CALCULUS AND LINEAR ALGEBRA

UNIT-IV

(Applications of Differential Calculus)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Introduction
The rate of change of the direction of tangent with respect to arc
lenngth as the point p moves along the curve is called curvature
vector of the curve whose magnitude is called the curvature at p.
Radius of curvature. The reciprocal of the curvature of a curve at
any point P is called the radius of curvature at P and is denoted by
rho.
I Radius of curvature for Cartesian Curve y = f (x), is given by
[1 + y1 2 ]3/2
ρ= , where y1 = dy /dx and y2 = d 2 y /dx 2
y2
I Radius of curvature for parametric equations
x = f (t), y = g (t) is given by
(x 02 + y 02 )3/2
ρ = 0 00 where z 0 = dz/dt and z 0 = d 2 y /dx 2
x y − y 0 x 00
I Radius of curvature for polar curve r = f (θ) is given by

(r 2 + r12 )3/2
ρ=
r 2 − rr2 + 2r12
Problem-1
Find the radius of curvature at the point (3a/2, 3a/2) of the
Folium x 3 + y 3 = 3axy .
Soln: Differentiating
 with respect
 to x, we get
2 2 dy dy
3x + 3y dx = 3a y + x dx

dy
(y 2 − ax) = ay − x 2 (1)
dx
dy
∴ at (3a/2, 3a/2) = −1
dx
Differentiating (1),
 dy 2
2 − ax) d y = a dy − 2x

2y dy
dx − a + (y
dx dx 2 dx
d 2y
∴ at (3a/2, 3a/2) = 32/3a
dx 2
[1 + (dy /dx)2 ]3/2 [1 + (−1)2 ]3/2
Hence ρ at(3a/2, 3a/2)= =
d 2 y /dx 2 −32/3a
3a
= √ (in magnitude).
8 2
Problem-2

Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the cycloid

x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ) is 4a cosθ/2.
dy dy
Soln: We have = a(1 + cosθ), = asinθ
dx dθ
dy dy dx asinθ 2sinθ/2 cosθ/2
= + = = = tanθ/2
dx dθ dθ  a(1 + cosθ) 2cos 2 θ/2
d 2y d dy dθ 1 θ 1
= · = sec 2 ·
dx 2 dθ dx dx 2 2 a(1 + cosθ)
1 θ 1 1
= sec 2 · 2
= sec 4 θ/2.
2 2 2acos θ/2 4a
[1 + (dy /dx)2 ]3/2 4a(1 + tan2 θ/2)3/2
ρ= =
d 2 y /dx 2 sec 4 θ/2
= 4a · (sec 2 θ/2)3/2 · cos 4 θ/2 = 4a cosθ/2.
Problem-3
Prove that the radius of curvature at any point of the astroid
x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 , is three times the length of the perpendicular
from the origin to the tangent at that point.
Soln: The parametric equation of the curve is

x = acos 3 t, y = asin3 t
x 0 (= dx/dt) = −3acos 2 t sin t, y 0 = 3asin2 t cost.
x 00 = −3a(cos 3 t − 2cost sin2 t) = 3a cos t(2sin2 t − cos 2 t)
y 00 = 3a(2sint cost − sin3 t) = 3a sin t(2cos 2 t − sin2 t)
x 02 + y 02 = 9a2 (cos 4 tsin2 t + sin4 tcos 2 t) = 9a2 sin2 t cos 2 t
x 0 y 00 − y 0 x 00 = −9a2 cos 2 tsin2 t(2cos 2 t − sin2 t)
−9a2 cos 2 tsin2 t(2sin2 t − cos 2 t) = −9a2 sin2 t cos 2 t
(x 02 + y 02 )3/2 27a3 sin3 t cos 3 t
ρ= = = −3asint cost.
x 0 y 00 − y 0 x 00 −9a2 sin2 t cos 2 t
Problem-3 Cont...

