the predominant
number of carriers, i.e. electrons and holes, determined according to their crystalline
lattice structure. Thus, a semiconductor that has the electrons as majority of carriers is
defined as “n-type”, while a semiconductor that has the holes as the majority of carriers
is “p-type”.

If a “p-type” semiconductor is in contact with a “n-type” semiconductor the electrons
diffuses from the n-type to fill the positive holes from the p-type and form neutral
atoms. In the same way the holes from the p-type diffuses in the n area and combine
with the electrons. This results in the appearance of narrow area around the separation
plan (at about 10-5 mm) where both positive and negative ions exist due to the migrations
of the electrons from the n area and of the holes from the p area. This area becomes an
effective insulator called barrier layer or potential barrier and has the variation of the
electric charge as shown in the figure below.
p-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
p-type n-type p-type n-type +
semiconductor semiconductor semiconductor semiconductor +
+
+
+
+
positive “holes” electrons Electron acceptor Electron donor atoms – +

atoms – negative ions positive ions
The value of the potential barrier is between 0.2 and 0.4 V for Germanium and
between 0.6 and 0.8 V for Silicon.

When a voltage is applied such that the positive terminal of the power supply is
connected to the n-type and the negative terminal to the p-type the holes from the p
area will be migrating to the negative terminal and the electrons to the positive terminal,
so the barrier potential area is widened. In this case the p-n junction formed is “reverse”
polarized and the flow current (called reverse current) is very small (micro-ampere). Only
by applying a high voltage the reverse current increases abruptly and the junction is
penetrated.
p n p n
_ Ia Ia _
+ +
_ + + _
Ua Ua
a) b)
_
+
A-Anode C-Cathode
Otherwise if the polarity of the power supply is reversed the barrier potential area is
narrowed therefore the flow current (called forward current) is important and the p-n
junction is called “forward” polarized.

In the rectification of the AC power supplies, rectifiers are now invariably of the
type employing using non-metallic semi-conductors like Selenium and Silicon. Rectifiers
using Germanium (a metallic element) are also available but as their operating
temperature is limited and the protection against short duration overloads is difficult,
they are not recommended in main power systems.

Rectifiers are used in single-phase and 3-phase supply systems and, depending on the
conversion requirements of a circuit or system, they may be arranged to give either half-
wave or full-wave rectification. In the former arrangement the DC output is available
only during alternate half-cycles of an AC input, while in the latter a DC output is
available throughout a cycle .
The single-phase half-wave circuit is the simplest possible circuit for a rectifier and
summarizes, in a practical manner, the operating principles already described. The output
from the single rectifier is a series of positive pulses the number of which is equal to the
frequency of the input voltage.
Current flow in 1st half-cycle
Current flow in 2nd half-cycle
+-
1st 1st
2nd
2nd 1 cycle
1 cycle
+-
Input Output

To obtain a smoother output a bridge connection of rectifiers is used.
-+
1st
2nd
1 cycle
-
+
1st 2nd
Input 1 cycle
Output
Current flow in 1st half-cycle
Current flow in 2nd half-cycle

For half-wave rectification of a 3-phase AC input the circuit is made up of three
rectifiers in the manner shown it in the figure below.
Phase 1
Input
Phase 3 Phase 2
Output
Current flow phase 1

This arrangement is comparable to three single-phase rectification circuits, but since
the positive half-cycles of the input are occurring at time intervals of one third of a
cycle (120 degrees) the number of DC pulses or the ripple frequency is increased to
three times that of the supply and a smoother output waveform is obtained. In this case
the most important harmonic is the third ( 400 3 1.200 Hz ).
Input
Phase 1
Input
Phase 3 Phase 2 Output

Output
_ +
The figure shows the bridge type circuit arrangement for the full-wave rectification
of a 3-phase AC input, most commonly used for power rectification in aircraft.
In this type of circuit the line voltage is smoother than in a three single-phase
rectification circuit and the most harmonic is the sixth ( 400 6 2.400 Hz ).

