Introduction to Applied Linguistics Research

1. Research Approaches
 Quantitative / Qualitative/Mixed Method Approaches
 Basic / Fundamental
 Inductive / Deductive
2. Sources of Research Questions
3. Scope of Research
4. Feasibility of Research
5. Stating Research questions and Hypotheses
6. Collecting Research Evidence
7. Replication

Lesson 2 : Qualitative/ Quantitative/ Mixed Methods Approaches

Research methods are generalized and established ways of approaching research questions.
Research methods are divided into qualitative and quantitative approaches and involve the
specific study activities of collecting and analyzing research data in order to answer the
particular research question. It is important to note that not all methods can be applied to all
research objectives, so it is important to ensure that the method you choose matches the
intention of your thesis work.

Qualitative research is a type of scientific. Qualitative research is especially effective in

obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, emotions, relationships,
behaviours and social contexts of particular populations.

 It describes how people experience a given research issue

 It identifies intangible factors: social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles,
ethnicity, and religion

Qualitative research methods

 Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring

behaviours in their usual contexts
 In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,
perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored
 Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in
generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups
represented
 Document reviews

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What forms do qualitative data take?

The types of data these methods generate are field notes, audio/video recordings, and
transcripts.

Quantitative Data: Quantitative data are numeric measurements. The data are objective- they
are the same no matter who measures them. They include measurements such as mass,
volume, temperature, distance, concentration, time, or frequency.

Quantitative research methods

These are: Polls (censuses), questionnaires, and surveys with close-ended questions.

Examples:

 The baby weighs 20 pounds: quantitative.

 My friend is very happy: qualitative.
 The sky is greyish-blue: qualitative.
 Joe is 6 foot 2: quantitative.
 Diana has $100 : quantitative.

*Say whether the following statements are: Qualitative research/ Quantitative research / Both

1. Observing whether drivers conform to road rules by counting the number of drivers
who disobey a stop sign at an intersection: Quantitative research

2. Testing the relationship between the scores on an intelligence test and scores on a
personality test: Quantitative research

3. Investigating ways of which females are portrayed in the print media by analyzing
newspaper and magazines advertisements: Qualitative research

4. Studying the behaviour of newborn infants by observing and recording their second-
by-second movements during their first 72 hours of life following birth: Both

5. Organising a small number of participants into a discussion group to study the

experience of sexual discrimination in the workplace: Qualitative research

6. Investigating the effects of observing violence by analyzing and interpreting children's

drawings after they have watched violent cartoons on television: Qualitative research

7. Observing the effects of using a treat as a reward to teach a dog to sit on command:
Qualitative research

8. Using a written questionnaire with closed-ended questions (eg. Yes/No) to survey a

large number of bushfire victims who may be experiencing post-traumatic stress
disorder: Qualitative research

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 9. Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-
determined items on an observation checklist: Qualitative research 

10. Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a
prolonged study session improves performance on a test: Quantitative research

Questions and Answers

1. The most basic distinction between types of data is that some data are quantitative
while other data are qualitative. Quantitative data general consists of:

 Numbers
 Equations
 Open-ended responses
 Survey and questionnaire data
 Any data can be considered quantitative.

2. Qualitative data generally can include:

 Only written material that respondents provide in response to open-ended items.

 Any sort of data that can be summarized with numbers.
 Text, pictures, videos, sound recordings.
 Survey and questionnaire data.
 Equations

3. The most fundamental difference between qualitative data and quantitative data is that:

 The type of judgment that is used to make meaning of the data, and how the data are
manipulated.
 The research questions that can be addressed using each of the types of data.
 The topics about which the data are being collected.
 The respondents providing the data.
 There really is no difference.

4. Considering the way researchers handle data, it is helpful to remember that:

 It is not possible to convert qualitative data into quantitative data.

 If qualitative data are converted into quantitative data, validity always suffers.
 Researchers often will often use quantitative data so that they avoid any subjective or
qualitative judgments.
 A researcher who converts qualitative data into quantitative data is ensuring that the
validity of the research will be improved.
 Although some data are collected quantitatively, there are many qualitative judgments
that go into how those responses are collected.

5. The "Levels of Measurement" are typically placed in a sequence in which higher

levels contain the attributes of the lower levels, but add some attribute. At the lowest
level it is not even meaningful to average the numbers, while at the highest level it is

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 possible to use inferential statistics. The sequence of "levels of measurement" from
lowest to highest is:

 (lowest) nominal-->ordinal-->interval-->ratio (highest)

 (lowest) interval-->nominal-->ordinal-->ratio (highest)
 (lowest) ratio-->interval-->ordinal-->nominal (highest)
 (lowest) interval-->ordinal-->nominal-->ratio (highest)
 (lowest) nominal-->ratio-->interval-->nominal (highest)

6. In research, data are generally being collected that are meant to describe measure or
otherwise characterize a construct. A construct is most correctly described as:

 The process by which the data will be analyzed.

 How correct the data are relative to what they are supposed to describe.
 Whether the right kind of data are collected for the research question to be answered.
 The theoretical idea or concept that is being described or analyzed in the process of
research.
 The term "construct" has no set meaning in research.

7. In research the term validity refers to:

 How meaningful it is to generalize based on the research.

 How well the researcher did what was planned.
 The accuracy of the measures used.
 The same as "reliability".
 How well the researcher explains what she/he means by the key terms used in the
research.

8. When numbers are used in a study as labels--in place of names--the numbers are said
to be at a level of measurement called ______ data. nominal

9. When the numbers that are collected as data in research have a true "0" point, such the
numbers can be correctly manipulated mathematically, the data are said to be at a level
of measurement called _____ data. ratio

10. The approximate truth of propositions, inferences, or conclusions in research is

referred to as _______ . validity

Example

Suppose a marine biologist observes the behavior and activities of dolphins. She identifies
different dolphins within the group and observes them every day for a month. She records
detailed observations about their behaviors. Some of her observations are qualitative data and
some are quantitative data.

Qualitative data examples

 Dolphin colors range from gray to white.

 Dolphins in a pod engage in play behavior.
 Dolphins have smooth skin.

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Quantitative data examples

 There are nine dolphins in this pod.

 Dolphins eat the equivalent of 4-5% of their body mass each day.
 The sonar frequency most often used by the dolphins is around 100kHz.