dy y0
Since = 0 = −tant,
dx x
∴ Equation of the tangent at (acos 3 t, asin3 t) is
y − asin3 t = −tan t(x − acos 3 t)
x tan t + y − a sin t = 0
0 + 0 − asint
length of ⊥ from (0,0) on (2)= p = −asint cost.
(tan2 t + 1)
Thus ρ = 3p.
Problem-4

Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the cardioid

√
r = a(1 − cosθ) varies as r .
Soln: Differentiating w.r.t. θ, we get
r1 = asinθ, r2 = acosθ
∴ (r 2 + r12 )3/2 = [a2 (1 − cosθ)2 + a2 sin2 θ]3/2 = a3 [2(1 − cosθ)]3/2
r 2 − rr2 + 2r12 = a2 (1 − cosθ)2 − a2 (1 − cosθ)cosθ + 2a2 sin2 θ =
3a2 (1 − cosθ) √
(r 2 + r12 )3/2 a3 2 2(1 − cosθ)3/2
Thus ρ = 2 2
=
√ r − rr2 + 2r 1 √  3a2 (1 − cosθ)
2 2 2 2a r 1/2 √
= a(1 − cosθ)1/2 = ∝ r.
3 3 a
CENTRE OF CURVATURE

Let Γ be a simple curve having tangent at each point. At any

point P on this curve we can draw a circle having the same
curvature at P as the curve Γ.
This circle is called the circle of curvature and its centre is called
the centre of curvature and its radius is the radius of curvature of
Γ at P.
Centre of curvature at any point P(x, y ) on the curve y = f (x) is
given by

y1 (1 + y12 )
x =x−
y2
1 + y12
y =y+
y2

Equation of the circle of curvature at P is (x − x)2 + (y − y )2 = ρ2 .

EVOLUTE
The locus of centre of curvature of a given curve Γ is called the
evolute of the curve.
The given curve Γ is called an involute of the evolute. In fact, for
the evolute there are many involutes.
Procedure to Find the Evolute
Let y = f (x) (1) be the equation of the given curve. If (x, y ) is
the centre of curvature at any point P(x, y ) on (1), then

y1 (1 + y12 )
x =x− (2)
y2
1 + y12
y =y+ (3)
y2

Eliminating x, y using (1), (2) and (3), we get a relation in x, y .

Replacing x by x and y by y, we get the equation of locus of
(x, y ), which is the evolute of the given curve.
Problem-1
Find the coordinates of the center of curvature at any point of the
parabola y 2 = 4ax. Hence show that its evolute is
27ay 2 = 4(x − 2a)3
Soln: We have 2yy1 = 4a i.e. y1 = 2a/y and
2a 4a2
y2 = − 2 · y1 = − 3
y y
If (x, y ) be the center of curvature, then
y1 (1 + y12 ) 2a/y (1 + 4a2 /y 2 )
x =x− =x−
y2 −4a2 /y 3
y 2 + 4a2 4ax + 4a2
=x+ =x+ = 3x + 2a (4)
2a 2a
and
1 + y12 1 + 4a2 /y 2
y =y+ =y+
y2 −4a2 /y 2
y (y 2 + 4a2 ) −y 3 2x 3/2
=y− 2
= 2
=− √ (5)
4a 4a a
Problem-1 Cont...

To find the evolute, we have to eliminate x from (4) and (5)

4x 3 4 x − 2a 3
 
2
∴ (y ) = =
a a 3
or 27a(y )2 = 4(x − 2a)3 .
Thus the locus of (x, y ) i.e., evolute is 27ay 2 = 4(x − 2a)3 .
Problem-2

Show that the evolute of the cycloid

x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ) is another equal cycloid.
dy dx asinθ
Soln: We have y1 = + = = cot 2θ .
dθ dθ a(1 − cosθ)
d d dθ
y2 = (y1 ) = (cotθ/2) ·
dx dθ dx
2 1 1
=−cosec θ/2 · 1/2 · =−
a(1 − cosθ) 4asin4 θ/2
If(x, y ) be the center of curvature, then
y1 (1 + y12 )
x =x− =
y2
a(θ − sinθ) + cotθ/2 −4asin4 θ/2 1 + cot 2 θ/2

cosθ/2
= a(θ − sinθ) + · 4asin4 θ/2 · cosec 2 θ/2
sinθ/2
= a(θ − sinθ) + 4asinθ/2cosθ/2 = a(θ − sinθ) + 2asinθ = a(θ + sinθ)
Problem-2 Cont...