5.2. Transformers
A transformer is a device for converting AC at one value of frequency and voltage to
AC at the same value of frequency but at different value of voltage.
Laminated core
Secondary winding
AC AC
input output
Primary winding Flux
It consist of three main parts:

an iron core,
a primary winding;
a secondary winding.

There are two classes of transformers, voltage or power transformers and current
transformers .
Voltage transformers When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding an

alternating current will flow and will establish a voltage by self-induction in the primary
winding which is opposite and almost equal to the applied voltage.
The difference between these two voltages will allow just enough current (called
excitation current) to flow in the primary winding to set up an alternating magnetic flux
in the core.
The flux cuts across the secondary winding and by mutual induction a voltage is
established in the secondary winding .
When a load is connected to the secondary winding terminals, the secondary voltage
causes a current to flow through the winding thus a magnetic flux is produced by the
primary current.
Lets note with N1 the number of turns of the primary winding and with N2 the number
of turns of the secondary winding, respectively.
N1 E1
transformation ratio (r), or turns, is expressed by: r
N2 E2
Where E1 and E2 are the voltages for the two windings.

When the transformation ratio is such that the transformer delivers a higher
secondary voltage than the primary voltage it is said to be of the “step-up” type.
Conversely, a “step-down” transformer is the one which lowers the secondary voltage.
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

winding winding winding winding
Step-up ratio Step-down ratio
Circuit connections Voltage transformers are connected so that the primary windings are in
parallel with the supply voltage; the primary windings of current transformer are
connected in series.
As the name suggests, a single-phase transformer is transforming the voltage from a
single-phase supply or from any one phase of a 3-phase supply.
Transformation of the 3-phase AC can be carried out by three separate single-phase

transformers, or by a single 3-phase transformer.
Transformers for 3-phase circuits can be connected in one of the two combinations,
star or delta, depending on the requirements needed.
Star connection three-wire Star connection four-wire Star and Delta connection
When the star connection is used in 3-phase transformers for the operation of 3-
phase consumer equipment, the transformer may be connected as a 3-phase system. If a
single-phase loads has to be powered from a 3-phase supply it is sometimes difficult to
keep them balanced, so it is essential to provide a fourth or neutral wire so that
connections of the loads may be made between this wire and any one of 3-phase lines.

Current transformers are used in many AC generator regulation and protection systems or in
conjunction with AC ammeters.
N1 I2
transformation ratio (r), or turns, is expressed by: r
N2 I1
Where I1 and I2 are the currents of the two windings.
X1 X2 Secondary
(Start) (Finish) winding
Side H1 Side H2
Towards generator Towards load
Primary
Current – carrying conductor winding

The primary winding consists of a single turn if it carries high currents and with two
or three turns if it carries low currents.
At the secondary winding it is important the polarity of the transformers which is

indicated by marking H1 on the side facing the generator and H2 on the side facing the
load.
The operating principle is the same as that of a voltage transformer.
Auto-transformers In circuit applications normally requiring only a small step-up or step-

down of the voltage, a special variant of transformer design is used, known as an auto-
transformer.
Secondary
input
Primary
input

When a voltage is applied to the primary terminals current flow through the portion
of the winding spanned by these terminals. The magnetic flux due to this current flow
through the core and will be therefore linked with the whole winding. Those turns
between the primary terminals act in the same way as the primary winding of a voltage
transformer: they will produce a self-induction voltage in opposition to the applied
voltage. The voltage induced in the remaining turns of the winding will be additive,
thereby giving a secondary output voltage greater than applied voltage.
When a circuit load is connected to the secondary terminals, a current due to the
induced voltage will flow through the whole winding and will be in apposition to the
primary current from the input terminals.
Transformer ratings Transformers are usually rated in volt-amperes or kilovolt-amperes.
The difference between the output terminal voltages at full-load and no-load, with a
constant input voltage, is called the regulation of the transformer.

Transformer-Rectifier Are combinations of static transformers and rectifiers, and are
Units utilized in some AC systems as secondary supply units, and also as the
TRU
main conversion units in aircraft with rectified AC power systems.
AC
generator
input
To warning
Thermal lamps
switches
+ DC input
Main
output
To
ammeter
Schematic circuit of a transformer-rectifier unit

The unit consists of a transformer and two 3-phase bridge rectifier assemblies
mounted in separate sections of the casing.
The transformer has a conventional star-wound primary winding and secondary

windings wound in star and delta. Each secondary winding is connected to the individual
bridge rectifier assemblies made up of six silicon diodes connected in parallel. An
ammeter shunt (a 50 mV drop at 100 A) is connected in the output side of the rectifiers
to enable current taken from the main DC output terminals to be measured at ammeter
auxiliary terminals. These terminals, together with all the others associated with the
input and the output circuits, are grouped on a panel at one end of the unit. Cooling of the
unit uses natural convection through the mesh-covered ventilation panels; in order to
warn in case of overheating, thermal switches are provided at the transformer and
rectifier assemblies, and are connected to independent warning lights. The switches are
supplied by the DC from an external source (normally one of the DC busbars) and their
contacts will close when the temperature at that respective location will reach a value
between approximately 150 C and 200 C.

Transformer
section
Rectifier
section
Ammeter
shunt
terminals
AC input
terminals Temperature
warning system
terminals
DC output
terminals
Transformer-rectifier unit

Static inverters This term is generally accepted as referring to a DC to AC converter
having only electronics devices and the conversion function is made it by means of solid-
state or static circuit principles
They are used in a few types of aircraft sometimes as a normal source of AC power,
or more commonly only to provide only emergency AC power to certain essential systems
when a failure of the standard 115 volts source has occurred. The function of an inverter
used for the conversion of a battery supply voltage to single-phase 115 volts voltage is
shown below:
Constant
28 V DC Filter current
input network generator
400 Hz Square
Turn on wave generator
delay
notch
notch time
time
Odd 115 V AC
Pulse Power Output 400 Hz
harmonic
shaper driver stage output
filter
Voltage
sensor
Notch
Regulator
control
Current
sensor
The DC is supplied to the transistorized circuits of a filter network, a pulse shaper, a
constant current generator, power driver stage and the output stage. After any
variations in the input have been filtered or smoothed out, the DC is supplied to a square-
wave generator which provide first-stage conversion of the DC into square-wave form AC
and also establishes the required operating frequency of 400 Hz. This output is then
supplied to a pulse shaper circuit which controls the pulse width of the signal and
changes its wave form before it is passed on to the power driver stage.
It will be noted that the DC required for the pulse shaper operation is supplied via a
turn-on delay circuit. The reason for this is to cause the pulse shaper to delay its output
to the power driver stage until the voltage has been stabilized. The power driver supplies
a pulse-width modulated symmetrical output to control the output stage, the signal having
a square-wave form. The power driver also shorts itself out each time the voltage falls to
zero, i.e. during “notch time”.
The output stage also produces a square-wave output but of variable pulse width. This
output is finally fed to a filter circuit which reduces the total odd harmonics to produce
a sine wave output at the voltage and frequency required for operating the systems
connected to the inverter.

Static inverters This term is generally accepted as referring to a DC to AC converter
having only electronics devices and the conversion function is made it by means of solid-
state or static circuit principles
They are used in a few types of aircraft sometimes as a normal source of AC power,
or more commonly only to provide only emergency AC power to certain essential systems
when a failure of the standard 115 volts source has occurred. The function of an inverter
used for the conversion of a battery supply voltage to single-phase 115 volts voltage is
shown below:
Constant
28 V DC Filter current
input network generator
400 Hz Square
Turn on wave generator
delay
notch
notch time
time
Odd 115 V AC
Pulse Power Output 400 Hz
harmonic
shaper driver stage output
filter
Voltage
sensor
Notch
Regulator
control
Current
sensor
The DC is supplied to the transistorized circuits of a filter network, a pulse shaper, a
constant current generator, power driver stage and the output stage. After any
variations in the input have been filtered or smoothed out, the DC is supplied to a square-
wave generator which provide first-stage conversion of the DC into square-wave form AC
and also establishes the required operating frequency of 400 Hz. This output is then
supplied to a pulse shaper circuit which controls the pulse width of the signal and
changes its wave form before it is passed on to the power driver stage.
It will be noted that the DC required for the pulse shaper operation is supplied via a
turn-on delay circuit. The reason for this is to cause the pulse shaper to delay its output
to the power driver stage until the voltage has been stabilized. The power driver supplies
a pulse-width modulated symmetrical output to control the output stage, the signal having
a square-wave form. The power driver also shorts itself out each time the voltage falls to
zero, i.e. during “notch time”.
The output stage also produces a square-wave output but of variable pulse width. This
output is finally fed to a filter circuit which reduces the total odd harmonics to produce
a sine wave output at the voltage and frequency required for operating the systems
connected to the inverter.