1 + y12
= a(1 − cosθ) + 1 + cot 2 θ/2 −4asin4 θ/2



y =y+
y2
= a(1 − cosθ) − 4asin4 θ/2 · cosec 2 θ/2
a(1 − cosθ) − 4asin2 θ/2
a(1 − cosθ) − 2a(1 − cosθ) = −a(1 − cosθ)
Hence the locus of (x, y ) i.e., the evolute, is given by
x = a(θ + sinθ), y = −a(1 − cosθ) which is another equal cycloid.
ENVELOPE

Consider the system of straight lines y = mx + m1 (1) where m is a

parameter. For different values of m, we have different straight
lines and so (1) represents a family of straight lines. Each member
of this family touches the curve y 2 = 4x. So, these lines cover the
curve y 2 = 4x. This curve is called the envelope of the family of
lines. We shall now define envelope.
Definition: Let f (x, y , α) = 0 be a single parameter family of
curves, where α is the parameter. The envelope of this family of
curves is a curve which touches every member of the family.
Problem-1
p
Find the envelope of the family of lines y = mx + (1 + m2 ), m
being the parameter.
Soln: We have
(y − mx)2 = 1 + m2 (6)
Differentiating (6) partially with respect to m,

2(y − mx)(−x) = 2m or m = xy /(x 2 − 1) (7)

Now eliminate m from (6) and (7).

Substituting the values of m in (6), we get
2 2
x 2y
 
xy
y− 2 =1+ or
x −1 x2 − 1
y 2 = (x 2 − 1)2 + x 2 y 2
x 2 + y 2 = 1 which is the required equation of the envelope
Problem-2
Find the envelope of a system of concentric and coaxial ellipses of
constant area.
Soln: Taking the common axes of the system of ellipses as the
coordinate axes, the equation to an ellipse of the family is

x2 y2
+ 2 =1 (8)
a2 b
where a and b are the parameters.
The area of the ellipse =πab which is given to be constant, say
= πc 2
ab = c 2 or b = c 2 /2 (9)
Substituting in (8),

x2 y2
+ = 1 or x 2 a−2 + (y 2 /c 4 )a2 = 0 (10)
a2 (c 2 /a)2

which is given family of ellipses with a as the only parameter.

Problem-2 Cont...

Differentiating partially (10) with respect to a,

−2x 2 a−3 + 2(y 2 /c 4 )a = 0 or a2 = c 2 x/y (11)

Eliminate a from (10) and (11)

Substituting the values of a2 in (10), we get

x 2 (y /c 2 x) + (y 2 /c 4 )(c 2 x/y ) = 1 or 2xy = c 2

which is the required equation of the envelope.

Problem-3

Find the evolute of the parabola y 2 = 4ax.

Soln: Any normal to the parabola is

y = mx − 2am − am3 (12)

Differentiating it with respect to m partially,

0 = x − 2a − 3am2 or m = [(x − 2a)/3a]1/2
Substituting this value of m in (12),
x − 2a 1/2
   
x − 2a
y= x − 2a − a ·
3a 3a
Squaring both sides, we have
27ay 2 = 4(x − 2a)3
Which is the evolute of the parabola.
Beta, Gamma Functions
The beta function is defined as
Z1
β(p, q) = x p−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx
0

where m, n > 0. Note that β(p, q) = β(q, p).

The gamma function is defined as
Z∞
Γ(n) = x n−1 e −x dx
0
where n > 0.
Note: (1) Γ(1) = 1
(2) Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n) = n!
√
(3) Γ( 21 ) = π
The relation between Beta and Gamma functions is
Γ(p)Γ(q)
β(p, q) =
Γ(p + q)
Problems Beta, Gamma Functions

n−1
R1

1
Show that Γ(n) = log dy , (n > 0).
0 y
R∞
Soln: Γ(n) = x n−1 e −x dx(n > 0)
 0
R1 1 n−1
  
1
= log y − dy
0 y y
put y = e −x
i.e., x = log (1/y )
so that dx = −(1/y )dy
R1 1 n−1
 
= log dy .
0 y
Problems based on Beta, Gamma Functions
R∞ y q−1 R1 x p−1 + x q−1
Show that β(p, q) = dy = dx
0 (1 + y )p+q 0 (1 + x)
p+q

R1
Soln: β(p, q) = x p−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx
0
q−1
R0

1 y −1
= p−1
dy
∞ (1 + y ) 1+y (1 + y )2
1
put x = i.e., y = x1 − 1
1+y
−1
so that dx = dy
(1 + y )2
R∞ y q−1 R1 y q−1 R∞ y q−1
= p+q
dy = p+q
dy + p+q
dy
0 (1 + Y ) 0 (1 + y ) 1 (1 + y )
Now substituting y = 1/z in the second integral, we get
R∞ y q−1 R0 1
 
1 1
p+q
dy = q
· p+q
− 2 dz
1 (1 + y ) 1 z − 1 (1 + 1/z) z
R1 z p−1
= p+q
dz
0 (1 + z)
1 q−1 1 p−1
Problems based on Beta, Gamma Functions
Express the following integral in terms of gamma function
R1 dx
p
0 (1 − x 4 )
R1 dx
Soln: p
0 (1 − x)4
Put x 2 = sinθ, i.e., x = sin1/2 θ
so that dx = 1/2sin−1/2 θ cos θ dθ
π/2
R 1 sin−1/2 θ cosθ dθ
= p
0 2 (1 − sin2 θ)
π/2
sin−1/2 θ dθ
R
= 1/2
0  
√ Γ −1/2+1
1 π 2
= · ·  
2 2 Γ −1/2+2
2
√
π Γ (1/4)
=
4 Γ (3/4)
Problems based on Beta, Gamma Functions

Express the following integral in terms of gamma function

π/2
R p
(tan θ) dθ
0
π/2 π/2
sin1/2 θ cos −1/2 θ dθ
R p R
Soln: (tanθ)dθ =
 0    0
1 −1
+1 +1
Γ 2
2 Γ 2
2
= !
1 1
− + 2
2Γ 2 2
2
3

1

Γ 4 Γ 4
=
2Γ(1)
   
1 1 3
= Γ Γ .
2 4 4
Problems based on Beta, Gamma Functions
R∞
Evaluate e −ax x m−1 sin bx dx in terms of Gamma functions.
0
R∞
Soln: We have Γ(m) = e −x x m−1 dx
0
R∞
= e −ay am y m−1 dy
0
Z∞
e −ay y m−1 dy = Γ(m)/am (13)
0
R∞
Then I = e −ax x m−1 sin bx dx
0
R∞
= e −ax x m−1 (Imaginary part of e ibx )dx
0
R∞
=I.P. of e −(a−ib)x x m−1 dx
0
=I.P. of {Γ(m)/(a − ib)m by (1)
Problems based on Beta, Gamma Functions

=I.P. of {Γ(m)/[r m (cosθ − i sin θ)m ] where a = rcosθ, b = r sinθ

=I.P. of Γ(m)/[r m (cos mθ − i sin mθ)] (Using Demoivre’s
theorem) 
Γ(m).(cos mθ + i sin mθ)
=I.P. of
r m (cos mθ + i sin mθ)(cos mθ − i sin mθ)
Γ(m)
= m sin mθ Where r = (a2 + b 2 ), θ = tan−1 b/a.
p
r