Unit 6: Ground Power Supplies
Electrical power is required to start the engines, to operate certain activities during
servicing periods at airports, e.g. lighting, and to test the electrical systems during
routine maintenance checks.
The batteries of an aircraft are, of course, a mean of supplying the necessary power,
and although capable to start the engine, their capacity does not permit a wide scale use
on the ground; as we have already discussed in Unit 3, they are restricted to the supply
of power under emergencies conditions.
It is necessary to incorporate a separate circuit through which power from an
system. In its simplest form, a ground power supply system consists of a connector
located in the aircraft at a conveniently accessible point (at the side of a fuselage for
example) and a switch for completing the circuit between the ground power unit and the
busbar system.
In addition to the ground power supply system, some types of aircrafts carry
separate batteries that can supply the ground services in the event of a non-available in
ground power unit; these will help to conserve the main batteries for engine starting.

6.1. DC systems
A basic system for the DC supply is shown in the following figure.

Main DC busbar Battery busbar
Power
selector
switch
“Ground” “Flight”
Battery
Ground
+
power
_ connector
The power selector switch has two positions, “ground” and “flight”, respectively. By
selecting the “ground” position the ground power supply will be connected to the main
busbar via the ground power connector. Alternatively, in the “flight” position the battery
will be connected to the main busbar and the battery will be constantly supplied with the
charging current. This is the position the switch is selected when aircraft is in flight.

The ground power connector symbol shown in the figure represents a twin-socket type
unit of an early design, now limited in its application. The sockets and their corresponding
plug pins have different diameters to prevent a reverse polarity condition; in order to
make the connection the outer cover of the unit must be rotated to expose the sockets.
As a result of the standardization requirements, multi-pin plug units were introduced

and are now used in nearly all types of aircrafts. A typical three-pin plug consists of two
positive and a negative pins; one of the positive pins is shorter and of smaller diameter
than the remaining pins. The pins are enclosed in a protective shroud, and the complete
unit is normally fitted in a recessed housing located at the appropriate part of the
airframe structure. Access to the plug from outside the aircraft, is via a hinged flap
provided with quick release fasteners.

A circuit using a multi-pin plug unit is illustrated in the next figure,
Main DC busbar
Reverse circuit
breaker
Ground power relay
Power
selector
switch
_
“GND” “BAT”
+
+ To battery
Ground power
plug
From the figure it can be observed that the short positive pin is connected to the coil
circuit of the ground power relay. The reason for this is that in the event of the
withdrawal of the ground supply socket with the circuit “on”, the ground power relay will
de-energize before the main pins are disengaged from the socket. This ensures that the
breaking of the supply will take place at the heavy-duty contacts of the relay thus
preventing arching at the main pins.

6.2. AC systems
Because aircrafts are mainly of the “AC type” from the electrical point of view, it is
essential for the understanding of installation ground supply system to include a section
where an external source of AC power may be supplied. The circuit arrangements for the
appropriate systems vary between aircraft types but in order to gain some understanding
of the circuit requirements and operation we consider the next circuit:

When ground power is coupled to the plug a 3-phase supply is fed to the main contacts
of the ground power breaker, to a ground power transformer/rectifier unit (T.R.U.) and
to a phase sequence protection unit. The T.R.U. provides a 28 volt DC feedback supply to
a hold-in circuit of the ground power unit. If the phase sequence is correct the
protection unit completes a circuit to the control relay coil, thus energizing it. A single-
phase supply is fed to a voltmeter and frequency meter via a selector switch and also to
an amber light which comes on to indicate that ground power is coupled.
The circuit is controlled by a ground power switch connected to a busbar supplied

with 28 volts DC from the aircraft battery system. When the switch is set to the “close”
position current flows across the main contacts of the energized control relay, to the
“close” coil of the ground power breaker, thus energizing it to connect the ground supply
to the 3-phase AC main busbar. The ground power supply is disconnected by selecting the
“trip” position on the ground power switch. This action connects a DC supply to the trip
coil of the ground power breaker, thus releasing its main and auxiliary contacts and
isolating the ground power from the AC main busbar.
6.3. Auxiliary power units

Nowadays many aircrafts are designed so that if necessary, they may be independent
of ground support equipment. This is achieved by incorporating of an auxiliary power unit
engine starting, ground air conditioning and other electrical services.

In some installations the A.P.U. is also used for supplying power in flight in the event
of an engine-driven generator failure and for supplementing the delivery of air to the
cabin during take-off and climb.
In general, an A.P.U. consists of a small gas turbine engine, a bleed-air control and
supply system, and an accessory gearbox. The gas turbine comprises a two-stage
centrifugal compressor connected to a single-stage turbine. The bleed-air control and
supply system automatically regulates the amount of air bled from the compressor for
for engine operation, e.g. fuel pump control unit and oil pumps, the accessory gearbox
drives a generator which, depending on the type required for a specific aircraft, may
supplied either with DC or AC.
A motor for starting the A.P.U. is also secured to the gearbox and is operated by the
aircraft battery system or, when available, from a ground power unit. In some types of
A.P.U. the functions of engine starting and power generation are combined in a
starter/generator unit.


Eps Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eps Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISO 1540:2006- Aerospace – Characterisics of

aircraft electrical systems

Electrical power systems or System consists of a combination of electrical power sources

Electrical Power Systems 1

External power unit

Electrical Power Systems 2

AC generators with variable frequency

Electrical Power Systems 3

Electrical Power Systems 4

Minimization of the weight and size without reducing the reliability;

Simple technologies with low cost of repair

Low perturbations level

Minimum duration to get ready for the normal operation

aggregates and components manufacturing interchangeability unification

Electrical Power Systems 5

2.1. Fundamentals Principles

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:

the strength of the magnetic field,

the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

Electrical Power Systems 6

Electrical Power Systems 7

Electrical Power Systems 8

Electrical Power Systems 9

Electrical Power Systems 10

permanent magnet generators;

self - excited generators :

series self – excited generators;

Electrical Power Systems 1

It consists of five principal

Electrical Power Systems 2

1. 28 VDC, with the fluctuations in the range 26.5

with air if M< 2

Electrical Power Systems 4

Electrical Power Systems 5

Electrical Power Systems 7

The drop voltage is given by:

The loss of voltage in armature in overcoming the resistance of the

Electrical Power Systems 8

The loss of voltage given by Eddy-current, eddy currents are generated in

Electrical Power Systems 9

Carbon Pile Regulator

Electrical Power Systems 2

FEM=0 F=Fs the carbon pile is fully compressed

Electrical Power Systems 4

The battery is a primary electrical supply

The main functions of the battery are:

to assist in damping transient loads in the DC systems – the starting

to supply power in system startup mode when no other power source

-integrity source during emergencies

radio equipments and the ELT.

Depending on Primary type – electrochemistry;

Depending on Acid battery – most common type are lead-acid battery;

Electrical Power Systems 6

Depending on Primary type – electrochemistry;

Depending on Acid battery – most common type are lead-acid battery;

Electrical Power Systems 6

The electrochemistry of the cell generates a difference in the electrical potential

Electrical Power Systems 7

The structure of the components

Chemical reactions of the battery during discharge:

PbO2 2H H2SO4 2e- PbSO4 2H2O

The global chemical reactions of the battery: