General Chemistry 1 Las Quarter 4

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GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 1
Fourth Quarter
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
Note: Practice Personal Hygiene Protocols at All Times
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Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION II (CAGAYAN VALLEY)
______________________________________________________
COPYRIGHT PAGE
Learning Activity Sheet in General Chemistry 1
(Grade 11)
Copyright © 2020
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Learning Competency with Code
Number
Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom
1 – 10
(STEM_GC11 ES-IIa-b-54)
Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its
11 – 19
electronic configuration (STEM_GC11 ES-IIa-b-57)
Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic
20 – 27
configuration of atoms (STEM_GC11 ES-IIa-b-58)
Draw the Lewis structure of ions (STEM_GC11 CB-IId-g-70) 28 – 41
Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent
42 – 51
compounds (STEM_GC11 CB-IId-g-76)
Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the
nonmetallic elements of the representative block (STEM_GC11 52 – 57
CB-IId-g-77)
Draw the Lewis structure of the molecular covalent compounds
58 – 71
(STEM_GC11 CB-IId-g-78)
Describe the geometry of simple compounds (STEM_GC11
72 – 88
CB-IId-g-81)
Determine the polarity of simple molecules (STEM_GC11CB-
89 – 100
IId-g-82)
Describe the different functional groups (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-87) 101– 111
Describe structural isomerism; give examples (STEM_
112 – 120
GC11OCIIg-j -89)
Describe some simple reactions of organic compounds:
combustion of organic fuels, addition, condensation, and 121– 129
saponification of fats (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-90)
Describe the formation and structure of polymers (STEM_
130 – 140
GC11OCIIg-j-91)
Explain the properties of some polymers in terms of their
141 – 149
structure (STEM_GC11 CB-IIg-j-93)
Describe the structure of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and
carbohydrates, and relate them to their function 150 – 163
(STEM_ GC11OCIIg-j-95)
Describe the preparation of selected organic compounds

164– 171
(STEM_ GC11OCIIg-j-97)
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Name of Learner: _______________________________ Grade Level: ___________
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Quantum Numbers
Background Information for Learners
Hey guys! I do hope you are in good condition right now. This material will guide you
learn the concepts about Quantum numbers. You might be asking “why do you need to learn
Quantum numbers?” or “Are Quantum numbers important?” Those questions could be
answered if you will continue and accomplish the activities in this material.
Read
Quantum numbers
To understand why we need to learn Quantum numbers,
recall that the models proposed by Dalton, Thomson,
Rutherford, Bohr and Chadwick are too simple and
insufficient to describe the complex atoms. Development of Source: Padolina, Antero & Alumaga
(2010)
better models was led by three physicists: Louis de Broglie
(1892-1987) of France, Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961) of Figure 1. The structure of the
Austria, and Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901-1976) of atom as described in the quantum
Germany. Read the information below: mechanical model
Dual Nature of Light

Louis de Broglie, introduced the dual nature of light. De Broglie, proposed that light
(or energy) can be thought of as both wave and particle. He reasoned out that that waves can
behave like particles and particles can exhibit wavelike properties. De Broglie deduced that the
particle and wave properties are related by the expression
where ⎣, m, and u are the wavelengths associated with a moving particle, its mass, and
its velocity, respectively. The equation implies that a particle in motion can be treated as a
wave, and a wave can exhibit the properties of a particle. Note that the left side of the equation
involves the wavelike property of wavelength, whereas the right side makes references to mass,
a distinctly particle-like property.
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Louis Victor Pierre Raymond Duc de Broglie
(1892–1977). French physicist. Member of an old and
noble family in France, he held the title of a prince. In
his doctoral dissertation, he proposed that matter and
radiation have the properties of both wave and particle.
For this work, de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1929.
Source: https://www. britannica.

com/biography/ Louis-de-
Broglie
Erwin
Schrödinger
Orbital: Probable location of electron (1887–1961).
Schrödinger used the wave nature of energy Austrian
to come up with an equation, called the wave theoretical
equation, to describe the hydrogen atom. The physicist who
fundamental idea (which abandoned the notion that contributed to
an electron as a small particle moving around the the wave
nucleus in a defined path) behind the model is that theory of
matter and to
electrons concentrate in electron’s wavelike
other
properties. A solution of Schrödinger’s wave fundamentals
Physics with British physicist P.A.M.
equation, called a wave function, represents an of wavequantum
Diracthe properties of both and
energy state of the atom. The wave function mechanics.
particle. For this work, de Broglie He
was
informs us of the probability of finding an electron awarded the Nobel Prizeshared
in Physicsthein
in a particular volume of space where an electron 1929. 1933 Nobel
Source:
can most likely be found. This region of space is Prize for
https://www.britannica.com/biography/
called an orbital. It is also an energy state. Contrast Erwin-Schrodinger
this with Bohr’s model of the atom wherein the
electron is described as moving around the atom in an orbit of defined radius and of specific
energy.
Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg, in full Werner Karl Heisenberg, (born
December 5, 1901, Würzburg, Germany—died February 1, 1976,
Munich, West Germany), German physicist and philosopher who
discovered (1925) a way to formulate quantum mechanics in terms
of matrices. For that discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physics for 1932. In 1927 he published his uncertainty
principle, upon which he built his philosophy and for which he is
best known.
Heisenberg used a different mathematical approach to locate the possible location of

electrons but obtained equivalent results. Heisenberg showed in 1927 that it is impossible to
know precisely where an electron is and what path it follows through his discovery called
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be understood
by imagining what would happen if we tried to determine the position of an electron at a given
moment. For us to “see” the electron, light photons of an appropriate frequency would have to
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interact with and bounce off the electron. But such interaction would transfer energy from the
photon to the electron, thereby increasing the energy of the electron and making it move faster.
Thus, the very act of determining the electron’s position would make that position change.
In mathematical terms, Heisenberg’s principle states that the uncertainty in the
electron’s position, x, times the uncertainty in its momentum, mv, is equal to or greater than
the quantity h/4:
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (x)( mv) ≥
According to this equation, we can never know both the position and the velocity of an
electron (or of any other object) beyond a certain level of precision. If we know the velocity
with a high degree of certainty ( x is small), then the position of the electron must be uncertain
( mv must be large). Conversely, if we know the position of the electron exactly (x is small),
then we can’t know its velocity (mv must be large). As a result, an electron will always appear
as something of a blur whenever we attempt to make any physical measurements of its position
and velocity.
A brief calculation can help make the conclusions of the uncertainty principle clearer.
The mass m of an electron is and the velocity of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg and the velocity
v of an electron in a hydrogen is 2.2 x 106 m/s. If we assume that the velocity is known to
within 10%, or 0.2 x 106 m/s, then the uncertainty in the electron’s position in a hydrogen atom
is greater than 3 x 10-10 m, or 300 pm. But since the diameter of a hydrogen atom is only
240 pm, the uncertainty in the electron’s position is similar in size to the atom itself!
If (x)( ⊗mv) ≥ then ((x) ≥
x ≥
x ≥ 3 x 10-10m or 300 pm
When the mass m of an object is relatively large, as in daily life, then both x and v in the
Heisenberg relationship are very small, so we have no problem in measuring both position and
velocity for visible objects. The problem arises only on an atomic scale.
Quantum mechanical model

The work of these scientists led to the model of the atom called quantum mechanical model,
or wave mechanical model.

▪ Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom (STEM_GC11ESIIa-b-
54)
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Directions
How to use the material?

1. Read every part of the material very well. Use the suggested references or other
related references as guides in answering the activities.
2. Follow the instructions carefully. Ask the help or assistance of your parents or
siblings as much as possible.
3. There are three (3) learning activities in this material. Strictly follow what is/are
asked in every activity and accomplish the activity within the given timeline.
4. In case the materials in the activity are not available in your place, you may
improvise or use related materials.
5. If you have a good internet connection, you may use the digital version of this
material. Ask your subject teacher how.
Learning Activity 1
What are the Quantum Numbers?
What shall you learn from the activity?
▪ Describe the quantum numbers.
Read
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it is not possible to give the exact position
of an electron and its energy at the same time. But the probability of finding the electron in an
orbital of given energy can be determined by the four quantum numbers n, l, m1 and ms.
Principal Quantum Number, n

⮚ The principal quantum number, n, refers to the main energy level of an orbital. It is related
to the total energy of the electron in an atom and can have a value of any positive integer
beginning with 1.
⮚ Since it takes energy to separate opposite charges (referring to the negatively charged
electron that is attracted to the positively charged nucleus), an increase in n also means an
increase in the energy of the electron in the orbital.
⮚ This number also represents the radial distance that the region where the electron is most
likely to be found extends out from the nucleus. The higher the n, the greater is the
radial distance. To determine the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main
energy level, the 2n2rule is followed. See the example below:
n = the maximum number of electrons for an n is 1; thus n value is 2(1)2 = 2
Azimuthal Quantum Number, l

⮚ The azimuthal quantum number, l (also called angular momentum number or
subsidiary number), represents energy sublevels and can have values beginning with
zero and increasing until the integer n-1 is reached. Study the given example:
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If n = 5, then the value of l could be 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; the highest value that l can have
is 4 since 5-1 = 4.
⮚ The azimuthal quantum number also defines the shape of the orbital. Thus: if l = 0, the
orbital is spherical in shape; if l = 1, the orbital is dumbbell-shaped, or polar (p). The table
below lists the type of sublevel and orbital shape(s) for each value of l.
l Sublevel Orbital Shape

0 s Spherical
1 p Dumbbell-shaped
2 d 4 cloverleaf-shaped;
1 dumbbell-shaped with a ring
3 f (too complex to describe)
⮚ A sublevel in a particular main energy level is defined by its n and l values.
n l Kind of Sublevel
1 0 1s
2 0 2s
2 1 2p
3 0 3s
3 1 3p
3 2 3d
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

⮚ The magnetic quantum number, ml, describes the orientation of the orbital in space and
can have an integral value from –l to +l, including 0. Consider the following examples:
Sublevel l ml
s 0 0
p 1 -1, 0 or +1
d 2 -2, -1, 0 or +1 or +2
⮚ A faster way of determining the number of ml values per sublevel is by using the formula
2l+1. So the p sublevel, which has an l value of 1, has 2(1) + 1 = 3 ml ; it means that the
sublevel has three orbitals of different spatial orientations. While the d sublevel, which
has l = 2, has 2(2) + 1 = 5 ml values; the sublevel therefore has five orbitals of different
spatial orientations. (Note: The ml = 0 value for the s sublevel does not mean that it has no
spatial orientation; rather, it means that it has one (2(0) + 1 = 1) orientation—that which
radiates in all directions, thus its spherical shape.
Spin Quantum Number, ms

⮚ Experiments show that if an electron is placed in a magnetic field, only two orientations
are possible for the electron spin. These two orientations are designated by the two
1 1
+ −
possible values of the spin quantum number, ms: ms = 2 and ms = 2 .
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⮚ Sometimes these two orientations are loosely designated as clockwise and
counterclockwise spins. These two orientations are also sometimes represented by an
arrow pointing up (🡩) and an arrow pointing down ().
⮚ When an electron is assigned to an orbital in an atom, it may take either of the two possible
orientations. If a second electron is assigned to the same orbital, it can only have an
orientation opposite to that of the first. No other electron may be assigned to the same
orbital. This principle that only two electrons of opposite spins can occupy an orbital is
called the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
DID YOU KNOW?
The letters s, p, d and f were taken from the words sharp,

principal, diffuse and fundamental, which are related to the spectra of
the light emitted when certain elements were heated or otherwise
energized. Light is emitted when an energized electron from a high-
energy orbital returns to an orbital of lower energy.
Stopover
Direction: Describe or define the quantum numbers in your own words.
Quantum
Description or definition
numbers
N
ml
ms
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Learning Activity 2
Assign Quantum Numbers

▪ Assign quantum numbers to electrons in an atom
Study
Rules governing the combination of quantum numbers

The quantum numbers n, l and ml, are integers.
1. The principal quantum number, n, cannot be zero(0). Its lowest value is 1.
e.g., n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on
2. The azimuthal quantum number, l, can have a value from 0 to n-1.The highest value it can
have depends on n.
e.g., If n=6, l can be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5.
3. The magnetic quantum number, ml, can be any integer from -l to +l.
e.g., If l = 1, ml can be -1,0 or + 1.
If l = 2, ml, can be -2, -1, 0, +1 or +2.
⮚ The spin quantum number, ms, can only be and ms = . No other values are
allowed.
Imaginary spin directions of two electrons occupying the same

orbital: (A) clockwise and (B) counterclockwise
Stopover
Direction: Answer the following correctly:
1. Give the correct designations of the sublevels from the 4 th to the 7th main energy
levels.
2. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers is/are possible? If the combination
is not possible, explain why not.
a. n = 4, l = 2, ml = 0 c. n = 5, l = 3, ml = -3
d. n = 3, l = 0, ml = +1
b. n = 3, l = 3, ml = +1
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Learning Activity 3
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

▪ Solve problems related to quantum numbers
Direction: The following are problems about quantum numbers. Use what you have read and
learned in the background information to solve the problems correctly.
1. Calculate the maximum wavelength of light capable of removing an electron for a

hydrogen atom from the energy state characterized by n =1, by n = 2.
2. An excited hydrogen atom with an electron in the n = 5 state emits light having a
frequency of 6.90 x 1014 s-1. Determine the principal quantum level for the final state in
this electronic transition.
Reflection
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References for Learners
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2020. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA. Accessed July 8, 2020.

https://www.britannica.co
m/biography/Werner-Heisenberg/Heisenberg-and-the-Nazi-Party.
Padolina, M. D., Antero, E. S., Marie Jessica B. Alumaga, M. B. 2010. Conceptual and
Functional Chemistry. Quezon City, Manila: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Zumdahl, S, S., & Zumdahl, S. A. 2014. Chemistry 9th Edition. USA: Brooks Cole.
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Answer Key
Learning Activity 1
Quantum
Description or definition
numbers
n The principal quantum number (n) has integral values: 1, 2, 3, . . . . The
principal quantum number is related to the size and energy of the orbital.
As n increases, the orbital becomes larger and the electron spends more
time farther from the nucleus. An increase in n also means higher energy,
because the electron is less tightly bound to the nucleus, and the energy is
less negative.
l The angular momentum quantum number (l) has integral values from
0 to n - 1 for each value of n. This quantum number is related to the shape
of atomic orbitals. The value of l, for a particular orbital is commonly
assigned a letter: l = 0 is called s; l = 1 is called p; l = 2 is called d; l = 3 is
called f.
ml The magnetic quantum number (ml) has integral values between l and –
l including zero. The value of ml, is related to the orientation of the orbital
in space relative to the other orbitals in the atom.
ms Magnetic spin (ms) refers to the orientation of electron in an orbital.
Learning Activity 2
1. On the designation of the sublevels from the 4th to the 7th main energy levels:
a. 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
b. 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 5g
c. 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f, 6g, 6h
d. 7s, 7p, 7d, 7f, 7h, 71
2. The sets of quantum numbers that are possible are a and c. On the other hand, b and d are
NOT possible since, if n = 3, the highest possible value of l is 2 and if l = 0, the only
possible value for ml is 0 also.
Learning Activity 3
1. n = 1, 91.20 nm; n = 2, 364.8 nm
2. n = 2
Prepared by:
JUNAR P. SANTIAGO
Alicia National High School
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Name of Learner: ____________Grade Level:
Section: ______Date:

Magnetic Property of the Atom Based on Electronic
Configuration
Background information for Learners
How’s your journey in learning Chemistry this pandemic? I hope you are still motivated
to read and learn your activity sheets. By the way, can you now narrate to others the
development of the modern idea of atom?
Yes! The modern idea of atom started when scientists further investigated the
subatomic particle electron. Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom could only be
in certain orbits, or energy levels, around the nucleus. In his theory, the energy of the electrons
is quantized and can only be lost or gained in discrete amounts. Refinements of the Bohr
theory led to the development of modern theory of atomic structure, which is based on quantum
mechanics or wave mechanics (Redmore, 1979). Erwin Schrodinger has the most acceptable
solutions of wave equations or wave functions or known as the orbitals. The orbital description
of an electron is to regard an electron as a smeared-out distribution or cloud of negative charge,
the density of which varies from place to place. Solutions to Schrodinger’s equation involve
assigning of integers to the different parameters (quantum numbers) necessary to describe
the arrangement of electrons in the atom, (Mendoza & Religioso, 2001).
In the past lesson, you have learned the four quantum numbers: principal (n), azimuthal
(l), magnetic (ml) and spin (ms). The principal quantum number designated by n defines the
total energy of the electron or main energy level. It has values of 1,2,3, and so on. The
azimuthal quantum number designated by l describes the way the electron moves around the
nucleus or the shape of the probability distribution. The values range from 0 to n-1. The
following designations or shapes of orbitals are: s (sharp), p (principal), d (diffused), and f
(fundamental). The magnetic quantum number is designated by ml. It defines the possible
orientations of the electrons in space. The values of ml are from –l through 0 to l.
For example:
l=0 (s type) ml= 0
l=1 (p type) ml= -1,0,+1
l=2 (d type); ml= -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
The spin quantum number is designated by ms. It takes into account the spinning of the
electron around its own axis as it moves about the nucleus. The spin of an electron is either
clockwise or counterclockwise. ms can have two values, +1/2 or -1/2.
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Another way to illustrate the distribution of electrons in the
atom is through its electron configuration. Through the electron
configuration of the atom, you can already determine the four sets of
quantum number that describes the atom. Moreover, through the
electron configuration of the atom, you can also identify the magnetic
property of the atom. Are you excited to know how? Let’s begin.

Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electronic configuration
(STEM_GC11ESIIa-b-57)
Learning Activity 1
Writing Electron Configuration
In this activity, you will be asked to write the electron configuration of the atom. This
activity allows you to visualize the distribution of electrons in the orbitals of the atom.
Understanding the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbital can help you predict some of
its properties. In this activity you will be using your periodic table for you to identify the
atomic number of the atom. Remember atomic number is equal to the number of electrons of
a neutral atom.
Directions:
1. Please patiently read and understand the given text below. You will be needing your
periodic table in this activity especially if you are not sure of the atomic number of the different
elements.
2. You can watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=diCGRJskeDA for you to have
a better understanding on how to write electron configuration.
Read
Electron Configuration
Electron configuration of an atom is a representation of its arrangement and

distribution. Electron configuration is use not only to describe the orbitals of an atom in its
ground state, but also to represent cations or anions by reflecting loss or gains of electrons in
their subsequent orbitals (Nucum, 2017).
There are three rules apply in the distribution of electrons.

1. Aufbau Principle
Aufbau (German: build-up) principle. Electrons will successively occupy the
available orbitals in order of increasing energy.
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However, writing electron configuration in standard notation can be lengthy,
especially when the atomic number of the atom is large. That’s why a shorthand
notation or condensed notation is advisable to use. Here, the sequence of a completely
filled subshells that corresponds to a noble gas configuration is replaced with the
symbol of a noble gas and place in a bracket, (BYJU’S, n.d.)
Below are the standard and condensed notation of sodium.
Standard notation: 11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

1
Condensed notation: 11Na = [Ne] 3s
Exceptions
Though Aufbau rule almost predicts the electron configuration of
elements, there are exceptions among the transition metals and heavier elements. These
exceptions occur because some elements are more stable if the subshells are half-filled
or fully filled. Hence, d-orbitals are more stable with 5 and 10 electrons, while f-orbitals
are more stable with 7 and 14 electrons (Nucum, 2017).
Examples:
Element Expected Observed
4 2
Cr (Z=24) [Ar] 3d 4s [Ar] 3d54s1
Cu (Z=29) [Ar] 3d94s2 [Ar] 3d54s1
2. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity

This rule was proposed by Friedrich Hund, a German physicist. When electrons
enter a sublevel containing more than one orbital, they will spread out over the
available orbitals with their spins in the same direction before they pair up with
opposite spins.
This rule can be illustrated through an orbital diagram. Orbital diagram is a
representation of electron configuration by which each of the separate orbitals
and the spins of the electrons are shown. Below is an example.
Example: Give the electron configuration of 8O and orbital diagram.
1s2 2s2 2p4
Note: s subshell has one orbital while p subshell has 3 orbitals. In the
distribution of electrons in the p subshell with a four electrons, there’s a
need that all of the three orbitals will be filled in first with an electron with
the same spin before pairing up with opposite spins. This is why this rule is
also often called, “the empty bus seat rule.”
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3. Pauli Exclusion Principle
Electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins.
1s2 2s2 2p4
• Each orbital is filled with electrons of opposite spins
Let’s apply the three (3) rules mentioned above. Let’s try to configurate 11Na.
As an apprentice in Chemistry, the mnemonic device below is important. This is for
you to write the correct arrangement or distribution of electrons from lower to higher
energy levels (Aufbau). Hence,
11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1, this will be the correct electronic configuration of
sodium.
To illustrate the two rules, we will be showing the orbital diagram of the
electronic configuration of sodium.
In doing so, you must be reminded on the number of orbitals of the different
subshells: s =1 orbital; p=3 orbitals; d=5 orbitals; f=7 orbitals. You must also
remember that, each orbital can only hold two electrons with different spin (Pauli
Exclusion Principle). Thus,
1s2
2s2
2p6
3s1
Direction:
Show the standard electron configuration of the following:
1. F
2. Ge
3. Al
4. Br
5. Kr
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Learning Activity 2
Electron Configuration Maze
In this activity, you will be trained more on how to write electron configuration of atom.
Writing electron configuration both in standard and condensed notations are involved in this
activity. You will be using your periodic table for the proper identification of atomic number
for each element.
In the activity, you are asked to find the route that will lead you to the finish line. Good
luck!
Procedure
Step 1: Through your periodic table, identify the atomic number of P, the
starting point.
Step 2: After identifying the atomic number, write the electron configuration
(standard or condensed notation).
Step 3: After configurating the given atom, locate its correct electron
configuration written on the different paths in the maze below.
Step 4: Draw an arrow, preferably a colored pen, connecting the symbol to its
electron configuration.
Step 5: The direction of the arrow signals you the next element that you have
to configurate.
Step 6: After identifying the next element, do the same procedure with the other
elements in the maze until you have found the route to the finish line.
Note: Not all of the elements in the maze have correct electron configuration written
on the different paths. Elements that give you the correct electron configuration
provides you the correct path or route to the finish line. Do you think, you can find
the correct route? Let’s see!
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Learning Activity 3
Magnetic Property of Atom
In this activity, you will realize that one property of atom can be revealed in its electron
configuration. In this activity, you will be asked to determine the magnetic property of each
given element through its electron configuration and orbital diagram.
Read
Magnetic property of atom can be determined through its electron configuration.
Magnetism can result from the unpaired electrons of an element. As electrons spin, they
produce a magnetic field. The two most common magnetic properties are paramagnetism and
diamagnetism.
Paramagnetism is the magnetic state of an atom with one or more unpaired electrons.
According to Hund’s rule, each orbital must be filled singly before it can be doubly occupied.
Thus, this results unpaired electrons. The unpaired electrons can orient in either direction
causing the material’s electrons to align with a magnet. This allows paramagnetic atoms
attracted to magnetic fields.
Example:
2
17Cl- 1s 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Based from the orbital diagram, it can be observed that there is an unpaired electron in
3p orbital hence 17Cl is paramagnetic. However, the attraction is weak since there is only one
unpaired electron. The more unpaired electrons, the greater the attraction (Nucum, 2017).
Diamagnetism
On the other hand, diamagnetism is the magnetic state wherein an atom has no
unpaired electrons. According to Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, no two identical atoms can fill
the same quantum state/number at the same time. This causes opposite spins in a given orbital.
As a result, there is no magnetic field, and the material is not attractive. Diamagnetism causes
a weak repulsion (Nucum,2017).
Direction:
Determine the magnetic properties of the following. Show the electron configuration
and orbital diagram of each element.
1. Manganese
Electron configuration:____________________________________________________
Orbital diagram:_________________________________________________________
Property:_________________
2. Calcium
16
Orbital diagram:_________________________________________________________
Property:_________________
3. Argon
Orbital diagram:_________________________________________________________
Property:_________________
4. Arsenic
Orbital diagram:_________________________________________________________
Property:_________________
5. Antimony
Orbital diagram:_________________________________________________________
Property:_________________
Rubrics for Scoring

1. For Activities 1 and 2 every correct answer will be given one point. A total of 5 points for
activity 1 and 7 points for activity 2.
2. For activity 3, 1 point will be given to electron configuration, 1 point for orbital diagram and
1 point for the magnetic property.
Reflection
Directions: Accomplish this part honestly.
1. I learned that
______

Redmore, Fred H. (1979). Historical Development of Theories of Atomic Structure.
Englewood Cliffs N.J: Prentice Hall. Pp 73-74.
Nucum, Zenaida T. (2017). The Aufbau Principle. C & E Publishing Company, pp.194, 196-
200.
17
Electron Configuration: Chemistry Maze. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/chemistry/electron-configuration/
Electron Configuration. BYJU’S. Retrieved from https://www.tes.com/teaching-
resource/electron-configuration-chemistry-maze-11945021
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Writing Electron Configuration

1. F-1s2 2s2 2p5
2. Ge-[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2
3. Al-[Ne] 3s2 3p1
4. Br-[4s2] 4s2 3d10 4p5
5. Kr-[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6
Learning Activity 2: Electron Configuration Maze
Learning Activity 3: Magnetic Property of Atom
1. Manganese
Electron configuration:[Ar] 3d5 4s2
Orbital diagram: [Ar]
Property: Paramagnetic
2.Calcium
Electron configuration: :[Ar] 4s2
Orbital diagram: [Ar]

Property:Diamagnetic
18
3. Argon
Electron configuration:[Ne] 3s2 3p6
Orbital diagram: [Ne]

Property:Diamagnetic
4. Arsenic
Electron configuration:[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3
Orbital diagram:[Ar]
5. Antimony
Electron configuration: :[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3
Orbital diagram: [Kr]
Prepared by:
CRISTA SOUKI D. ASUNCION
Aurora Senior High School
19
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Orbital Diagrams
Have you ever wondered what those load limit signs mean
on a bridge? The sign on the right side says that nothing over five
tons is allowed because it will do damage to the structure. There
are limits to the amount of weight that a bridge can support, there
are limits to the number of people that can safely occupy a room,
and there are limits to what can go into an electron orbital.
Hund’s Rule
The last of the three rules for constructing electron arrangements requires electrons to
be placed one at a time in a set of orbitals within the same sublevel. This minimizes the natural
repulsive forces that one electron has for another. Hund’s rule states that orbitals of equal
energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron
and that each of the single electrons must have the same spin. It is the guide in determining the
most stable distribution. Hund’s rule: The most stable arrangement of electrons in the subshells
is the one with the most number of parallel spins. The figure below shows how a set of
three p orbitals is filled with one, two, three, and four electrons.
20
Figure 1. The 2p sublevel, for the elements boron (Z = 5), carbon (Z = 6), nitrogen (Z = 7), and
oxygen (Z = 8). According to Hund’s rule, as electrons are added to a set of orbitals of equal
energy, one electron enters each orbital before any orbital receives a second electron.
Orbital Filling Diagrams
An orbital filling diagram is the more visual way to represent the arrangement of all the
electrons in a particular atom. In an orbital filling diagram, the individual orbitals are shown
as circles (or squares) and orbitals within a sublevel are drawn next to each other horizontally.
Each sublevel is labelled by its principal energy level and sublevel. Electrons are indicated by
arrows inside the circles. An arrow pointing upwards indicates one spin direction, while a
downward pointing arrow indicates the other direction. The orbital filling diagrams for
hydrogen, helium, and lithium are shown in figure below.
Figure 2. Orbital filling diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and lithium.
Aufbau Principle
According to the Aufbau process, sublevels and orbitals are filled with electrons in
order of increasing energy. Since the s sublevel consists of just one orbital, the second electron
simply pairs up with the first electron as in helium. The next element is lithium and necessitates
the use of the next available sublevel, the 2s.
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to
build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The order of filling
up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to highest energy. Within the same principal
quantum number, the order of energies of the atomic orbitals is s"<"p"<"d"<"f".
For example, for n = 3, the order is E3s < E3p < E 3d.
For multi-electron atoms, the general order of filling up orbitals can be diagrammed as
follows:
21
The filling diagram for carbon is shown in the figure below. There are two
2 p electrons for carbon and each occupies its own 2 p orbital.
Figure 3. Orbital filling diagram for carbon.
Oxygen has four 2 p electrons. After each 2 p orbital has one electron in it, the fourth
electron can be placed in the first 2 p orbital with a spin opposite that of the other electron in
that orbital.
Figure 4. Orbital filling diagram for oxygen.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be tested by simple observation. Measurements of

magnetic properties provide the most direct evidence for specific electronic configurations of
elements. Paramagnetic materials are those that contain unpaired electrons or spins and are
attracted by a magnet. Diamagnetic materials are those with paired spins and are repelled by a
magnet.
Any atom with an odd number of electrons will contain one or more unpaired spins,
and are therefore attracted by a magnet, thus, can be classified as paramagnetic. For an even
number
of electrons like helium, if the two electrons in the 1s orbitals had parallel spins, their net
magnetic fields should strengthen each other. But experimental results showed that the helium
22
atom in its ground state has no net magnetic field. This observation supports the pairing of two
electrons with opposite spins in the 1s orbital. Thus, helium gas is diamagnetic. Lithium, on
the other hand, has an unpaired electron and is paramagnetic. The orbital diagram provides
information on the diamagnetic or paramagnetic characteristic of an element.

Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of atoms
(STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-58)
Learning Activity 1
Complete Me!
Directions:
Fill the electron configurations for the elements given in the table. Use the orbital filling
diagrams to complete the table.
Electron Configurations for Some Selected Elements

Orbital filling Electron
Element 1s 2p 2px 2py 2pz 3s configurations
1s1
He
1s2 2s1
1s22s22p3
1s22s22p5
Ne
1s22s22p63s1
23
Learning Activity 2
Guess What?
Direction:
Identify the element based on the orbital diagram shown.
No. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d Element
(Symbol)
1
2
3
4
5
Learning Activity 3
Show Time!
Direction:
Using arrows show how the following orbitals will fill with electrons.
Element Electron 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Configuration
Mg 1s22s22p63s2
Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5
Si 1s22s22p63s23p2
Ti 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2
Reflection
Direction: Complete this statement:
1. I learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
24
Book:
Lehman, D., & Sackheim, G.. Chemistry for the Health Sciences. Tabujara, G. Jr. Unit
9005 Central Park Condominium 168 D. Jorge Street, Pasay City, Philippines: JFS Publishing
Services.
Journal:
The Commission on Higher Education in Collaboration with the Philippine Normal
University (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 1: Commission
on Higher Education.
Online:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/hunds-rule-and-orbital-filling-
diagrams/
https://www.google.com/search?q=orbital+diagram+of+boron+carbon+nitrogen+and
+oxygen&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjNo9Gt2KTwAhUjK6YK
HUf7BmIQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=cnEh6OzbcjnMeM
https://www.google.com/search?q=orbital+diagram+of+hydrogen+helium+and+lithiu
m&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj6o6ax2KTwAhUJzJQKHRXvByYQ2cCegQIABAA
&oq=orbital+diagram+of+hydrogen+helium+and+lithium&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzo
CCAA6BAgAEB46BggAEAUQHjoECAAQEzoGCAAQHhATOggIABAFEB4QE1
DYxgdYy4YIYKeNCGgAcAB4AYABvgSIAfcpkgEMMS4xOC40LjIuMC4ymAEA
oAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=YEyLYPrzFomY0wSV3pw
Ag&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=ZCwuyh6mwBKVUM
https://www.google.com/search?q=orbital+diagram+of+carbon&tbm=isch&ved=2ah
UKEwiP___z2KTwAhUjNqYKHfH1ASIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=orbital+diagram+of
+carbon&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1Cn6wpYk_cKYLDCmgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJ
gBBqABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=7EyLYI_ZD6PsmAXx6
4eQAg&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=mbOnY1jQGmJ9YM
https://www.google.com/search?q=orbital+diagram+of+oxygen&tbm=isch&ved=2ah
UKEwj10cTS2aTwAhUEKqYKHRpADi0Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=orbital+diagram+o
f+oxygen&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgIIADIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIG
CAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBgg
AEAUQHlD4gA1Y5o0NYNybDWgAcAB4AIABrgKIAYMIkgEHMC41LjAuMZg
BAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=sk2LYPWwH4TUmAW
agLnoAg&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=ObIQxuDvIwnrkM
https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib9/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/826/electron%2
0config%20ws%20answer%20key.pdf
25
Answer Key
26
Prepared by:
NOLI L. BALBIN
San Mariano National High School - Main
27
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Name of Learner: Grade Level:
Section: ______ Date:

The Lewis Structure and Ionic Compounds
Background information for Learners
How are you doing today? Are you not wondering why atoms combine with other
atoms? Why do some atoms tend to give up electrons rather than to accept, or vice versa? Are
you aware of the reason behind this phenomenon? Do not worry, this activity will help you
find the answer.
In the past lesson, you have learned the types of chemical bonding. Today, you will
better understand chemical bonding by drawing the Lewis structure of ions and Lewis structure
of ionic compounds.
Gilbert N. Lewis (1875-1946), an American chemist, devised an illustration to
understand the nature of the chemical bond in both ionic and molecular compounds. He
proposed the Lewis Theory of bonding which explains that noble gases are stable because
they completely fill the outermost shells with eight electrons. This theory emphasized the role
of valence electrons in chemical bonding.
According to Lewis, atoms combine in order to meet its most stable configuration by
obtaining similar configuration with that of the noble gases. Hence, atoms achieve their
maximum stability when they are isoelectronic with the noble gases, that is, when they have
eight electrons in their outermost shell. Noble gases have eight outer electrons except for
Helium which is two.
Are you ready to learn the Lewis structure of ions? Let’s get started!
Draw the Lewis structure of ions (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-70)
Learning Activity 1
Lewis Electron Dot Structure
In this activity, you will gain better understanding on how atoms combine.
Moreover, through your understanding of Lewis Electron Dot Structure, you can predict
which atoms will donate or accept electrons. Lastly, you can predict what type of bond will
be formed.
28
Procedure
1. Please take time to read and understand the text seriously.

2. You can visit this link in the web for additional information:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/lewis-dot-
symbols- and-lewis-structures/
3. You can watch a short video through this link https://www.youtube.com
/watch? v=5o5iryWxnhg and https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=qwqXAlvNxsU
Good luck!
Read
Atoms tend to lose, accept or share its electron to form a compound and to meet
its maximum stability. An atom becomes stable when it is isoelectronic with that of the noble
gases. Noble gases, except for Helium, have eight valence electrons, therefore other atoms
must achieve these eight valence electrons to become stable. In other words, atoms that have
less than eight valence electrons tend to bond with other atoms to complete this desired number
of electrons in the valence shell. This is what you call the octet rule.
However, there are elements that do not obey the octet rule just like in the case
of hydrogen, lithium, boron and aluminum. These elements are exempted to the octet rule.
You will be learning this in the succeeding lesson.
In chemical combinations, only the outer electrons or valence electrons are involved.
To keep track with these valence electrons, the Lewis dot symbol or Lewis Electron Dot
Structure (LEDS) is used. The Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of element and one
dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
How to Write the Lewis Electron Dot Structure?
In writing the LEDS dots are arranged to the right and left, above and below the symbol
with no more than two dots on a side. It does not matter where the dots are positioned around
the symbol. For example, the LEDS of hydrogen atom is illustrated below. It has only one dot
since hydrogen has only one valence electron.
LEDS for hydrogen can also be drawn as follows since the position of dots around the
symbol is not very important as long as there is only a maximum of two dots for every side.
29
In the case of helium, since it has two valence electrons, its LEDS representation would
be like this:
Two electrons are put together on the same side to emphasize that these two electrons
are both in the 1s subshell. This will be the common convention that we will adopt though
there will be exceptions later. Beryllium has two electrons on its 2s subshell so it has the same
LEDS to that of helium that is having two dots around its symbol. Thus,
In the case of boron that has three valence electrons, the third electron will go on another
side of the symbol
Carbon has 4 valence electrons, two valence electrons in the 2s subshell and another 2
valence electrons in the 2p subshell. As usual we will draw two dots on one side to represent
the 2s electrons, the other two 2p electrons will be drawn on different sides. As such, the LEDS
for carbon would be like this:
For oxygen that has 4p electrons, we now have to start doubling up on the dots on the
other side of the symbol. When doubling electrons, make sure that the side has no more than
two electrons.
Fluorine and neon have seven and eight dots, respectively:
30
Example:
1. What is the Lewis Electron Dot Structure for each element?

1. Aluminum 2. Selenium
Solution:
The valence electron configuration for aluminum is 3s2 3p1, so it would have three dots
around the symbol for aluminum, two of them paired to represent the 3s electrons:
The valence electron configuration for selenium is 4s 2 4p4. In the highest numbered
shell, the n=4 shell contains 6 valence electrons. Thus,
Source: Key, Jessie A. Introductory Chemistry: 1st Canadian Edition
Table 1: Some representative element with their Lewis Electron Dot Structure
Element Electron Number of Lewis dot symbol

Configuration valence
electron
Hydrogen 1s1 1
Lithium 1s22s1 1
Li
Magnesium 1s22s22p63s2 2
Boron 1s22s22p1 3
Carbon 1s22s22p2 4
Oxygen 1s22s22p4 6
Directions: Using the periodic table, fill in the symbol of the representative elements below.
Around the symbol put the desired number of dots to illustrate their Lewis Electron Dot
Structure. The first one is done for you.
31
Guide Questions:
1. How many dots is/are present in family 1A? 2A? 3A? …8A? How do you relate the
number of dots in the LEDS with that of the valence electron of the element?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Why would chemists need to know the Lewis dot structure for elements?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
32
Learning Activity 2
Crossword Puzzle
Directions: Fill-in the crossword-puzzle below by identifying the correct answer that is
being described for each item. Be sure to leave one box for items that require two-word
answers.
33
Learning Activity 3
Lewis Dot Skittles Lab
In this activity, you will gain more comprehensive understanding about the Lewis Dot
Structure and how and why atoms combine with another atom.
Procedure
1. Read and understand the given text below.

2. You may also read Lewis Electric Dot Structure and ionic bonding if you have
Chemistry book or
3. You may access the link below if you have internet at home:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/College_of_Marin/CHEM_114%3A_Introduct
ory_Chemistry/10%3A_Chemical_Bonding/10.03%3A_Lewis_Structures_of_Ioni
c_Compounds-_Electrons_Transferred or
3. You may watch a video through the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2urppjeSfgA for better understanding about
the Lewis structure of ionic compounds.
Read
Lewis Structure of Ionic Compounds
Sodium chloride or NaCl, also known as table salt, is an ionic compound. The ions in
the compound are one sodium and one chlorine.
Sodium has one valence electron while chlorine has seven valence electrons. Because
these atoms have less than eight electrons in their valence shell, they tend to bond with each
other. In doing so, sodium chloride will then be formed.
In an ionic compound such as NaCl, a transfer of electrons from one atom to another
takes place to form an ionic bond. The formation of an ionic bond involves atoms with different
electronegativity values. The atom with a lower electronegativity value, which in this case is
sodium, transfers its electron to the atom with a higher electronegativity value, which in this
case is chlorine. Metals have lower electronegativity values than non-metals. Once the valence
electron of sodium transfers to chlorine, chlorine completes a total of eight valence electrons
in its outermost shell. This makes the atom stable, and gives it an electron configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p6 - the same electron configuration as the noble gas Argon. On the other hand,
sodium loses one valence electron. This makes the atom stable, and gives it an electron
configuration of 1s22s22p6 – the same electron configuration as the noble gas Neon.
Sodium loses one electron and as a result, has a net positive charge. It now has a charge
of positive one (+1). Chlorine on the other hand, gains one electron and its charge becomes
negative one (-1). Sodium becomes sodium ion, Na +1 and chlorine becomes chloride ion, Cl1.
34
Ions are species which carry a positive or negative charge. A positively charged atom or a
positive ion is called cation while a negatively charged atom or a negative ion is called anion.
Consider sodium oxide, an ionic compound with two sodium atoms and one oxygen
atom. Sodium has one valence electron; oxygen has six. Since sodium has lower
electronegativity value, it will transfer its valence electrons to oxygen. Considering that two
electrons are needed to fill oxygen’s outermost shell, two electrons from two sodium atoms
will be transferred.
In sodium oxide, oxygen gained two electrons from two sodium atoms with one valence
electron each. The two sodium atoms each transferred one valence electron to complete the
needed eight electrons in the outermost shell of oxygen and become stable. Oxygen, which
has an electronic configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p4, will now have an electron configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p6 after the transfer of two electrons. Oxygen is now isoelectronic with that of
argon. Oxygen gains two electrons and now has a charge of -2. On the other hand, the sodium
atoms each lose one valence electron from their outermost shells. Sodium, which has an
electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1, will now have an electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2
2p6. Sodium is now isoelectronic with that of neon and has now a charge of +1.
Lewis Structure of Ions
Ionic compounds form ions with positive charges (cations) and ions with negative
charges (anions) and this charge makes a difference in their Lewis structures. Cations (usually
metals) tend to lose or donate electrons, thus becoming positively-charged ions. Anions, on
the other hand, accept electrons from cations, thus, becoming negatively-charged ions. In the
Lewis structure of ions, the element symbol is placed in brackets with a superscript located at
the upper right part outside the brackets, indicating the charge. As for the dots surrounding the
element symbol, cations will lose the number of electrons it donated, while anions will gain
the number of electrons given by cations.
Example 1: K2S
The two potassium (K) atoms will donate one each electron to sulfur (S) having six
valence electrons to complete the octet rule. Thus, the Lewis structure of each ion will be
35
Each potassium atom has now a net charge of 1+ indicating that they donated one
electron, while sulfur has a net charge of 2- indicating that it accepts two electrons.
Example 2: CaCl2
A calcium atom has two valence electrons that can be donated to each of the two
chlorine atoms; each chlorine atom needs only one valence electron to complete the octet rule.
After bonding, the Lewis structure of the formed ions will look like this:
Each Cl atom now has a charge of 1- because of accepting one electron from Ca, and
has an added dot to represent the gained electron. On the other hand, Ca now has a charge of
2+ because of losing two electrons.
Activity Proper
Lewis structures depict the bonds between atoms of a compound as well as any unbonded
electron pairs. You can draw the Lewis structure for any covalent or ionic compound. In this
activity, you will be dealing only on ionic compounds. Take note that in doing the Lewis
structure only the valence electrons are involved.
Ionic Bonding with Lewis Dot Structures

Step 1: Write the atomic symbol for the atoms involved.
Step 2: Pick a separate color of skittle candy for each atom involved.
You may use colored pencils instead.
Step 3: Lay out the electrons to be donated and show where they go
with an arrow.
Step 4: Show the final ions as positive and negative.
Example:
[Na] +
36
Using colored pencils, draw the Lewis Dot Structures of the following ionic
compound. Please follow the steps mentioned above. NaCl is done for you.
1. KBr 3. Al2O3
2. CaF2 4. Na2O
37
Rubrics for Scoring
1. The rubric below will be used in grading activity 1 and 3.
2 1 0
The structure drawn The structure drawn has All inappropriate
is complete and minor omission or errors
appropriate
2. Every correct answer in the cross-word puzzle will be given one (1) point.
3. The adapted rubric below will be used in scoring the guide question.
Communication, Vocabulary Structure Content Level of
comprehensibility Requirements
4 Very effectively Broad No Appropriate Exceeds all

communicated, vocabulary, significant to task, level of
appropriate extensive and errors, many expectations;
effective use control of supporting creates with
of studied grammatical details; language
words structures exceeds all
studied requirements
3 Effectively Generally Generally Sufficient Meets all level

communicated, accurate with accurate; for task, of expectations
appropriate some errors; few adequate
adequate use significant supporting
of studied errors in detail; meets
words areas studied all
requirements
2 Some ideas are Errors in Several Limited, Meets most

clear, some are vocabulary significant somewhat level of
vague errors in incomplete; expectations
areas studied meets most
requirements
1 Unclear Inadequate, Constant Lacking, Minimally

repetitive or pattern of incomplete; meets some
incorrect error in meets few level of
vocabulary areas studied requirements expectations;
overly simple
0 No written sample,
no effort
38
Reflection
1. I learned that
____________
Mendoza, Estrella E., Religioso, Teresita F., Deauna, Melecio C. (2001). Lewis
Electron Dot Structure. Chemistry. SIBS Publishing Company, pp. 85-86.
Nucum, Zenaida T. (2017). The Lewis Structure. General Chemistry 1. C & E
Publishing, Inc. pp.224-230.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General Chemistry 1. pp.208-220
Chemistry by Rice University. Lewis Symbols and structures. Retrieved from URL
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/7-3-lewis-symbols-and-structures/
Candace, Kizer (n.d) Lewis Dot Structure Mini Lesson and Worksheet. Retrieved from URL
https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Lewis-Dot-Structure-Mini-Lesson-
and-Worksheet-327264
Lewis Dot Skittles Lab. Retrieved from URL
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55761eabe4b09a6eed974521/t/589c0ad32994ca
fc6ae7ea87/1486621396065/Lewis+Dot+Skittles+Lab-+New+version%29.pdf
Key, Jessie (n.d). Lewis Electron Dot Diagram. Introductory Chemistry, 1st Canadian Edition.
Retrieved from URL https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/lewis-
electron-dot-diagrams-2/
39
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Lewis Electron Dot Structure
3. How many dots is/are present in family 1A? 2A? 3A? …8A? How do you relate the number of
dots in the LEDS with that of the valence electron of the element?
*1A has one dot, 2A-2 dots, 3A -3 dots, 4A- 4 dots, 5A-5 dots, 6A-6 dots, 7A- 7dots, 8A-8 dots.
The number of dots in the LEDS is the same as the valence electrons of elements.
(Answers may vary)
3. Why would chemists need to know the Lewis dot structure for elements?
* LEDS are a key concept in understanding how atoms bond. Knowing the Lewis
structures allows you to know how it will bond and how many bonds it will form. This
knowledge eventually can allow you to understand the chemical properties of a certain element.
(Answers may vary)
Learning Activity 2: Crossword Puzzle
40
Learning Activity 3: Lewis Dot Skittles Lab
1.
Note: These are the correct

structures for activity 3. Please
see to it that the students used
different colors for the different
elements.
2.
3.
4.
Prepared by:
41
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: ________Date:

Covalent Compounds
Do you know now how to draw the Lewis structure of atoms? Isn’t it easy? Well, our
next lesson requires you more to practice drawing the Lewis structure of atoms and compounds,
but this time you will be dealing with covalent compounds.
Are you familiar with the term covalent bond? Yes, you have learned that when you
were in Grade 7. Covalent bond is the bond which exists when there is sharing of
electrons.
In the past lesson, you have learned that compounds can be formed when an atom loses,
accepts or shares electrons. You have learned that ionic compounds are formed when one atom
donates electrons to another atom. But what if the two combining atoms could not afford to
lose even a single of their electrons? What if both of them need an additional electron in order
to become stable?
Most atoms meet maximum stability when they are isoelectronic with the noble gases
or when they have eight valence electrons. However, there are some atoms that do not satisfy
the octet rule. Do not worry you will come to learn them on the succeeding lessons. This
lesson just gives you a comprehensive understanding about what covalent compounds are.
Covalent compounds are formed when the two combining elements are both
nonmetals. Since the two elements both need electrons, they tend to share a pair (or more) of
electrons to satisfy the octet rule and become stable. Can you illustrate the formation of
covalent bonds/compounds through Lewis structure?
Let’s start learning it!
Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent compounds

(STEM_GC11CBIId-g-76)
Learning Activity 1
Formation of Covalent Bond
In this activity, you will gain further understanding on how covalent bonds/
compounds are formed. Through this activity, you can visualize the sharing of electrons
between two atoms. You will be enlightened how covalent compounds attain stability during
chemical combinations.
42
Directions:
1. Please patiently read and understand the given text below. You will be needing
your periodic table in this activity especially if you are not sure of the valence electron of the
different elements.
2. You can visit https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/chem1114 langara college/
chapter/covalent-bonds/ for additional information and
4. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIuXl7o6mAw to understand Lewis structure of

covalent compounds better.
Read
Covalent Bond
Another way by which atoms acquire a stable configuration is by sharing electrons in
the valence shells. The bond formed by sharing electrons is called covalent bond. Normally,
H and elements in groups 4A, 5A, 6A and 7A form covalent bonds.
An example of covalent bond is the sharing of electrons in H2, as shown in the
illustration below.
The two electrons are shared equally between the two atoms depicted by the single line,
H - H. Covalent bonds are represented by dashes between the atoms. A single dash represents
an electron pair being shared. Two pairs of electrons shared are represented by two dashes,
while three dashes mean three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms. The electrons are
attracted to the nuclei of both the atom keeping the atoms together to form a molecule.
Below is the Lewis structure showing the formation of covalent bonds for the F 2
molecule. In the Lewis structure, shared electrons that form a bond are represented by a line
or a pair of dots; lone pairs are represented by dots above the atom, those are the valence
electron pairs that are not included in the bonding.
43
In the Lewis structure of the F2 molecule below, how many electrons are around in each
fluorine atom? Yes, there are eight electrons fulfilling the octet rule. By sharing the electrons
each fluorine atom fulfils the octet rule.
Note: The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period (2s and 2p subshells
can hold eight electrons). For hydrogen, only two electrons are needed to fulfil the noble
gas configuration.
How many bond pairs are there in F2 molecules? You are correct if your answer is one.
Can you identify how many lone pairs are there in F2 molecules? There are 6 lone pairs in the
F2 molecule.
44
Learning Activity 2
Types of Covalent Bonds
In this activity, you will be asked to show the Lewis structure of the given compounds.
You will be learning that covalent compounds may form single, double or triple bonds to satisfy
the octet rule.
Procedure
Step 1: Write the atomic symbol for the atoms involved.

Step 2: Lay out the electrons associated with each atom. Join them up and show
where they are shared. Covalent bonds are formed by sharing
of electrons. The first one is done for you.
Covalent Bond with Lewis Dot Structure

Molecule/Covalent Lewis Structure Type of Bond
Compound
F2
F+F Single bond
H2
H+H
O2
O+O
N2
N+N
H2S
H+S
A single bond (-) is formed when one pair of electrons are shared between two atoms.
Double bond (=) is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. While
triple bond (≡) is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. In
covalent bond, the more shared electron the stronger the bond is. Thus, triple bond > double
45
bond> single bond. In this case, molecules that are held by triple bonds are more stable and
they require more energy to break their bonds.
Learning Activity 3
Common Covalent Compounds and Their Uses
Covalent compounds are formed through sharing of electrons between nonmetals. In

our daily living, we are using a lot of covalent compounds. The world is impossible to live in
without these enormous numbers of covalent compounds we are using in our everyday life.
Can you name some of them?
In this activity, you will be asked to name some common covalent compounds and be
able to identify their uses.
Procedure
Look at least two examples of covalent compounds that can be found in nature or used
in everyday life. You must include the following information:
A. Brief information about the use of covalent compound;
B. Chemical formula and chemical name of the covalent compound;
C. Structure of the compound
You can search over the internet or lift your answer from any Chemistry book available
in your home. Be able to cite your sources. You may also ask the assistance of your elder
sibling or interview a person who is knowledgeable in this topic.
Chemical name Chemical Uses

of the covalent formula
compound
1.Nitrogen NH3 -it is an ingredient in fertilizers, used in rocket fuel,
trihydride or drinking water purifier, and industrial food processing
commonly additive.
known as -can eliminate stain and tarnish and can also be used
ammonia against hard-to-remove soap buildup in tubs, sinks and
bathroom tiles.
-can also remove tarnish in silver, brass and gold
jewelry.
-used for alkaline flowers to make them grow faster
and stronger.
Source: https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/ammonia/
2.
46
3.
4.
Source: Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General Chemistry 1
Rubrics for Scoring
1. For Activities 1 and 2, use the rubric below for scoring the activity:
2 1 0
The drawn structure is complete The drawn structure has All inappropriate
and appropriate minor omission or errors
2. For activity 3, consider the adapted rubric below for scoring the activity.
Level of Achievement General Approach Comprehension

Exemplary (5 points) Addresses the question Demonstrates accurate and
States relevant, justifiable complete understanding of
answer. the question.
Uses acceptable style and Uses 2 or more ideas,
grammar. (No error) examples, or arguments that
support the answer
Adequate (4points) Does not address the Uses only one idea to
question explicitly. support the answer.
States a relevant and Less thorough than above.
justifiable answer.
Uses acceptable style and
grammar. (One error)
Needs Does not address the Does not demonstrate
Improvement(3points) question. accurate understanding of
States no relevant answer. the question.
47
IS not clearly or logically Does not provide evidence
organized. to support their answer to
Fails to use acceptable style the question.
and grammar. (2 or more
errors)
No Answer (0 point)
Author: Diane Ebert-May
Reflection
Direction: Accomplish this part honestly.

1. I learned that
______
Structure for Covalent compounds. Chemistry. SIBS Publishing Company, pp. 91 -
93.
Publishing, Inc. pp.227-228
48
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Formation of Covalent Bonds
1. H2O = 2 bond pairs
2. CH4 = 4 bond pairs
3. NH3 = 3 bond pairs
4. CO2 = 4 bond pairs or 2 double bonds
Learning Activity 2: Types of Bond
Molecule/Covalent Lewis Structure Type of

compound Bond
F2
F+F Single bond
H2 Single bond
H+H
O2 Double
O+O bond
49
N2 Triple bond
N+N
H2S Single bond

H+ S
Learning Activity 3: Common Covalent Compounds and Their Uses
Chemical Chemical Uses

name of the formula
covalent
compound
1.Nitrogen NH3 -it is an ingredient in fertilizers, used in rocket fuel,
trihydride or drinking water purifier, and industrial food processing
commonly additive.
known as -can eliminate stain and tarnish and can also be used
ammonia against hard-to-remove soap buildup in tubs, sinks and
bathroom tiles.
-can also remove tarnish in silver, brass and gold
jewelry.
-used for alkaline flowers to make them grow faster and
stronger.
Source: https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/ammonia/
2.Dihydrogen H2O -for cooking, bathing and washing dishes.
monoxide or -use for cooling in steel production.
commonly -use to produce electricity
known as water -regulates our body temperature
-needs to flush toxins/wastes in the body
Source: https://www.english-
online.at/geography/water/water-cycle-treatment.htm
3.Acetic acid or HC2H3O2 -helps in the pickling of food items and also found in
Vinegar condiments like ketchup, mayonnaise and mustard.
-use for cleaning, doing our laundry and for cooking.
-helps in unclogging various household items.
-helps in reducing high absorption of blood sugar
50
-decreases blood pressure and lowers blood pressure
-use as an antiseptic to fight enterococci, staphylococci,
pseudomonas and more
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/acids-
bases-salts/acetic-acid-definition-and-uses-of-acetic-
acid/
4.Sucrose or C12H22O11
table sugar -one of the most component of softdrinks and other
beverages
-used in many pharmaceutical products
-serves as a chemical intermediate for many emulsifying
agents and detergents
-serves as food thickening agent and food stabilizer
-widely used as food preservatives, used in baking
process
-serves as an antioxidant
Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/sucrose/
5. Isopropyl C3H8O -used as an industrial solvent and as rubbing alcohol

alcohol or applied to the skin
rubbing Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/isopropyl-
alcohol alcohol
(Answers may vary)
Prepared by:
51
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: ______ Date:

Writing Formula of Covalent Compounds
How are you today? I hope you’re doing great! I am sure drawing the Lewis structure
of compounds is now very easy for you. You just bear in mind that only the valence electrons
are considered when drawing the LEDS of an atom. Moreover, most atoms meet stability when
they are isoelectronic with the noble gases. Lastly, always remember the octet rule in doing so
though there are some atoms that are exempted to the rule.
Covalent compounds are formed by two nonmetals or metalloids plus non-metals. This
type of compound involves the sharing of electrons. There are many covalent compounds we
are dealing with everyday. Can you name some? Water. Yes, water is a covalent compound
that is very important for our daily survival. Important gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen, to name some, are molecules that are formed through covalent bonds. Ammonia
which is vital for the making of fertilizers, sulfur hexafluoride- an excellent dielectric gas for
high voltage applications, acetylene which is used for welding and cuttings are just few
covalent compounds that are significant in the field of industries. But do you know the
chemical formula of these covalent compounds? Perhaps, you have encountered them but you
are not just aware of it.
If you are a bit hard up or confused in writing the formula of covalent compounds, do
not worry, this activity will help you.

Write the formula of molecular compounds by the non-metallic elements of the
representative block (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-77)
Learning Activity 1
Naming Covalent Compounds
In this activity, you will learn how to name covalent compounds. As a neophyte in the
field of Chemistry, you need to remember some rules to name them correctly.
52
Procedure
1. Please read and understand the given text below.

2. If you need guidance on what to do and clarification of vague concepts, you can
consult your teacher or you can seek assistance from your guardian or parent.
3. You can visit https://www.grandinetti.org/naming-covalent-compounds for
additional information; and
3. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwwNvNwGHjk to understand
Lewis structure of covalent compounds better. Enjoy learning!
Read
Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Naming covalent compounds containing only two elements is similar to naming ionic
compounds except that prefixes are used. When a pair of elements form more than one type
of covalent compound, Greek prefixes are used to indicate how many of each element are in a
compound.
The following are rules in naming binary covalent compounds.

1. The prefix mono is never used for naming the first element of a compound.
2. The first element is name as is while the second element is named as if it were an anion,
i.e. by adding the suffix –ide to the name of the element.
3. The final “o” or “a” of a prefix is dropped when the element begins with a vowel.
For example, for CO the name will be carbon monoxide, and the final “o” for mono is
dropped. Remember it’s only the final “o” or “a”. So the name of ClO 2 will be chlorine dioxide, and
no vowels are dropped. How do you know which element goes first? The element that comes first in
the list will go first.
Greek Prefixes Used in Naming Covalent Compounds
Greek Prefix Number Greek Prefix Number
Mono- 1 Hexa- 6
Di- 2 Hepta- 7
Tri- 3 Octa- 8
Tetra- 4 Nona- 9
Penta- 5 Deca- 10
53
Examples of covalent compounds with their names and formulas
Compound Chemical Name
NO Nitrogen monoxide
N2O Dinitrogen monoxide
N2O3 Dinitrogen pentoxide
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
Let’s Do It!
Covalent compound is a substance formed by two or more non-metals. Covalent

compounds can be represented by their chemical formulas. Greek prefixes are used in naming
covalent compounds and these are also the basis in writing their chemical formula.
We use a lot of covalent compounds in our daily life. Life would be impossible without
these compounds.
Name the following covalent compounds listed in the table below.
Chemical Formula Chemical Names
1. H2O
2. NH3
3. CO2
4. SF6
5. H2S
Learning Activity 2
Writing Formula of Covalent Compounds
In this activity, you will be learning how to write formulas of covalent
compounds. Each substance has different chemical compositions thus each of them has their
own chemical formula.
Procedure
1. Please read and understand the given text below.
2. If you have internet at home you may visit https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman

University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/04%3A_Valence_E
lectrons_and_Bonding/4.08%3A_Covalent_Bonding_and_Formula_Writingfor additional
information and
http://www.sartep.com/chem/tutorials/tut.cfm?tutorial=How%20to%20Write%20Covalent%2
0Compound%20Formulas&class=all
54
3. You may also watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwwNvNwGHjk to understand
Lewis structure of covalent compounds better; or
4. You may read about naming covalent compounds in any Chemistry book you have at home.
Read
Formulas of Covalent Compounds
How did you determine the formula of covalent compounds using the Lewis electron
dot structure? It is so easy, right? You just list down the symbol of the elements involved
then count the number of atoms of each element. The number of atoms is indicated by
subscript in the formula.
For instance, the Lewis structure of the compound at the right

involves two elements P and Cl. To determine the formula just write
down P and Cl. Next, is to identify the correct subscript for the two
elements. Since there is only one atom of Phosphorus, the subscript is
one while a subscript of 5 for chlorine, therefore, the formula of the compound is P 1Cl5.
However, in the rule of writing chemical formula, when the subscript of the atom is one, you
need not to write it. That is why the most acceptable formula of the compound is PCl 5.
But how do we write the chemical formula of covalent compounds when their chemical
names are given? It is so simple, because what is stated in their chemical names are already
their subscript in the formula. You just need to familiarize yourselves with the different number
Greek prefixes.
For example, in the compound carbon monoxide, simply write the symbol of carbon
(C) and oxygen (O) with no subscript at all since a subscript of one is not written. While for
carbon dioxide, the chemical formula would be CO2. There will be no subscript for carbon
because that is understood one. A subscript of two for oxygen which is indicated by the Greek
prefix di-. If no prefix is used before the first element’s name there is only one of that element.
The second element uses all prefixes.
Let’s take more examples:
SO2 = sulfur dioxide NO= Nitrogen monoxide
CCl4= Carbon tetrachloride PCl5= Phosphorus pentachloride
Let’s Do It!
Give the chemical formula of the following covalent compounds.

Chemical Name Chemical Formula
1. Nitrogen dioxide
2. Dinitrogen trioxide
3. Carbon disulfide
4. Sulfur trioxide
55
5. Diphosphorous pentoxide
6. Dinitrogen heptoxide
7. Trihydrogen monophosphide
8. Carbon trioxide
9. Hydrogen monochloride
10. Carbon tetrahydride
11. Phosphorous pentachloride
12. Dihydrogen dioxide
13. Dinitrogen tetroxide
14.Tricarbon octahydride
15. Phosphorous trichloride
Summary
What is Chemical Formula?
We encounter chemical substances and compounds everyday. The substances under

the kitchen sink that we use to clean our houses as well as those that are staples in our medicine
cabinets are made up of chemical substances. These chemicals are made up of a fixed
proportion of atoms and these atoms are arranged in a certain way. In order to figure out what
these proportions are and how they are arranged for any given substance, we need to know the
chemical formula of the substance or compound.
A compound is a pure substance made up of a fixed proportion of a two or more
elements. A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a compound.
It contains the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the compound as well as how
many there are for each element in the form of subscripts.
Each chemical substance has a specific chemical composition hence each substance has
its own chemical formula.
Source: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-chemical-formula-definition-types-
examples.html
Reflection
Direction: Complete this statement
I learned that ____________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
I enjoyed most on _________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
I want to learn more on____________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
56
Grandinetti, Philip (2019). Naming Covalent Compounds. General Chemistry Tutorials.
Retrieved from URL https://www.grandinetti.org/naming-covalent-compounds
Structure for Covalent compounds. Chemistry. SIBS Publishing Company, p. 124.
Study.com (2021). What is a chemical formula? Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-chemical-formula-definition-type-
examples.html
https://www.genevaschools.org/Downloads/naming%20covalent%20compounds.pdf
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Naming Covalent Compounds

1. Dihydrogen monoxide
2. Nitrogen trihydride
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Sulfur hexafluoride
5. Dihydrogen sulfide
Learning Activity 2: Writing formula of covalent compounds

1. NO2 6. N2O7 11. PCl5
2. N2O3 7. H3P 12. H2O2
3. CS2 8. CO3 13. N2O4
4. SO3 9. HCl 14. C3H8
5. P2O5 10. CH4 15. PCl3
Prepared by:
57
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Name of Learner: ______ Grade Level: ______
Section: ______ Date: ______

Lewis Structure of Molecular Covalent Compounds
In the previous topic, you have learned how to draw the Lewis structure of covalent
compounds using the octet rule as a guide. Also, you have learned the formation of covalent
bonds and the covalent compounds. Where, covalent compounds are formed by two nonmetals
or metalloids plus non-metals. This type of compound involves the sharing of electrons. This
time, you will be learning more about the Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds.
In this lesson, you will be encountering elements that will not satisfy the octet rule. As the
adage says, in every rule there is always an exception.
In doing the Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds, there are some tips that
will guide you in arriving at the correct structure of the compound. Are you excited to know
them?
Let’s get started!

Draw Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-78)
Learning Activity 1
Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds
In this activity you will gain a more comprehensive understanding on the formation of
covalent bonds or compounds. Through this activity, you can visualize the structure of atoms
and how atoms attain stability by meeting the octet rule. You will also learn that there are
atoms which are exempted in the octet rule.
Directions:
1. Please read and understand the given text below. Follow the steps carefully to come
up with the correct structure of covalent compounds. You will be needing your
periodic table especially if you are not sure of the valence electron of the different
elements.
58
2. If you need guidance and clarification about the concepts, you can consult your
teacher or you can seek assistance from your guardian or parent.
3. Document your progress using a camera and organize them creatively for final
presentation.
4. You can visit https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/chem1114 langara college/
chapter/covalent-bonds/ for additional information and
5. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIuXl7o6mAw to understand
Lewis structure of covalent compounds better. Enjoy learning!
Read
Lewis Structure for Covalent Compounds
The following are useful tips in writing the Lewis structure for covalent compounds:
1. Add up the total valence electrons.
2. The atom with the highest covalency number (number of covalent bonds
formed by the atom) is considered as the central atom.
3. Bond the other atoms to the central atom by a single bond. Take into account
the number of electrons used in bonding.
4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons to the attached atoms first and
then to the central atom last.
5. Check if the octet rule is followed by each atom.
6. If there is a deficiency in the octet rule, form a multiple bond. (Mendoza,
Estrella E. et.al, 2001)
Let’s take nitrogen trichloride, NCl3, as an example, following the given tips above.
Note: Valence electron is multiplied by
1. Find the total valence electron of NCl3 the number of atoms indicated in the
formula. Subscript in the formula tells
you the number of atoms for each
Valence electron of N = 5 v.e. x 1atom = 5 element.
Valence electron of Cl = 7 v.e. x 3 atoms = 21
--------------------------------------------------------
Total valence electron = 26 valence electrons
*Reminder: Only 26 electrons will be used for the bonding. In doing the Lewis structure,
always consider the octet rule.
2. Determine the central atom. In determining the central atom, you have to identify
which element has the highest covalency number.
Covalency number of N = 3
Covalency number of Cl = 1
Since nitrogen has five valence electrons it needs three more electrons to satisfy the octet
rule, thus nitrogen can form three covalent bonds thus, 3 covalency number. Chlorine has
59
seven valence electrons and it needs one more electron to satisfy the octet rule. Chlorine,
therefore can form one covalent bond, hence,1 covalency number.
Nitrogen then is the central atom since it has higher covalency number than chlorine.
3. Bond the other atoms to the central atom by a single bond. Take into account the number
of electrons used in bonding.
If you count all the valence electrons used in the bonding, it has a total of 26 valence
electrons. All of the elements satisfy the octet rule thus, the above structure is the most
acceptable structure for NCl3.
Let’s take HCN as another example.
1. Find the total valence electron of HCN

H = 1 v.e.x 1atom = 1
C = 4 v.e x 1 atom= 4
N = 5 v.e. x 1atom = 5
---------------------------------------------
2. Identify the central atom

Covalency number of H = 1
Covalency number of C = 4
Covalency number of N = 3
Based on the information above, since carbon has the highest covalency number, it is
therefore the central atom in the structure.
3. Bond the other atoms to the central atom by a single bond. Take into account the
number of electrons used in bonding.
Using a single bond both carbon and nitrogen are deficient in electrons, in this case
multiple bonds are used. In doing so, the above structure was obtained. HCN carries a triple
bond. All of the atoms involved in the bonding satisfy a noble gas configuration. Both carbon
and nitrogen meet the octet rule. However, hydrogen is an exemption where it is only a duet.
In the case of hydrogen, it is said to be stable since it now has a similar configuration with that
of helium which is a noble gas.
Last example is CN-, cyanide ion, the total valence electron would be 10. Considering the
same steps, we have the following:
60
1. Find the total valence electron
Carbon = 4 valence electrons x 1 atom = 4
Nitrogen = 5 valence electrons x 1 atom = 5
(negative charge) = 1 = 1
--------------------------------------------------------------
*Note: In doing Lewis structure of polyatomic ion, in the case of anion (negative ions)
add the number of negative charge to the valence electron of the other atoms, since the atom
accepted additional electron. However, in the case of cation (positive ion) subtract the positive
charge from the sum of the valence electrons of the two combining atoms. Since positive
charge indicates a loss of electron. That the atom donates electrons to another atom.
2. Central atom:
C = 4 covalency number N= 3 covalency number
Therefore, carbon is the central atom. Using a single bond both carbon and
nitrogen will have deficiency in electrons thus a multiple bond is used. The structure
below is the most acceptable structure of cyanide ions. Both of them satisfied the octet
rule.
Note: When writing the formula of ions, do not forget to place the entire
structure in brackets. The charge is written as superscript on the upper right, outside
the bracket.
Lewis Structure and Resonance
Write the Lewis structure of ozone, O3.
⮚ The total valence electron is 6 v.e. x 3 atoms = 18 valence electrons.
⮚ The Lewis structure is
⮚ The Lewis structure can also be written as
In ozone, there are two contributing structures. A situation where there are more than
one probable structures for a species is known as resonance. The actual molecule is a
resonance hybrid of the different structures. A double-headed arrow ( ) is written between
the contributing structures to indicate resonance. (Teaching Guide in Senior High School:
General Chemistry 1)
61
Draw the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO 3-2. The correct resonance
structures are:
Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The octet rule works best for second period elements. Hence, there are many
exceptions. They fall into three categories:
A. Incomplete octet
B. Odd number of electrons
C. Expanded octet
Incomplete octet
An example of a molecule with incomplete octet is BeH 2, beryllium hydride. Its
structure is H-Be-H.
Boron and aluminum also form molecules with incomplete octets.
Molecules with Odd Number of Electrons

Examples are nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO 2. Their Lewis structure are
shown below. Because they have an odd number of electrons, the octet rule cannot be
followed.
The odd numbered molecules are sometimes called radicals. They are generally highly
reactive.
Expanded Octets
Atoms belonging to the second period cannot have more than eight valence electrons
around the central atom because they only have 2s and 2p subshells. This is different for atoms
of elements in the third period and beyond. These elements have 3D orbitals that can
participate in the bonding. Hence, they can have more than eight valence electrons around the
central atom. An example is SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, with the Lewis structure shown below.
SF6 has 12 electrons around the central atom.
62
Another example is phosphorus pentachloride, PF5, where the central atom has 10
electrons around it. (Teaching Guide in Senior High School: General Chemistry 1)
Practice
Write the Lewis structure of the following molecules. Follow the steps in coming up
the correct structure: e.g finding the total valence, central atom, etc.
1. C2H4
2. SO2
3. C2H2
4. CCl4
Learning Activity 2
Lewis Electron Dot Model
This activity requires you more rigid practice in drawing Lewis structures of covalent
compounds. To visualize the formation of covalent compounds, let’s use bingo chips made
up of cut colored papers. You will be using different colored papers to represent different
elements. You must cut them out and slide them together to see how the non-metal atoms
share electrons to obtain a complete set of electrons in the outermost shell.
In constructing the Lewis structure, be sure to apply the octet rule and be reminded of
the elements that are exempted to the octet rule.
Background
To write the Lewis structure for a molecule, a simple process may be followed.
Determine the number of valence electrons supplied by each atom involved. Visualize each
atom donating its valence electron to a large electron “pool.” When the atoms come together
to form a molecule, picture the electrons from the “pool” being distributed to the molecule so
that each atom in the molecule attains a noble gas configuration. Some electrons may need to
be shared to form bonds while others may be left unshared.
In General
1. Hydrogen atoms tend to be surrounded by two valence electrons, to attain the stability
of He.
2. All other non-metal atoms want to be surrounded by eight valence electrons, and thus
should follow the “octet rule”. Note: There are many exceptions to the octet rule.
Step-by-step Procedure
63
1. Count the total number of electrons available. To do this, determine the number of
valence electrons supplied by each atom in the compound and add them up.
Remember that:
Group 1A = 1 valence electron Group 5A = 5 valence electron
Group 2A = 2 valence electron Group 6A = 6 valence electron
Group 3A = 3 valence electron Group 7A =7 valence electron
Group 4A = 4 valence electron Group 8A =8 valence electron except He
*Polyatomic ion-add one electron for each unit of negative charge
*Cations- subtract one electron for each unit of positive charge
2. Draw a “skeleton structure” for the molecule, joining atoms by single bonds.
Tips:
o Nature tends toward symmetry, so it is best to make your skeleton
structure symmetrical when possible.
o Hydrogen is never the central atom; it is always a surrounding atom.
o Group VII elements tend to be surrounding atoms rather than central
atoms.
o Carbon tends to be a central atom,
3. From the total number of valence electrons, subtract two for each single bond in the
skeleton structure to determine how many valence electrons are left to distribute.
4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons as unshared pairs around the atoms in the
molecule. Follow the octet rule, distributing electrons to give each atom a total of 8
valence electrons (except H which should have 2).
5. If this point is reached and there are too few valence electrons to give each atom an
octet, a multiple bond is most likely necessary.
Materials: Bingo chips, elements sheet, pair of scissors
Pre-lab: cut out the following elements: size 3 inches by 3 inches white bond paper
Hydrogen square element = 10 pieces

Oxygen - 4 pieces
Sulfur - 1 piece
Chlorine -17
Carbon- 5 H
(Write the symbol of the element in the 3” x 3” white bond paper)
For the bingo chips, you can use the size (diameter) of a usual puncher. The number of
bingo chips to be prepared will depend on the number of valence electron of each element.
Remember to use different colored paper for each element.
Procedure
1. For the formula of covalent compounds please refer to Table 1 below.

2. In coming up with the correct structure of the compounds, don’t forget to determine
the number of valence electrons for each individual atom.
3. Add up the valence electrons for each atom and record the total number of valence
electrons for the compound in the desired column in table 1.
64
4. Locate the element squares for each atom in the compound and set the squares on a
flat surface. Gather enough colored bingo chips to equal the number of valence
electrons. Use a different color for each element in the compound.
5. Use the bingo chips to place the correct number of valence electrons in the
compound. Follow the rules of atom placement described in the background
section.
6. Once the structure is made and all rules have been followed, draw the Lewis
Electron Dot structure in the last column of the table.
7. Repeat procedures 1-6 for each compound listed in the table.
8. Be sure to keep your models. This will be submitted to your teacher. You can
paste it in short bond paper.
9. First item is done for you.
Table 1: Covalent Compounds
Formula Valence Electron Total Number Lewis Electron Dot
for each Atom of Valence Structure
Electron
1. H2 1+1 2 H-H
2. HCl
3. CH2Cl2
4. HOCl
5. OH-
6. H3O+
7. NH4+
8. SO4-2
9. CHCl3
10. C2H4
Question: 1. Why can any atom have no more than 8 valence electrons?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Source: https://1.cdn.edl.io/HfTjjcRX6xrxuNM8twgdzXCp3twJQx49XqSb3TPeXcNjTbus.pdf
Evaluation
Direction: Encircle the letter corresponding to the best answer.

1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?
A. Argon B. Boron C. Carbon D. Phosphorus E. Sulfur
65
2. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a Lewis structure?
A. O B. C C. N D. Al E. H
3. Write the correct Lewis dot structure for O 2. Which statement correctly describes the
structure of the whole molecule?
A. There is a double bond and four lone pairs.
B. There is a double bond and six lone pairs.
C. There is a single bond and four lone pars.
D. There is a single bond and six lone pairs
E. There is a single bond, double bond and six lone pairs.
4. Which of the following statements about resonance is TRUE? Resonance hybrids

occur because a compound changes back and forth between two or more resonance
structures.
I. Resonance structures differ in the arrangement of electrons but not in the
arrangement of atoms.
II. Resonance hybrids contain delocalized electrons.
III. Resonance structures for a given compound always contribute equally to the
resonance hybrid.
IV. Resonance structures occur when there are two or more valid Lewis structures
for a given compound.
V. Resonance hybrids are a composite of resonance structures.
A. I, II, V, VI C. II, III, V, VI E. I, III, V, VI

B. II, III, IV, VI D. II, IV, V, VI
5. How many resonance forms will nitrate ion (NO3)- have?

A. -1 B. 0 C. 1 D. 2 E. 3
6. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements cannot exceed the octet rule?
B, Si, N, P, O, S, F, Cl
A. Si, P, S, Cl
B. B, N, O, F
C. O,S,F,Cl
D. B, Si, N, P
E. All eight elements can exceed the octet rule
7. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of the following
statements best describes this structure?
A. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
B. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
C. It has a lone pair of electrons of electrons on the boron atom.
D. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
E. It exceeds the octet rule
66
Rubrics for Scoring
1. For activity 1 use the rubric below for scoring the activity:
2 1 0
The drawn structure is The drawn structure has All inappropriate
complete and appropriate minor omission or errors
2. The adapted rubric below will be used for grading the model created in Activity 2.
4 3 2 1
Appropriate Appropriate Most materials Inappropriate
materials were materials were selected were materials were
selected. They selected. There was appropriate. selected.
were creatively an attempt to use the Construction Construction
portrayed in materials creatively. demonstrated some appears careless
ways that Construction was effort but needs some and many details
enhanced careful and accurate refinement for a need refinement
understanding for the most part, but more attractive for a strong and a
about the subject 1-2 could have been product. The student more attractive
matter. Great refined for a more demonstrates a basic product. The
care was taken attractive product. understanding student shows a
during the The student minimal
construction demonstrates a understanding.
process so that proficient
the model is neat understanding
and attractive.
The student
demonstrates a
total
understanding
were creatively an attempt to use the Construction Construction
portrayed in materials creatively. demonstrated some appears careless
ways that Construction was effort but needs some and many details
enhanced careful and accurate refinement for a need refinement
understanding for the most part, but more attractive for a strong and a
about the subject 1-2 could have been product. The student more attractive
matter. Great refined for a more demonstrates a basic product. The
care was taken attractive product. understanding student shows a
during the The student minimal
construction demonstrates a understanding.
67
the model is neat understanding
and attractive.
The student
demonstrates a
total
understanding
Source: http://www.lecs.org/pdf/smjoerg.pdf
3. The adapted rubric below will be used in scoring the guide questions.

comprehensibilit Requireme
y nts

appropriate extensive and errors, many expectation
effective use of control of supporting s; creates
studied words grammatical details; with
structures exceeds all language
3 Effectively Generally Generally Sufficient Meets all

communicated, accurate with accurate; for task, level of
appropriate some errors; few adequate expectation
adequate use of significant supporting s
studied words errors in detail; meets
areas studied all
requirements

vague errors in incomplete; expectation
areas studied meets most s
requirements

vocabulary areas studied requirements expectation
s; overly
simple
0 No written
sample, no effort
Author: Jeanne Mullaney. Community College of Rhode Island T-8 Charlotte Gifford,
Greefield Community College
68
Reflection
Direction: Accomplish this part honestly.
1. I learned that
______

Structure for Covalent compounds. Chemistry. SIBS Publishing Company, pp.
91 -93.
Flinn Scientific, Inc. (2015). Lewis Electron Dot Model. Retrieved from URL
https://1.cdn.edl.io/HfTjjcRX6xrxuNM8twgdzXCp3twJQx49XqSb3TPeXcNjTbus.pdf
69
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Formation of Covalent Bonds
1. Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds
1. C2H4
C= 4 x 2 = 8
H= 1 x 4 = 4
Total = 12 valence electrons
SO2
S= 6 x 1 = 6
O = 6 x 2= 12
2. C2H2
C=4x2= 8
H=1x2=2
3. CCl4
C= 4 x 1 = 4
Cl= 7 x 4 = 28
Learning Activity 2: Lewis Electron Dot Model

Formula Valence electron Total number of Lewis Electron Dot
for each atom valence electron Structure
1. H2 1+1 2 H-H
2. HCl 1+ 7 8 H-Cl:
3. 4 +1+1+ 7 + 7 20
CH2Cl2
4. HOCl 1+ 6 + 7 14
5. OH- 6 + 1 +1 8
6. H3O+ 1+1+ 1 +6-1 8
7. NH4+ 5+1+1+1+1 8
–1
8. SO4-2 6+6+6+6+6+2 32
70
9. CHCl3 4+1+ 7 +7+ 7 26
10. C2H4 4+4+1+1+1 12

+1
Question: Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level which
include only s and p orbitals. Since an s orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and p
orbitals can have a maximum of 6 electrons then 8 is the maximum valence electron in any
atom.
Answers may vary
Evaluation:
Multiple Choice
1. D;2. E;3.A; 4.D; 5.E; 6.B; 7.B
Prepared by:
71
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section:_______ Date:

Molecular Geometry
It’s nice to be back. How was your journey in learning the different concepts of Lewis
structure? Have you ever wondered why there’s a need to construct the Lewis structure of an
element? Can you tell me the importance of this activity?
Well, Lewis Electron Dot Structure is simply the representation of the arrangement of
valence electrons of each atom. This can help you predict what type of bond and compound it
will form. This knowledge eventually can allow you to predict the shapes of the molecules and
understand their chemical properties. Molecular geometry refers to the arrangement of the
atoms within a given molecule (Mendoza, E., Religioso, T., Deauna, M. 2001). Here, just like
in your Mathematics, it involves the understanding of angles, shapes and the like.
You have learned in your past lessons that during the formation of covalent compounds,
bond pairs and lone pairs are formed. But how is the orientation of these electron pairs within
the molecule? A simple model to account for molecular geometry is based on simple
electrostatic repulsions of electron pairs or the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory (Mendoza, E., et.al 2001). These electron pairs repel each other and tend to
push each other apart to minimize repulsion. Electron pairs aim to reach the state of balance
or the best orientation possible. When this point of balance is reached, the shape of the
molecule can now be identified. Experiments showed some measurements and values to
describe how these electron pairs are oriented within the molecule. Just like in the case of
carbon dioxide, the orientation of electron pairs is 180o and described as linear.
Are you excited to learn how to determine the shape of the molecule? Let’s get started!

Describe the geometry of the simple compounds (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-81)
Learning Activity 1
72
Covalent Candy Molecules
In this activity you will learn the different shapes of molecules. You will use your
knowledge in Lewis Electron Dot Structure and the VSEPR Theory to predict the shapes of the
molecule. You need to read and understand carefully what is all about the VSEPR since that
is the tool you need to predict the molecular geometry or the shape of the molecule. It is
important to know the shapes of the molecule since it will help you understand the chemical
properties of the compound and its reactions with other elements.
Directions:
1. Please patiently read and understand the given text below.

2. If you need guidance on what to do and clarification of vague concepts, you can
consult your teacher or you can seek assistance from your guardian or parent.
3. You can visit https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch8/
vsepr.html for additional information and
http://intro.chem.okstate.edu/1314F00/Lecture/Chapter10/VSEPR.html
4. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e99iaUKsucc
5. Document your progress using a camera and organize them creatively for final
presentation. Enjoy learning!
Read
Molecular Geometry
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a
molecule. Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules and their
reactivity towards other molecules. Molecular geometry can be identified by knowing the
number and types of chemical bonds that exist in a certain molecule.
But how can we predict the shape of the molecule? The prediction rests on the
assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a central atom repel one another.
They want to be as far apart from one another as possible. These valence shell electron pairs
are the one involved in bonding. They assume a geometry or orientation that will minimize
the repulsion. This is the stable orientation and the one with lowest energy. This approach in
predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
(VSEPR). (Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General Chemistry 1)
The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:

1. The electron pair stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around the
central atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volumes than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulses are
greater than lone pair-bond pair repulsion which in turn are greater than bond pair-bond
pair repulsion.
5. Molecular geometry is a very important concept.
73
Table 1: Summary Table of Molecular Geometry
VSEPR No. of No. of No. Orientation Molecular Angle Examples

Electron
Type Bond of of Geometry
Pairs
Around Pairs Lone Electron
Central Pairs Pairs
Atom
AX2 2 2 0 Linear Linear CO2
AX3 3 3 0 Trigonal Trigonal planar BF3

planar
AX2E 3 2 1 Trigonal Bent O3

planar
AX4 4 4 0 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4
AX3E 4 3 1 Tetrahedral Pyramidal NH3
AX2E2 4 2 2 Tetrahedral Bent H2 O
74
AX5 5 5 0 Trigonal Trigonal PCl5
bipyramidal bipyramidal
AX4E 5 4 1 Trigonal Seesaw SF4

bipyramidal
AX3E2 5 3 2 Trigonal T-shaped ClF3

bipyramidal
AX2E3 5 2 3 Trigonal Linear I3

bipyramidal
AX6 6 6 0 Octahedral Octahedral SF6
AX5E 6 5 1 Octahedral Square BrF5

pyramidal
AX4E2 6 4 2 Octahedral Square planar XeF4
Source: Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General Chemistry 1
Do not be confused with the orientation of electron pairs and molecular geometry.
Orientation of electron pairs is more general while molecular geometry is specific. Orientation
of electron pairs simply refers to the total number of electron pairs around the central atom.
75
While molecular geometry tells you the number of bond pairs and lone pairs that surround the
central atom. When a number of bond pairs and lone pairs are identified, one can already
predict the shape of the molecule.
There are only 5 types of orientation of electron pairs, they are the following: Linear-
2 electron pairs; trigonal planar-3 electron pairs; tetrahedral- 4 electron pairs; trigonal
bipyramidal- 5 electron pairs; and octahedral- 6 electron pairs. There are 13 formula types
that describe the shapes or molecular geometry of molecules. In the formula type, the
following notations are adopted: A for the central atom, X for the bonded atom/electron pairs
and E for the unbonded or lone pairs. The 13 molecular geometries are summarized above.
For example, CO2 has a formula type of AX2, it means that there are two bonded atoms in the
central atom thus the molecular geometry or shape of CO2 is linear. AX5E means that A has 5
atoms bonded to it and A also has one lone pair of electrons around the central atom thus its
molecular geometry is square pyramidal.
To predict the molecular geometry or the shapes of the molecule, you need to
familiarize yourselves with the different formula types but of course your knowledge in Lewis
Electron Dot Structure is very necessary. You can only identify the correct formula type and
eventually the molecular geometry when you have done the LEDS of the given compound
correctly.
Molecular Geometry of Sample Molecules
Sample Problems:
1. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule. BeCl 2. This is one of the type
AX2.
a. The first thing to do before we can predict the molecular geometry is to
draw the Lewis structure of the molecule.
This can be shown below:
b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of Beryllium? There
are two bond pairs surrounding beryllium.
c. How many lone pairs surround the central atom of Beryllium? There are
no lone pairs in the central atom
d. What is molecular geometry? Since there are two bond pairs that surround
beryllium and no lone pairs in the central atom, the formula type is AX2 hence
molecular geometry of the molecule is linear.
76
e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.
2. Predict the molecular geometry of CO2.

a. In determining molecular geometry, always start with the Lewis
structure.
b. How many electron pairs are around the central atom of carbon? We
have indicated earlier that applying the VSEPR theory, we will treat multiple
bonds to be like single bonds. Therefore, there will be two pairs around
carbon.
c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs? Linear, since there are
two electron pairs
d. What will be the molecular geometry of CO2 ? Linear since the formula
type is AX2.
e. What will be the O-C-O bond angle? 180o
3. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BCl 3.

a. Again, the first step is to get the Lewis structure.
b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom boron? Three bond
pairs surround boron.
c. How will three electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as
far apart from one another as possible? To minimize repulsion, the two
electron pairs will be arranged in a trigonal planar arrangement.
d. What is the molecular geometry? Since there are 3 bonded atoms in the
central atom, the formula type of BCl3 is AX3 thus, the molecular geometry is
trigonal planar.
e. What is Cl-B-Cl bond angle? 120o
4. Predict the molecular geometry of ozone, O3?
77
a. Lewis structure
For predicting geometry, we may use only one resonance structure.
b. Number of electron pairs around central oxygen atom. Three electron

pairs.
c. Orientation of three electron pairs: trigonal planar
d. Molecular geometry: bent
We only use the positions of the nuclei of the atom. We are unable to see the
lone pair. Therefore, the molecular geometry is bent, AX2E.
Bond angle is less than 120o.
5. Predict the molecular geometry of NH3?
a. Lewis Structure:
b. NH3 has 3 bond pairs and one lone pair around nitrogen.
c. Electron pairs are arranged in tetrahedral orientation (4 electron pairs).
d. Molecular geometry is trigonal pyramidal since the formula type is AX3E.
Activity Proper
This hands on activity allows you to practice drawing Lewis structure for a number of different
covalent compounds and use them to assemble your candy molecules. These molecules can then be
used to determine the geometry of the compounds.
Objectives:
a. Name different geometric shapes.
b. Identify molecules which show resonance.
c. Draw the Lewis structure of the given compound.
d. Apply VSEPR to predict the molecular geometry of the given compound.
Materials:
⮚ Large gumdrop (or colored marshmallow or foam balls) (single atoms). You can also
use modeling clay or playdoh instead of gumdrop.
⮚ Toothpick (covalent bond)
⮚ Protractors for measuring bond angles
78
What to do:
1. For you to make your model, you need to construct first the correct LEDS of the
given compounds listed in table 1. This will be your basis in constructing your
model.
2. In constructing your model, use gumdrops which match the same color code
that chemists use for their molecular models:
Black- carbon Purple or blue- nitrogen orange- phosphorous

White-hydrogen Green- chlorine
Red-oxygen Yellow- Sulfur
3. After the construction of your model kindly fill-in the necessary data in table 1.
4. Below is a sample output. Your output in the activity depends on the

compounds given.
Table 1: Molecular Geometry of Compounds

Molecule Name Total Lewis Structure Drawing with Correct VSEPR
and Formula Valence (tick the box in the Geometry Geometry
(write the Electrons corner if a resonance (use your models to Name
chemical formula) structure is possible) help you) (the name of the
shape and
typical bond
angle)
79
Carbon dioxide
Dihydrogen
monoxide
Sulfur trioxide
Carbon
tetrachloride
80
Ammonium
Phosphate
Acetic Acid
(Expert level!!
Hint: Both
carbons are in
the middle.)
Guide Questions:
1. What type of compounds are given in the activity? What made you say so?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Give at least two general properties of this type of compound.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
81
Learning Activity 2
Molecular Geometry
Directions: Accomplish the table below. Identify the shapes of the different covalent
compounds. Write the formula of the compounds to their corresponding boxes in the table.
Note: You need to show the LEDS of the given compounds on the box provided on the
next page.
● Steric number= number of lone pairs on the central atom plus number of atoms bonded to the
central atom or simply the electron pairs around central atom.
82
83
Evaluation
Direction: Encircle the letter corresponding to the best answer.
1. Which statement correctly describes the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory? The valence electron pairs are
A. The valence electron pairs are given by the group number in the periodic
table.
B. The valence electron pairs are the outermost electrons of the atom that are
involved in the bonding.
C. The valence electron pairs repel one another and tend to stay as far apart as
possible.
D. The valence electron pairs are the lone pairs of the atom.
2. Why is it important to know the geometry of molecule??

A. It will give the Lewis structure of the molecule.
B. It affects the physical and chemical properties of the molecule.
C. It will determine whether the molecule is ionic or covalent.
D. B and C
3. If there are four electron pairs around a central atom of a molecule, these electron
pairs are in a ______________arrangement.
A. linear C. tetrahedral
B. trigonal planar D. octahedral
4. What is the molecular geometry of NF3?

A. Linear B. Trigonal pyramidal C. Pyramidal D. Tetrahedral
5. Which of the following species exhibit tetrahedral geometry?

A. CCl4 B. PCl5 C. NH3 D. CO2
Scoring Rubrics for Scoring
1. The adapted rubrics below will be used in scoring the models.
4 3 2 1
84
were creatively an attempt to use the Construction Construction appears
portrayed in materials creatively. demonstrated some careless and many
ways that Construction was effort but needs some details need
enhanced careful and accurate refinement for a refinement for a
understanding for the most part, but more attractive strong and a more
about the 1-2 could have been product. The student attractive product.
subject matter. refined for a more demonstrates a basic The student shows a
Great care was attractive product. understanding minimal
taken during the The student understanding.
construction demonstrates a
the model is understanding
neat and
attractive. The
student
demonstrates a
total
understanding
Source: http://www.lecs.org/pdf/smjoerg.pdf
2. The adapted rubric below will be used in scoring the guide questions.
comprehensibility Requirement
s

appropriate extensive and errors, many expectations;
effective use control of supporting creates with
of studied grammatical details; language
words structures exceeds all
3 Effectively Generally Generally Sufficient Meets all

communicated, accurate with accurate; for task, level of
appropriate some errors; few adequate expectations
adequate use significant supporting
of studied errors in detail; meets
words areas studied all
requirements

vague errors in incomplete; expectations
areas studied
85
meets most
requirements

vocabulary areas studied requirements expectations;
overly simple
0 No written sample,
no effort
Author: Jeanne Mullaney. Community College of Rhode Island T-8 Charlotte Gifford,
Greenfield Community College
3. Activity 2 will be given one (1) point each for every correct entry in the box. Evaluation will
also be given one (1) point each for every correct answer for each item.
Reflection
1. I learned that
______

Structure for Covalent compounds. Chemistry. SIBS Publishing Company, pp. 94-97.
https://iteachly.com/molecular-geometry-worksheet-lab-activity/
https://www.google.com/search?q=vsepr&sxsrf=ALeKk02jMtVR1syeCA3OtkuwaM
cBq9f3ew:1592808201925&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=0wnwSYaHhici4M%
253A%252CDVgQhNVDS8KCXM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kSAAChpqsUCIirSywrnsICn19VhjA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBr8j4
https://secondaryscience4all.wordpress.com/2014/08/09/shapes-of-simple-molecule-and-ions/
https://sedl.org/loteced/modules/mod5_TR.pdf
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/chemical-bonding-and-molecular-
structure/covalent-compounds/
For additional information
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/molecule-shapes
86
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Covalent Candy Molecules

Molecule Total Lewis Structure Drawing with Correct VSEPR
Name and Valence (tick the box in the Geometry Geometry
Formula Electrons corner if a (use your models to help you) Name
(write the resonance structure (the name of
chemical is possible) the shape and
formula) typical bond
angle
Carbon 16 Linear (180o)
Dioxide
CO2
Dihydrogen 8 Bent (119.3o)

monoxide
H20
Sulfur trioxide 24 Trigonal

planar
SO3 (120o)
Carbon 32 Tetrahedral
tetrachloride (109.5o)
CCl4
Ammonium 8 Tetrahedral
(109.5o)
NH4 +
87
Phosphate 32 Tetrahedral
(109.5o)
PO4-3
Acetic acid 24 CH3 –

tetrahedral
CH3COOH C=O
trigonal
planar
O-H bent
Guide Questions:
1. What type of compounds are given in the activity? What made you say so?
*The type of compounds given in the activity are covalent compounds. This is manifested
by the type of bonds formed by each compound. All of the given compounds satisfy the octet
rule/meet stability through sharing of electrons thus the formation of covalent bonds.
(Answers may vary)
2. Give at least two general properties of this type of compound.

1. Covalent compounds do not possess polar characteristics as a general property.
Therefore, these compounds are insoluble in water.
2. These compounds are non-conductors of electrical charge. The absence of charged ions
is the main reason behind this. An exception to this is graphite, where we see a cloud of
electrons. These make graphite a good conductor.
3. Covalent compounds usually have low melting points. An exception to this include
molecules of silica and diamonds that have a high melting point.
4. These compounds have low boiling points. This can be attributed to their weak force of
attraction between the various bonded atoms. Van der waals forces bind these atoms.
5. These compounds are usually gases and liquids with low boiling and melting points.
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/chemical-bonding-and-molecular-
structure/covalent-compounds/
(answers may vary)
88
Learning Activity 2:Molecular Geometry
Evaluation: 1. C; 2. B; 3. C; 4. C; 5. A
Prepared by:
89
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Dipole Moments and Polarity of Molecules
As earlier discussed in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are not equally shared by the
bonding atoms. Instead, there is a shift in electron density towards the more electronegative
atom. Such is the case with the bond in HF. This shift is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( )
with the arrow pointing toward the direction of the shift.
A polar covalent bond exists when atoms with different electronegativity share electrons in a
covalent bond. Consider the hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule. The unequal sharing of the
bonding pair results in a partial negative charge on the fluorine atom and a partial positive
charge on the hydrogen atom. The symbol δ (Greek lowercase delta) denotes these fractional
charges.
The polarity of the bond can be experimentally measured in terms of the dipole moment, µ. By
definition, the dipole moment is the product of the charge, Q, and the distance between the
charges, r. To maintain neutrality, the charges on the ends of the molecule must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign.
Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments. In the presence of an electric field, the positive end
of the molecules orient themselves towards the negative plate. Nonpolar molecules have no
dipole moments. Remember to distinguish between polar bonds versus polar molecules. Some
molecules have polar bonds but are not polar. The molecular geometry determines whether the
molecule is polar or not. The unit of the dipole moment is in terms of the Debye¸ D¸ where 1
D = 3.336 x 10-30 C m.
Example:
1. Is carbon dioxide a polar molecule or not?
To answer this, first determine the Lewis structure followed by the molecular geometry. Then
determine the net dipole moment for the molecule.
90
Dipole moments are vector quantities; they have
magnitude and direction. CO2 has a linear geometry.
The C O bond is polar with the oxygen end as the - end.
But the dipole moment vectors are equal in magnitude
but point to opposite directions. Hence, they cancel out
each other. The resultant dipole moment is zero.
Therefore, CO2 is a nonpolar molecule. This is an
example where you have a polar bond but the resulting
molecule is nonpolar.
2. Is ammonia a polar molecule? If it is so, which is the partially negative end?

Again draw the Lewis structure and determine the molecular geometry. The molecular
geometry of ammonia is pyramidal. Because N is more electronegative than H, the N H bond
is polar with the N end as the more negative end. The three dipole moment vectors point
towards N. There is a resultant dipole moment. The nitrogen end is the - end. Therefore, NH3
is a polar molecule; the N end is the – end.
The space-filling model for NH3 and its resultant dipole moment equal to 1.9113
Debye pointing towards the nitrogen end.
What does electronegativity have to do with bond polarity?
Electronegativity is the tendency of a bonded atom to attract electrons to itself. The difference
in electronegativity (Δ EN) between bonded atoms can indicate whether the bond is nonpolar,
polar covalent, or ionic. Generally, the farther apart two elements are on the periodic table, the
more ionic the bond character, and the closer together they are, the less ionic the bond is. Refer
to the table below:
Table 1: Electronegativity Difference and Bond Type
Electronegativity Difference Bond Type Electron Sharing

Less than 0.5 units Nonpolar Electrons are equally shared.
91
0.5 – 1.9 units Polar Electrons are unequally shared; they are
pulled towards the more electronegative
element.
Greater than 1.9 units Ionic Electrons are transferred from the less
electronegative element to the more
electronegative element.
Source: General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry by Janice Gorzynski Smith, 2013)
The presence of polar and nonpolar bonds within a molecule will be one of your basis in
determining the polarity of a given molecule. Another basis is the overall shape (geometry) of
the molecule.
1. A molecule with no polar bonds is a nonpolar molecule.
2. A molecule with one polar bond is a polar molecule.
3. If the individual bond dipoles do not cancel, the molecule is polar.
4. If the individual bond dipoles cancel; the molecule is nonpolar.
Trivia Did You Know?
The properties of polar ….
A polar molecule has polar bonds (usually). A polar molecule is usually

asymmetrical. It has a net dipole moment (the vector sum of the individual bond
dipoles). A polar molecule has a partial positive charge at one end, and a partial
negative charge at the other. A polar molecule is attracted to other polar molecules
(Keesom forces). A polar molecule can induce a charge separation in a nonpolar
molecule and has a weak attraction (Debye forces). Polar solutes dissolve in
solvents consisting of polar molecules. Polar solvents often have lower vapor
pressures and higher boiling points than nonpolar solvents (but there are boatloads
of exceptions). https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-characteristics-of-polar-
molecules
Molecular geometry, also known as the molecular structure, is the three-dimensional structure
or arrangement of atoms in a molecule. To determine the shapes of molecules, we must become
acquainted with the Lewis electron dot structure. Although the Lewis theory does not determine
the shapes of molecules, it is the first step in predicting shapes of molecules. The Lewis
structure helps us identify the bond pairs and the lone pairs. Then, with the Lewis structure, we
apply the valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSPER) theory to determine the molecular
geometry and the electron-group geometry.
The valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory states that electron pairs repel each
other whether or not they are in bond pairs or in lone pairs. Thus, electron pairs will spread
themselves as far from each other as possible to minimize repulsion. VSEPR focuses not only
on electron pairs, but also with electron groups as a whole. An electron group can be an electron
pair, a lone pair, a single unpaired electron, a double bond or a triple bond on the center atom.
Using the VSEPR theory, the electron bond pairs and lone pairs on the center atom will help
us predict the shape of a molecule.
92
Understanding the molecular structure of a compound can help determine the polarity,
reactivity, phase of matter, color, magnetism, as well as the biological activity.
Trivia Did You Know?
The properties of non-polar molecules…
Nonpolar molecules are molecules that lack a charge (Or a partial charge). They
are often made up of many carbon and hydrogen atoms. Due to their lack of
charge, they do not like to interact with charged or polar molecules and when put
in solution with charged or polar molecules, they separate from them. Some
molecules are "amphiphilic" (or amphipathic). This means that one end of the
molecule is polar or charged, while the other end is nonpolar. In the case of
amphiphilic molecules, the polar or charged end interacts with water (aka
"hydrophilic"), while the nonpolar end will only interact with other nonpolar
molecules ("hydrophobic"). Cell membranes are made from amphiphilic
molecules called Phospholipids. https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-
properties-of-nonpolar-molecules-How-do-these-properties-affect-how-they-
interact-with-other-molecules
Unlike many other substances such as fruit juice, food dyes or even sugar and salt, oils do not
mix with water. The reason is related to the properties of oil and water. Water molecules are
made up of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. In addition to having this very simple
structure, water molecules are polar, which means there is an uneven distribution of charge
across the water molecule. Water has a partial negative charge from its oxygen atom and partial
positive charges on its hydrogen atoms. This polarity allows water molecules to form strong
hydrogen bonds with each other, between the negatively charged oxygen atom on one water
molecule and the positively charged hydrogen atoms of another. Other molecules such as salts
and sugars are able to dissolve in water because of their polarity as well. The charges at either
end of the water molecule help break up the chemical structures of other molecules.
Oils, by contrast, are nonpolar, and as a result they’re not attracted to the polarity of water
molecules. In fact, oils are hydrophobic, or “water fearing.” Instead of being attracted to water
molecules, oil molecules are repelled by them. As a result, when you add oil to a cup of water
the two don’t mix with each other. Because oil is less dense than water, it will always float on
top of water, creating a surface layer of oil. You might have seen this on streets after a heavy
rain—some water puddles will have a coating of oil floating on them.
In this activity we will test the power of surfactants to help us mix oil and water. The surfactant
we will use is dish detergent, which helps break up the surface tension between oil and water
because it is amphiphilic: partly polar and partly nonpolar. As a result, detergents can bind to
both water and oil molecules. We’ll see the results of this property in this activity!
93
Stopover: Link to Biology
Did you know?

Plasma membranes are asymmetric: the interior of the
membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane.
Recall that plasma membranes are amphiphilic; that is, they
have hydrophilic (polar region) and hydrophobic regions
(non-polar region).
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/passive-transport/
✓ Determine the polarity of simple molecules (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-82)
Learning Activity 1
Polar or Nonpolar
Direction: Answer the following questions briefly and meaningfully.
1. Determine the polarity of the following molecules. If polar, determine the partially negative
end.
Simple Molecules Polarity Partially Negative End
a. CH4
b. H2CCl2
c. BF3
d. H2S
e. CCl4
94
f. H2O
g. NF3
2. What is dipole moment?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity 2
Lewis Structures, Shapes, And Polarity
Directions: Draw Lewis structures, name shapes and indicate polar or non-polar for the
following molecules:
Molecule Lewis Structure Shape Polar or Non-Polar
1. CS2
2. CHN
3. PI3
4. SO2
5. O3
95
Learning Activity 3
Mix It Up with Oil and Water
Direction: For this activity, follow the procedures carefully and use the rubrics
for scoring as your guide in getting the highest possible score. Good luck and enjoy
learning!
Materials
2 clear plastic water bottles with lids
2 cups of water
One-half cup of oil (olive, cooking or vegetable oils will all work)
Liquid dishwashing soap (any brand)
Clock or timer
Permanent marker
Measuring cup
Measuring spoon
Food coloring (optional)
Preparation
1. Remove any labels from your water bottles.
2. Use your marker to label the bottles: Label the first “Oil + Water” and the second “Oil +
Water + Soap.” Write the labels as close to the tops of the bottles as possible.
3. Pour one cup of water into each bottle.
What to do next?
1. Carefully measure and pour one-quarter cup of oil into the bottle labeled Oil + Water.
Allow the bottle to sit on a countertop or flat surface while you observe the water and oil.
Does the oil sink to the bottom of the bottle, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Write
your observation under Guide Question portion.
2. Repeat step 2 preparation, adding one-quarter cup oil to the bottle labeled Oil + Water +
Soap. Does the oil sink to the bottom, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Write your
observation under Guide Question portion.) Carefully add three tablespoons of dish
soap to the bottle labeled Oil + Water + Soap. Try not to shake the bottle as you add the
dish soap.
3. Make sure the bottle caps are screwed on tightly to each bottle.
4. Holding a bottle in each hand, vigorously shake the bottles for 20 seconds.
5. Set the bottles down on a flat surface with plenty of light.
6. Let the bottle rest for 10 minutes.
7. Observe the contents of each bottle. Hold them up to a light one at time so you can clearly
see what is happening inside the bottle. Did anything change when you shake the bottles?
Did both of the mixtures look the same? If not, what is different between them? How
would you explain the differences that you observe? (Write your observation under
Guide Question portion.)
8. After 10 minutes, look at the contents of the bottles and note the changes. How do the oil
and water look like in each bottle? Has the oil mixed with the water, sunk to the bottom
or risen to the top? (Write your observation under Guide Question portion.)
96
More Fun in Chemistry… Challenge
accepted!
Add food coloring to the water to get a
lava lamp effect
Test other types of soap, such as
toothpaste, hand soap and shampoo by
mixing them with oil and water.
Observation
1. Draw or paste picture of your observations. You may use coloring materials to enhance your
drawing.
Bottle 1: Oil + Water Bottle 2: Oil + Water + Soap
Guide Questions
1. Does the oil sink to the bottom of the bottle, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Refer to
procedure 1)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
97
2. Does the oil sink to the bottom, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Refer to procedure 2)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Did anything change when you shake the bottles? Did both of the mixtures look the same?
If not, what is different between them? How would you explain the differences that you
observe? (Refer to procedure 8)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. How do the oil and water look like in each bottle? Has the oil mixed with the water, sunk to
the bottom or risen to the top? (Refer to procedure 9)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the scientific explanation of your observation in relation to polarity of molecules?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rubrics for Scoring
Learning Activity 1: Polar or Nonpolar

Question 1: Point System (Total Score: 14/14)
Guide Question 2: Total Score (4/4)
4 3 2 1 0
Complete on Complete complete Somewhat Incomplete or
time Mostly complete late
Shows solid Shows Shows Shows some Lack of

understanding understanding understanding understanding connections or
using evidence using evidence evidence
Organized & Neat Mostly neat Somewhat neat Hard to
easy to understand
understand
Learning Activity 2: Lewis Structures, Shapes and Polarity

(Point system): 15/15
Leaning Activity 3: Mix it Up with Oil and Water
98
Observation: Drawing/Picture. The learner may choose to draw or take a pic depending on
the availability of materials. This is NOT graded but the student will use it as a basis to answer
the guide questions.
Guide Questions 1- 4: Total Score (16/16)

4 3 2 1 0
Complete on Complete Complete Somewhat Incomplete or
time Mostly complete late
Shows solid Shows Shows Shows some Lack of

understanding understanding understanding understanding connections or
using evidence using evidence evidence
Organized & Neat Mostly neat Somewhat neat Hard to
easy to understand
understand
Reflection
Direction: Complete the following statements:
I learned that ________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
I want to learn more on ________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Licuanan, P. B., 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School. Commission on Higher
Education K to 12 Transition Program Management Unit, p.250- 253.
file:///D:/GEN.CHEM%201%202019-2020/General%20Chemistry%201%20(1).pdf
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Ma
ps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_
Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Dipole_Moments
https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-bond-polarity-of-ch4
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mix-it-up-with-oil-and-water/
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Ma
ps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Lewi
s_Theory_of_Bonding/Geometry_of_Molecules
https://brilliant.org/wiki/polarity-of-a-molecule/
https://socratic.org/questions/what-does-electronegativity-have-to-do-with-bond-polarity
99
For additional information you can visit:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BYUkDiyT59Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SiZXRScxbl0
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Polar or Nonpolar

1. Determine the polarity of the following molecules. If polar, determine the partially negative
end.
Simple Molecules Polarity Partially Negative End

a. CH4 Nonpolar
b. H2CCl2 Polar H-C (-) ; C- Cl (-)
c. BF3 Nonpolar
d. H2S Polar H- S(-)
e. CCl4 Nonpolar
f. H2O Polar H-O (-)
g. NF3 Polar N-F (-)
2. What is dipole moment?

Dipole moments occur when there is a separation of charge. They can occur between two ions
in an ionic bond or between atoms in a covalent bond; dipole moments arise from differences
in electronegativity. Dipole moment is measured in Debye units, which is equal to the distance
between the charges multiplied by the charge (1 Debye equals 3.34×10−30 Cm).
Learning Activity 2: Lewis Structures, Shapes and Polarity

Molecule Lewis Structure Shape Polar or Non-Polar
1. CS2 Linear Non-polar
Linear polar
2. CHN
3. PI3
Trigonal pyramidal polar
100
4. SO2 Bent polar
5. O3 Bent Non-polar
Leaning Activity 3: Mix it Up with Oil and Water
1. Does the oil sink to the bottom of the bottle, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Refer to
procedure 1)
The oil sits on the top of the water and does not mix with it.
2. Does the oil sink to the bottom, sit on top of the water or mix with it? (Refer to procedure 2)
The oil sits on the top of the water and does not mix with it.
3. Did anything change when you shake the bottles? Do both of the mixtures look the same? If
not, what is different between them? How would you explain the differences that you observe?
(Refer to procedure 8)
Yes. The mixtures are totally different. In the bottle 1 (oil + water) there is formation of small
beads or bubbles. In contrast you should have found shaking the Oil + Water + Soap bottle
resulted in a lot of foam, but instead of immediately starting to separate, the mixture was a
cloudy, yellow color. Eventually the oil and water should have separated into two layers again,
but these layers should have appeared less distinct and cloudier than the layers in your Oil +
Water bottle.
4. How do the oil and water look like in each bottle? Has the oil mixed with the water, sunk to
the bottom or risen to the top? (Refer to procedure 9)
When you shook the Oil + Water bottle, the oil broke up into tiny beads. These beads, however,
did not mix with the water. After letting the Oil + Water bottle sit for 10 minutes, have observed
the oil and water separating almost immediately, and after another 10 minutes, there were two
distinct layers in your bottle.
5. What is the scientific explanation of your observation in relation to polarity of molecules?

Water alone is not able to penetrate grease or oil because they are of opposite polarity.
When grease or oil (non-polar hydrocarbons) are mixed with a soap- water solution, the soap
molecules work as a "bridge" between polar water molecules and non-polar oil molecules.
Soap molecules have both properties of non-polar and polar at opposite ends of the molecule.
The oil is a pure hydrocarbon so it is non-polar. The non-polar hydrocarbon tail of the soap
dissolves into the oil. That leaves the polar carboxylate ion of the soap molecules are sticking
out of the oil droplets, the surface of each oil droplet is negatively charged. As a result, the oil
101
droplets repel each other and remain suspended in solution (this is called an emulsion) to be
washed away by a stream of water. The outside of the droplet is also coated with a layer of
water molecules.
Prepared by:
ROLEZA M. MAGNO
Salinungan National High School
102
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Different Functional Groups

A major group of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are made up
of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are further classified into aliphatic
hydrocarbons (those that do not contain a benzene ring) and aromatic hydrocarbons (those that
contain a benzene ring).
Source: file:///D:/GEN.CHEM%201%202019-2020/General%20Chemistry%201%20(1).pdf
I. Aliphatic compound is an organic compound containing carbon and hydrogen joined

together in straight chains, branched chains, or non-aromatic rings. Open-chain compounds
that contain no rings are aliphatic, whether they contain single, double, or triple bonds. In other
words, they may be saturated or unsaturated.
1. Alkanes
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 where n=1, 2, 3…. Alkanes only have single bonds.
They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons. They are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons
because they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can bond to the carbon
atoms present; that is, they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. In naming alkanes, the –ane
suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the number of
carbon atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethane, propane, and butane.
103
Prefixes Used in Naming Hydrocarbons
The table below shows the first ten straight-chain hydrocarbons
Remember in alkanes you can only see chained of carbon (C-C) and saturated with hydrogen
atoms (C-H).
Cycloalkanes (also called naphthenes) are chemicals with one or more hydrogen rings to
which carbon atoms are attached according to the formula C nH2n. Cycloalkanes with a single
104
ring are named analogously to their normal alkane counterpart of the same carbon
count: cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, cyclohexane, etc. The larger cycloalkanes,
with greater than 20 carbon atoms are typically called cycloparaffins.
Source: https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/chapt5.htm
2. Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They are also
called olefins. Their formula is CnH2n where n = 2, 3…. Alkenes are classified as unsaturated
hydrocarbons as opposed to the alkanes which are saturated hydrocarbons. In naming alkenes,
the –ene suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the number
of carbon atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethene, propene, and butene. Take note that
the parent chain in an alkene is C=C.
105
Note that in butene, there are two molecules: one with the double bond in the first carbon, and
the other with the double bond in the second carbon. The numbers in the names refer to the
lowest numbered carbon atoms in the chain that is part of the CC double bond.
3. Alkynes
Alkynes contain at least one C≡C bond. They have the general formula CnH2n-2 where n = 2,
3,…In naming alkynes, the –yne suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is
determined by the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain. Like the alkenes, the names of
alkynes indicate the position of the carbon-carbon triple bond. Examples are ethyne, propyne,
and butyne. Take note in alkynes it contain C≡C in its stricture.
II. Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of hydrocarbons whose molecules contain a ring of six
carbon atoms (benzyl ring) attached.
Its simplest member is benzene, C6H6, with the following resonance structures:
The benzene structure is often written as:
Organic compounds may also be classified according to the functional groups they contain.
A functional group is a group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical behavior of
the parent molecule. Compounds containing the same functional groups undergo similar
reactions.
Did you know?
Trivia
Alcohol and the Body Trivia
The human body creates alcohol constantly. It can’t live without making it.
The process is called endogenous ethanol production.
https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/alcohol-and-the-body-trivia-
12-surprising-fun-facts/
106
A functional group is defined as an atom or group of atoms within a molecule that has similar
chemical properties whenever it appears in various compounds. Even if other parts of the
molecule are quite different, certain functional groups tend to react in certain ways.
We have already looked at alkanes, but they are generally unreactive. We primarily use alkanes
as a source of energy when they are combusted. While the majority of functional groups
involve atoms other than carbon and hydrogen, we will also look at some that include only
carbon and hydrogen. Some of the most common functional groups are presented in the
following sections.
Organic molecules vary greatly in size and when focusing on functional groups, we want to
direct our attention to the atoms involved in the functional group. As a result, the abbreviation
R is used in some examples. The letter R is used in molecular structures to represent the “Rest
of the molecule”. It consists of a group of carbon and hydrogen atoms of any size. It is used as
an abbreviation since a group of carbon and hydrogen atoms does not affect the functionality
of the compound. In some molecules, you will see R, R’, or R’’ which indicates that the R
groups in the molecule can be different from one another. For example, R might be –CH2CH3
while R’ is –CH2CH2CH2CH3.
Common Functional Groups
Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It is highly toxic and causes blindness. Ethyl alcohol is a
common solvent and starting material for various commercial uses. It is produced
commercially by the addition reaction of ethylene with water at high pressure and temperature.
It is also produced from the fermentation of sugar. An isomer, isopropyl alcohol, is commonly
called rubbing alcohol. Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze. The functional group of alcohol
is hydroxyl group (-OH).
107
The functional group in aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl group. A common aldehyde is
formaldehyde. An aqueous solution of formaldehyde is used in the laboratory to preserve
animal specimens. A common ketone is acetone, which is mainly used as solvent for organic
compounds and as nail polish remover. Alcohols can be oxidized to produce aldehydes and
ketones.
The functional group in carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group, -COOH. Among the common
carboxylic acids are formic acid, acetic acid, and butyric acid. Carboxylic acids can be
produced by the oxidation of alcohols and aldehydes. Carboxylic acids also react with alcohols
to produce esters.
Esters are used in flavoring and perfumery owing to their characteristic smells. The smell of
many fruits come from esters such as those given in the motivation section. This is under ester
group.
Another organic compound derived from the carboxylic acids is amide. In which –COOH is
the functional group in carboxylic acids and in amide -OH part of that group is replaced by an
-NH2 group called amide group.
In addition, the very small amines like methylamine and ethylamine smell very similar to
ammonia - although if you compared them side by side, the amine smells are slightly more
complex. As the amines get bigger, they tend to smell more "fishy", or they smell of decay.
Amines belong to functional group of amino.
✓ Describe the different functional groups (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-87)
Learning Activity 1
Find Me!
Directions: Find 10 significant terms related to different functional groups.
Locate these words by using two directions: horizontally (left-right), vertically
(up-down). Encircle the words using a colored pen.
C A R B O X Y L G R O U P C D E F G C I
A W B S E E U F T K A D W E R B A B A M
R E M E S O A R C H E A E R A R R I R C
B R N A M I N O G R O U P R F F C U B V
O H M M F S D M H N O G R D F G H T O H
X F K I L P F N L O C H F F G H E T N J
Y J L N M Y G O N G H T G C C J A P Y K
L K J E S U H A G E S G A L C O H O L L
I L H S T O I G O C T L T H A L E U G M
C M G E H Y D R O X Y L G R O U P I R N
A N F K U C J F F T F M K R S F N Y O P
C O D L I D K C G E S T E R D S A H U Q
I P S A C E N O Z O I C T R A E V G P R
D Q G Z I L L E H H H O O H F X B D F S
H R S X D M M A I I I P N F D S D F B T
108
T U F C G N A B S O L U E E D A T I N G
A M I D E G R O U P O O P U P C B T N U
Learning Activity 2
Where Do I Belong?
Directions: Complete the table by supplying necessary data needed. Identify

what type of organic compound and their functional group according to. Write
your answer on the table provided.
Organic Compound Functional Group
1. _______________________________
6. _______________________
2. ______________________________
6. _______________________
3. ______________________________
8. ________________________
4._______________________________
9. _________________________
5. _______________________________
10. ________________________
109
Learning Activity 3
Draw Me!
Directions:
Choose an organic compound and creatively present it in a poster. You must indicate
the following:
a. Chemical name and chemical formula of the organic compound
b. Structure of the organic compound (identify the functional group/s if any)
c. Properties of the organic compound (physical and chemical)
d. Use of the organic compound in everyday life
e. Effects to humans and other living things
f. Precautions in using the compound (if any)
My Poster
110
Rubrics for Scoring
Learning Activity 1: Word Hunt: Point System (Total Score (10/10)

Learning Activity 2: Where Do I Belong? Point System (Total Score: 10/10). Names of
organic compounds and functional group.
Learning Activity 3: Draw Me! (Point system): 16/16
CRITERIA 1 (NOT 2 (NEEDS 3 (MEETS 4 (EXCEEDS
VISIBLE) IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS
) ) )
REQUIRED Missing Few of the required Most of the required All of the required
ELEMENTS most or all elements are clearly elements are clearly elements
of the visible, organized visible, organized are clearly visible,
required and well placed. and well placed. organized
elements. May be missing and well placed.
elements.
The project The project needs The project has a The project has an
VISUAL needs improvement in nice design and excellent design
CLARITY significant design, layout. It is neat and and layout. It is neat
AND improvemen layout or neatness. easy to read. and easy to
APPEAL t in design, understand the
layout and content.
neatness
DRAWINGS/ The Few of the Most drawings and Drawings and
GRAPHICS student’s drawings and graphics are clear graphics are clear
drawings are graphics are clear and relevant. and relevant.
not clear or and relevant.
relevant.
MECHANIC Many A few grammatical, Almost no No grammatical,
S grammatical, spelling or grammatical, spelling or
spelling or punctuation errors. spelling or punctuation errors.
punctuation punctuation errors.
errors.
Source: file:///D:/GEN.CHEM%201%202019-2020/General%20Chemistry%201%20(1).pdf
Reflection
Direction: Complete the following statements
I learned that ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
111
https://www.britannica.com/science/amine
https://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/amides/background.html
https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Cycloalkane
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-aliphatic-compound-604760
https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/chapt5.htm
https://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/amines/background.html
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Word Hunt

C A R B O X Y L G R O U P C D E F G C I
A W B S E E U F T K A D W E R B A B A M
R E M E S O A R C H E A E R A R R I R C
B R N A M I N O G R O U P R F F C U B V
O H M M F S D M H N O G R D F G H T O H
X F K I L P F N L O C H F F G H E T N J
Y J L N M Y G O N G H T G C C J A P Y K
L K J E S U H A G E S G A L C O H O L L
I L H S T O I G O C T L T H A L E U G M
C M G E H Y D R O X Y L G R O U P I R N
A N F K U C J F F T F M K R S F N Y O P
C O D L I D K C G E S T E R D S A H U Q
I P S A C E N O Z O I C T R A E V G P R
D Q G Z I L L E H H H O O H F X B D F S
H R S X D M M A I I I P N F D S D F B T
T U F C G N A B S O L U E E D A T I N G
A M I D E G R O U P O O P U P C B T N U
112
Learning Activity 2: Where Do I Belong?
Organic Compound Functional Group
1. acetone
6. Carbonyl Group
2. methanol
7. Hydroxyl group
3. ethanamide 8. Amide Group
4. acetic acid
9. Carboxyl Group
5. N,N- dimethyaniline,(an aromatic tertiary

amine) 10. Amino Group
Learning Activity 3: Draw Me!
Learners’ Poster May Vary
Prepared by:
ROLEZA M. MAGNO
113
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Structural Isomerism
I am confident that you were able to accomplish all the activities in the previous lesson.
You identified different functional groups of simple molecules of some organic compounds
and from then, you were able to appreciate the practical applications of these organic
compounds. So, I guess you are ready to deepen more your knowledge regarding structural
isomerism.
What are Structural Isomers?

Did you love playing with building blocks when you were young? Remember how you used
the same set of blocks to create different shapes and structures by taking them apart and putting
them back together again? Well, molecular formulas are a lot like building blocks, and they
can provide us with clues about structural isomers.
In theory, molecular formulas tell us how many atoms of each element there are in a molecule.
Just like the building blocks, these atoms can bond together in different ways. Structural
isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but their atoms have different
arrangements or bonds.
Let's take a look at a molecular formula: C4 H10. While the molecular formula can't tell us how
the atoms are arranged, it can help us find some of the possible arrangements. In this case, there
are two different arrangements for this molecular formula: butane and isobutane.
Butane and isobutane have the same number of carbon (C) atoms and hydrogen (H) atoms, so
their molecular formulas are the same. However, each one has a different structural formula,
which shows how the atoms are arranged. So we can say that butane and isobutane are
structural isomers.
114
Now that we know what structural isomers mean, let's discuss the different types of structural
isomers. These include chain isomers, functional group isomers, and positional isomers.
Chain Isomers
Chain isomers are made up of two or more carbon or other compounds with the same molecular
formula but different atomic arrangements, or branches. Imagine removing one carbon
compound and its attachments from a chain and attaching them to another carbon compound
within the chain.
For example, pentane, which has a molecular formula of C 5 H12, has three different chain
isomers. In the following illustration, you'll see that n-pentane, iso-pentane and neopentane are
chain isomers of each other.
n- pentane iso- pentane neopentane
When we switch the CH3 group of pentane, which is pointed by an arrow, with a hydrogen
atom on the carbon chain, we'll have a chain isomer: iso-pentane. Another chain isomer of
pentane is neopentane results from exchanging the CH3 on the left with the H atom, which is
pointed by a red arrow, as well as the other CH3 group on the right with the H atom, which is
pointed by a blue arrow. By switching the hydrogen and CH3 groups on the pentane chain, we
change the way the atoms bond with each other. Here, we can see above all three chain isomers
of pentane.
Chain isomers not only apply to carbon groups on the chain, but also to different atoms that
may be present on the chain. Let's take a look at 2-bromobutane, which has a bromine (Br)
group on the chain.
115
By changing how the carbon, hydrogen, and bromine atoms are attached to the chain, we can
come up with the following chain isomers of 1-bromobutane.
Functional Group Isomers

Molecules are classified according to their functional groups, or groups of atoms or bonds with
unique chemical and physical qualities. Let's take a look at some functional groups, where R
and R' are side groups that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and/or other elements. For example, if
a functional group of CH=O (carbonyl) is attached to a molecule, then this molecule is
classified as an aldehyde. If a functional group of -OH (hydroxyl) is attached to a molecule,
then this molecule is classified as an alcohol.
Functional group isomers have the same molecular formula, but different functional groups on
the chain. For instance, ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether have the same molecular formula, but
different functional groups, which are circled in blue.
Positional Isomers
Positional isomers are constitutional isomers that have the same carbon skeleton and the same
functional groups but differ from each other in the location of the functional groups on or in
the carbon chain.
Example 1: Propyl bromide (1) and isopropyl bromide (2) are constitutional isomers.
They have the same carbon skeleton:
116
They have the same functional group, a bromine atom. The difference between 1 and 2 is in
the location of the bromine atom on the carbon chain. In 1, the bromine atom is on a terminal
carbon atom; in 2, it is on the internal carbon atom. Thus, 1 and 2 are positional isomers.
Example 2: 1-Butene (3) and 2-butene (4) are constitutional isomers.
They have the same carbon skeleton:
They have the same functional group, an alkene group. The difference between 3 and 4 is in
the location of the alkene group in the carbon chain. In 3, the alkene group is terminal; in 4, it
is internal. Thus, 3 and 4 are positional isomers.
Geometric Isomers of Alkenes

Alkanes have single bonds. The CC single bonds are free to rotate with relatively small
energies. However, this is not true for CC double bonds which are restricted and cannot rotate
without breaking the bonds. Therefore, the placement of substituents is crucial to the properties
of the molecules and alkenes exhibit geometric isomers. In the cis isomer, two particular atoms
or group of atoms are adjacent to each other (same side of the double bond). In the trans
isomer, the two groups are across from each other. The cis and trans isomers exhibit distinctly
different chemical and physical properties.
117
Trivia
Did you know?
Decane has 75 isomers and the alkane C30H62 has over 400 million possible
isomers. While many of these do not exist in nature, this illustrates how
carbon forms more compounds than any other element.
file:///D:/GEN.CHEM%201%2020192020/General%20Chemistry%201%
20(1).pdf
✓ Describe structural isomerism; give examples (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-89)
Learning Activity 1
Arrange Me
Directions: Arrange the jumbled letters based from the given description and
clues. Write your answer in space provided before the statement.
1. A I C N H O E S I R M
___________________________ - It is made up of two or more carbon or other compounds
with the same molecular formula but different atomic arrangements, or branches.
2. O O L L A C H
___________________________- The -OH (hydroxyl) is attached to a molecule, then this
molecule is classified as a/an __________________________.
3. E U R A L M C O L O R S A L F U M
____________________________- It tells us how many atoms of each element there are in a
molecule.
4. S C I O E I R M S
____________________________- A group of atoms that are adjacent to each other.
5. R A S T N R S M I E O,
___________________________- A group of atoms that are across from each other.
118
Learning Activity 2
Name and Draw the Isomers
Directions: What are the five isomers of hexane (C6H14)? Draw and write the
IUPAC or common name of each structural isomer in the space provided in any
order.
1.___________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________
119
Learning Activity 3
Structural Analysis
Directions: Analyze the given structural isomers. Write your answer in the
space provided.
a. Identify the parent chain.
b. Name these two isomers.
c. What are the similarities and differences of the two isomers?
(1) _____________________________ (2) ___________________________
Similarities:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Differences:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for Scoring
Learning Activity 1: Arrange Me. Jumbled letters: point system (Total Score (5/5)
120
Learning Activity 2: Name and Draw the Isomers. 1 point for structural isomer, 1 point for
IUPAC or common name (Total Score: 10/10)
Learning Activity 3: Structural Analysis. (Total score: 7/7): (a) parent chain 1 point each
(2/2); (b) correct name 1 point each (2/2); (c) At least 2 similarities (2/2) –in any order and at
least one difference (1/1).
Reflection
Direction: Complete the following statements
I learned that ________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

http://www.ochempal.org/index.php/alphabetical/o-p/positional-isomers/
https://www.chem.tamu.edu/class/fyp/mcquest/ch28.html
https://biologydictionary.net/isomer/
http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/organic/Alkanes/AlkaneText/sec1-9/1-9.htm
http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/350/orgnom/alkenes/alkenes-02.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NgzFok_BA_0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ArZ1g8bvB10
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Arrange Me

1. Chain Isomer 2. Alcohol 3. Molecular Formula 4. Cis Isomer 5. Trans Isomer
Learning Activity 2: Name and Draw the Isomers

1. What are the five isomers of hexane (C6H14) in any order? Draw and write the IUPAC or
common name of each structural isomer.
121
Learning Activity 3: Structural Analysis.
(1) trans-3-methylhex-3-ene (2) cis-3-methylhex-3-ene
Similarities:
✓ Both has 6 carbon parent chain.
✓ Both has 11 hydrogen atoms in the parent chain.
✓ The two alkyl groups are ethyl.
✓ Both has methyl as substituent.
✓
Differences:
o They differ in the alkyl group positioning: trans- if the two alkyl groups, R-, are on
opposite sides of the C=C and cis- if the two alkyl groups, R-, are on the same side of
the C=C.
o The substituent is opposite to the hydrogen atom for trans- and same side for cis-.
Prepared by:
ROLEZA M. MAGNO
122
123
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Reactions of Organic Compounds
Reactions of Alkanes
a. Under suitable conditions, alkanes undergo combustion reactions to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g) → 4 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)
A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing
energy in the form of light and heat. Combustion reactions must involve O 2 as one reactant.
The combustion of hydrogen gas produces water vapor.
Many combustion reactions occur with a hydrocarbon, a compound made up solely of carbon
and hydrogen. The products of the combustion of hydrocarbons are carbon dioxide and water.
Many hydrocarbons are used as fuel because their combustion releases very large amounts of
heat energy. Propane (C3H8) is a gaseous hydrocarbon that is commonly used as the fuel source
in gas grills.
b. Alkanes undergo halogenation reaction where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by
halogen atoms.
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) → CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
methyl chloride
Under excess chlorine, the reaction proceeds further:
CH3Cl (g) + Cl2 (g) → CH2Cl2 (g) + HCl (g)
methylene chloride
CH2Cl2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → CHCl3 (g) + HCl (g)
chloroform
CHCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) → CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)
carbon tetrachloride
124
Reactions of Alkenes
Alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons which are compounds that have double or
triple bonds that enable them to add hydrogen atoms.
a. Addition Reactions: Unsaturated hydrocarbons commonly undergo addition reactions
where one molecule adds to another to form a single product.
Hydrogenation is an example of an addition reaction where hydrogen is added to compounds
containing double bonds usually in the presence of a catalyst.
Hydrogenation is very important in the food industry particularly for vegetable oils.
Alkenes also undergo addition reactions involving hydrogen halide, HX (where X is a
halogen).
C2H4 (g) + HX (g) → H3CCH2X (g)
C2H4 (g) + X2 (g) → CH2XCH2X (g)
Reactions of alkynes
a. Combustion
This reaction gives off a large amount of heat; thus its use in oxyacetylene torches for welding
metals.
2C2H2 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
b. Addition reaction
Hydrogenation: C2H2 (g) + H2 (g) → C2H4 (g)
Reaction with halogens and hydrogen halides:

C2H2 (g) + HX (g) → C2H2CHX (g)
C2H2 (g) + H2 (g) → CHXCHX (g)
What is condensation?
A condensation reaction is a reaction in which two molecules combine to form a single
molecule. A small molecule, often water, is usually removed during a condensation reaction.
Amino acids are important biological molecules that have an amine functional group on one
end of the molecule and a carboxylic acid functional group on the other end. When two amino
acids combine in a condensation reaction, a covalent bond forms between the amine nitrogen
of one amino acid and the carboxyl carbon of the second amino acid. A molecule of water is
then removed as a second product.
Esterification
An esterification is a condensation reaction in which an ester is formed from an alcohol and a
carboxylic acid. Esterification is a subcategory of condensation reactions because a water
molecule is produced in the reaction. The reaction is catalyzed by a strong acid, usually sulfuric
acid. When the carboxylic acid butanoic acid is heated with an excess of methanol and a few
125
drops of sulfuric acid, the ester methyl butanoate is produced. Methyl butanoate has the scent
of pineapples. The reaction is shown below with both molecular and structural formulas.
The esterification reaction is reversible. When an ester is heated in the presence of a strong
base such as sodium hydroxide, the ester breaks down. The products are an alcohol and the
conjugate base of the carboxylic acid as a salt.
The sodium hydroxide is not acting as a catalyst, but is consumed in the reaction.
What is Saponification?
Saponification is simply the process of making soaps. Soaps are just potassium or sodium salts
of long-chain fatty acids. During saponification, ester reacts with an inorganic base to produce
alcohol and soap.
Generally, it occurs when triglycerides are reacted with potassium or sodium hydroxide (lye)
to produce glycerol and fatty acid salt, called ‘soap’.
Saponification Reaction
Triglycerides are generally animal fats and vegetable oils. When they are reacted with sodium
hydroxide, a hard form of soap is created. This is where potassium comes and creates a softer
version of the soap.
The equation can be written as:
Ester + Base ————–> Alcohol + Soap
Example of a Saponification Reaction:
In a saponification reaction, a base (for example sodium hydroxide) reacts with any fat to form
glycerol and soap molecules. One of the saponification reaction taking triglyceride as an ester
and sodium hydroxide as the base is as follows:
126
In this reaction, triglyceride reacts with sodium hydroxide (a strong base) and glycerol is
produced (an acid) along with soap (sodium palmitate). Similarly, potassium soap can be
formed if a strong potassium base (like KOH) is reacted with an ester. This reaction is as
follows:
Trivia Did you know?

The Gugo Queen: an Inventor's Tale
Carlita Rex Doran is a scientist and entrepreneur from Quezon City, in the Republic
of the Philippines (Philippines), who established CRD Herbal Products Inc. (CRD)
in 1996, a company which develops and markets her inventions. The commercial
success of her inventions has made her one of the most revered entrepreneurs in
the country, 1987 when she made scientific experiments with indigenous raw
materials such as bark from the gugo tree (Entada phaseikaudes K Meer, a large,
woody climber), extracts from tropical fruits (coconuts and papaya, for example)
and ingredients such as saponim (a natural, lathery substance found in many plants,
such as the soapwort plant, and traditionally used as soap). Combining these
ingredients into a secret recipe, Mrs. Rex Doran created – in less than a month -
the first gugo shampoo in the Philippines. The entrepreneur’s shampoo success led
to her being referred to as the “Gugo Queen” and encouraged her to develop and
market several other personal care inventions.
https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2696
✓ Describe some simple reactions of organic compounds: combustion of organic fuels,

addition, condensation, and saponification of fats (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-90)
127
Learning Activity 1
Think About Me!
Directions:
Identify the following concepts needed to complete the puzzle board.
Across
1. Always a reactant in the combustion reaction
2. A product known as glycerol
3. The process of making soap
4. Example of halogen atom in additional reaction
5. Two molecules combine to form a single molecule
Down
6. One of the product of combustion reaction
7. A strong base reactant in saponification reaction
8. An example of an addition reaction
9. CCl4
10. Mrs._____ “The Gugo Queen”
1 9
7
8 2 10
128
Learning Activity 2
Identify Organic Chemical Reactions
Directions:
Identify the following according to chemical reactions. Write A if combustion,
B if addition, C if condensation and D if saponification. Write the letter in the
space provided before the number.
_______ 1. C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2
_______ 2. C5H12 + O2 CO2 + H2O
_______ 3. CH3COOH + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 + H2O
_______ 4.
_______5. C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Stopover: Chemistry Challenge
Ethanol can be used as a fuel source in an alcohol lamp.

The formula for ethanol is C2H5OH.
(a) Write the balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol.
(b) Why water as by product is in gas state?
a.
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
b.
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
129
Rubrics for Scoring
Learning Activity 1: Think About Me? Puzzle: Point System (Total Score (10/10)
Learning Activity 2: Identify Organic Chemical Reactions. Identification (Total Score:
5/5)
Stop Over: (a) 2/2; (b) 2/2 (Total Score: 4/4)
2 1 0
Correct and Complete on Somewhat complete Incomplete or late
time
Shows solid understanding Shows some understanding Lack of connections or
using evidence evidence
Organized & easy to Somewhat neat Hard to understand
understand
Reflection
Direction: Complete the following statements.

I learned that _________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
I want to learn more on _________________________________________________
Chemistry LibreTexts, August 13, 202. Combustion Reaction. Retrieved from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_Ch
emistry_(CK-12)/11%3A_Chemical_Reactions/11.6%3A_Combustion_Reactions
Byjus’s The Learning Apps. Saponification. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/chemistry/saponification/
Wipo World Intellectual Property Organizations, September 25, 2015. The Gugo Queen: an
Inventor's Tale. Retrieved from https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2696

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rJp8KItodI
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-
acids- lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/saponification-base-promoted-ester-hydrolysis
130
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Think About Me?

1 9
O X Y G E N C
7
S A
8 2 10
H A L C O H O L R
Y A D B
D R I O
4
C H L O R I N E L U N
O I M T
G T H E
E A Y T
6
N W R D R
A A E R A
T T X O C
I E D X H
O R U I L
N R D O
A E R
5
C O N D E N S A T I O N I
D
3
S A P O N I F I C A T I O N E
Learning Activity 2: Identify Organic Chemical Reactions

1. B- Hydrogenation (Addition Reaction)
2. A- Combustion Reaction
3. C- Esterification (Condensation Reaction)
4. D- Saponification
5. A- Combustion
Stopover!
(a) C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)

(b) Water is produced in gas state rather than the liquid because of the high temperatures that
accompany a combustion reaction.
Prepared by:
ROLEZA M. MAGNO
131
132
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Formation and Structure of Polymers
Today we live in a world where people are accustomed to the consumption of non-
biodegradable materials like plastics, styro-foams, rubber, adhesives and other construction
and household materials. Do you know what makes these materials durable and indestructible?
These materials are actually made of chemical compounds known as “POLYMERS”.
Polymers are large molecules made of simple repeating units. The term is derived from the
Greek word “POLY” meaning “many” and “MER” meaning “part”. These substances are also
known as macromolecules. The small molecules, which make up the polymer, are called
monomers.
There are many different ways of classifying polymers because of their complex
structures, different behaviors and vast applications. However, in this lesson we will only focus
on the classification of polymers based on the source of availability. In this category, there are
three types: Natural, Synthetic, and Semi-synthetic Polymers. Natural polymers occur
naturally and are found in plants and animals. These include proteins, starch, cellulose, rubber,
silk and wool. The DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which contains the genetic instructions for
the development and function of all living things also belong to this category. Semi-synthetic
polymers are natural polymers made by treating them with chemical substances. Examples are
cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate plastics, and cellulose fiber rayon. Synthetic polymers
are human-made derived from petroleum oil. The most common and widely used of this type
is the polyethylene in plastic bottles and plastic bags. Other examples are polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), polyester, teflon and epoxy.
Many common classes of polymers are composed of hydrocarbons, compounds of
carbon and hydrogen. These polymers are specifically made of carbon atoms bonded together,
one to the next, into long chains that are called the backbone of the polymer. Because of the
nature of carbon, one or more other atoms can be attached to each carbon atom in the
backbone. There are polymers that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Polyethylene,
polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene and polymethylpentene are examples of
these. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has chlorine attached to the all-carbon backbone. Teflon has
fluorine attached to the all-carbon backbone.Other common manufactured polymers have
backbones that include elements other than carbon. Nylons contain nitrogen atoms in the repeat
unit backbone. Polyesters and polycarbonates contain oxygen in the backbone. There are also
some polymers that, instead of having a carbon backbone, they have a silicon or phosphorus
backbone. These are considered inorganic polymers.
Polymers generally formed in a process called polymerization. This can be done by
either addition or condensation reaction. In addition polymerization, an initiator (or catalyst)
reacts with a starting monomer. The result of this initiation reaction is a monomer attached to
the initiator with an unsatisfied bond. The unsatisfied bond is free to react with another
monomer, thus adding to the chain. The process repeats over and over again until two chains
133
combine or another initiator binds to the end of the chain, both of which will terminate the
chain. For example, molecules of ethane can polymerize with each other under the right
conditions to form the polymer called polyethylene.
The letter n stands for the number of monomers that are joined in repeated fashion to make the
polymer and can have a value in the hundreds or even thousands.
Polyethylene synthesis.
In condensation polymerization, a monomer with an exposed H (hydrogen) atom

binds with a monomer with exposed OH (oxygen-hydrogen) atoms. During the reaction, water
is released (compensated) as the H and OH combine to form H 2O (water). An example is a
polyamide. An amide is characterized by the functional group shown below wherein the carbon
of the carbonyl group is bonded to the nitrogen of an amine.
Amide
One pair of monomers that can form a polyamide is Adipic acid and Hexanediamine. Adipic
acid is a carboxylic acid with two carboxyl groups on either end of the molecule.
Hexanediamine has amino groups on either end of a six-carbon chain. When these molecules
react with each other, a molecule of water is eliminated, classifying it as condensation reaction.
(see Figure below).
Nylon synthesis
134
The polymer that results from the repetition of the condensation reaction is a polyamide
called nylon-66. Nylon-66 was first invented in 1935 and has been used in all sorts of products.
Source: https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry
Describe the formation and structure of polymers (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-91)
Directions:
1. Perform all the activities/exercises presented in this learning activity sheet.

2. Follow the procedures for each activity, fill in all necessary information in the
tables/diagrams, and answer the guide questions correctly.
3. If you have questions, you can ask any of your members or contact your subject
teacher if concepts/topics presented here are not clear.
4. All activities should be documented by taking photos during the performance of
every activity. Documentation is always part of your final output.
5. Good luck and enjoy learning!
Learning Activity 1
Make a Polymer
This activity enables you to simulate the formation of a polymer from a monomer.
Prepare the following materials:
1 box paper clips with different colors
bond paper
pencil
Procedure
1. Assign a specific color of paper clip for each element composition of a polymer as follows:
red - Carbon
yellow - Hydrogen
green - Oxygen
blue - Chlorine
2. Given the chemical formula of the following compounds, construct a skeletal structure of
the molecule by connecting the paper clips based on the color-coding. Draw or take a
picture of each molecule.
ethylene CH2=CH2
propylene CH2=CHCH3
vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl
styrene CH2=CHC6H5
Present your data using the table below.

135
Table 1.
Name of Molecule Chemical Picture/Drawing of the Number of
Formula Molecular Structure Units
ethylene CH2=CH2
propylene CH2=CHCH3
styrene
CH2=CHC6H5
3. Make more skeletal structure of the chemical compounds in number 2. Construct a larger
molecular structure by connecting three or more units of each of the molecules made. Draw
or take a picture of the large molecules made and present it using the table below.
Table 2.
Name of Molecule Picture/Drawing of the Monomer Number
Molecular Structure Structure of Units
Polyethylene
polypropylene
polyvinyl chloride
polystyrene
4. Draw the structure of the polymer that would form when three of the
following molecules react.
136
Table 3
Monomer Polymer Structure
a.
b.
c.
5. Identify the type of polymerization in each of the following.
For additional resources, you may check the links below
Read
Addition polymerization and Condensation polymerization:
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook-
2.0/section/25.21/primary/lesson/polymerization-%E2%80%93-condensation-
polymers-chem
https://www.materialsworldmodules.org/resources/polimarization/2-
polymers+monomers.html
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/polymers.htm
137
Watch
The following videos discuss addition and condensation polymerization.
https://youtu.be/o3Hq4gXuKB0
https://youtu.be/-d14DmSBuAQ
Guide Questions
1. Compare the skeletal structure of the molecules you made in number 2 and number 3.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What do you call the molecules in Table 1?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What do you call the molecules in Table 2? Explain how these molecules are formed.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Rubrics for Scoring
1. In Activity 1, Tables 1 and 2 will be given each a 5- point score upon completion of
the needed data regardless of the accuracy of answers. Additional five (5) points shall
be given if all items are correct. In Numbers 4 and 5, each item with the correct answer
shall be given a score of two (2) points.
138
2. Answers to guide questions will be given a score based on the adapted rubric below.
Criteria
Score
4 3 2 1
Structure All sentences are well Most sentences are Most sentences are Sentences sound
constructed and have well constructed well constructed, awkward, are
varied structure and and have varied but they have a distractingly
length. The author structure and similar structure repetitive, or are
makes no errors in length. The author and/or length. The difficult to
grammar, mechanics, makes a few errors author makes understand. The
and/or spelling. in grammar, several errors in author makes
mechanics, and/or grammar, numerous errors in
spelling, but they mechanics, and/or grammar,
do not interfere spelling that mechanics, and/or
with interfere with spelling that
understanding. understanding. interfere with
understanding.
Content There is one clear, There is one clear, There is one topic. The topic and main
well focused topic. well focused topic. Main ideas are ideas are not clear
Main ideas are clear Main ideas are somewhat clear.
and are well clear but are not
supported by detailed well supported by
and accurate detailed
information. information.
Total Score: ________ Evaluator’s Name and Signature: _____________________
Adapted from http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/printouts/30700_rubric.pdf
Reflection
1. I learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
139
https://byjus.com/jee/polymers/#Classification-of-Polymers
ck-12.org/CBSE Chemistry Book Class 12
2.0/section/25.21/primary/lesson/polymerization-%E2%80%93-condensation-polymers-chem
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2208
https://www.materialsworldmodules.org/resources/polimarization/2-
polymers+monomers.html
https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastics/The-Basics/
https://www.thoughtco.com/monomers-and-polymers-intro-608928
140
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Make a Polymer

Table 1.
Name of Molecule Chemical Picture/Drawing of the Number of
Formula Molecular Structure Units
1
ethylene CH2=CH2
1
propylene CH2=CHCH3
1
1
styrene CH2=CHC6H5
Table 2.
Name of Picture/Drawing of the Molecular Monomer Number
Molecule Structure Structure of Units
6
polyethylene
4
polypropylen
e
3
polyvinyl
chloride
141
3
polystyrene
Answers in columns 2 and 4 may vary.
Table 3
Monomer Polymer Structure
a.
b.
c.
Type of polymerization:
142
Answers to Guide Question:
1. Compare the skeletal structure of the molecules you made in numbers 2 and 3. What
do you call the molecules in number 1?
The molecules in number 1 contain only one single unit making it small or
simple. On the other hand, molecules in number 2 contain more than two or
many units making them larger and more complex.
2. What do you call the molecules in Table 1?
The molecules in Table 1 are called MONOMERS.
3. What do you call the molecules in Table 2? Explain how these molecules are formed.
The molecules in Table 2 are called polymers. These are formed by the process
known as polymerization. This process has two methods: addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization. In addition to polymerization, a monomer reacts with
an initiator (or catalyst) resulting in an unsatisfied bond that is free to react with
another monomer. The process repeats over and over again until two chains combine
or another initiator binds to the end of the chain, both of which will terminate the
chain. In condensation polymerization, a monomer with an exposed H (hydrogen)
atom binds with a monomer with exposed OH (oxygen-hydrogen) atoms. During the
reaction, a polymer is formed and water is released (compensated) as the H and OH
combine to form H2O (water).
Prepared by:
MARIA ROSARIO C. ESPIRITU
Roxas Stand-Alone Senior High School
143
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Explain the Properties of Some Polymers in Terms of their
Structure
In the previous lesson, you have learned that the formation and structure of polymers varies
from each other. Polymers also exhibit different properties dependent of its structure. They
differ in hardness, density, flexibility, strength, being opaque or transparent, reactivity and
thermal response. As the chain length and cross-linking increases, the tensile strength of the
polymer increases. They do not melt, they change state from crystalline to semi-crystalline.
Compared to conventional molecules with different side molecules, the polymer is enabled
with hydrogen and ionic bonding resulting in better cross-linking strength. Dipole-dipole
bonding side chains enable the polymer for high flexibility. Polymers with Van der Waals
forces linking chains are known to be weak, but give the polymer a low melting point.
Explain the properties of some polymers in terms of their structure

(STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-93)
Directions:

Learning Activity 1
Properties of Polymer
Procedure
144
Task 1:
The pictures below are some examples of polymers commonly used in our life.
Based on your experience in using the given materials, describe their characteristics in terms
of the following:
A. physical appearance as to texture (smooth/rough)

B. hardness (hard/soft)
C. flexibility (stretchable/not)
D. Strength (breakable/not)
E. water resistance ( change in physical appearance upon addition of water)
F. heat resistance ( change in physical appearance upon heating)
A B
C D
Write your answer in the table below. (Note: Write N/A for not applicable items)
Table 1. Physical Properties of Polymers.

Name of the Texture Hardness Flexibility Strength
Material (smooth/rough) (hard/soft) (stretchable/no (breakabl
t) e/not)
A.
145
B.
C.
D.
Task 2.
Describe what happens to the given materials when you add water or apply heat.
(NOTE! DO NOT PERFORM THE ACTIVITY. BASE YOUR OBSERVATION FROM
YOUR EXPERIENCE. IF NOT YET EXPERIENCED, JUST LEAVE THE ITEM
BLANK)
Select the chemical name and structure of the given materials from the list below.
Chemical composition
polystyrene
polyethylene
amylopectin
polyvinyl chloride
Structure
146
Table 2. Chemical Structure and Properties of Polymers
Chemical Name of the Structure Water Resistance Heat

Material (Yes/No) Resistance
(Yes/No)
A polyethylene
B polystyrene
C polyvinyl chloride
D amylopectin
Read
Characteristics of Polymers
The majority of manufactured polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that once the
polymer is formed it can be heated and reformed over and over again. This property allows for
easy processing and facilitates recycling. The other group, the thermosets, cannot be remelted.
Once these polymers are formed, reheating will cause the material to ultimately degrade, but
not melt.
Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following
general attributes.
1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in your
home that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that describe what
147
happens when the chemical comes in contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will
emphasize the need for chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents
easily dissolve some plastics, other plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for
aggressive solvents.
2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house
will reinforce this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets
and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is
evident in the kitchen with pot and pan handles made of polymers, the coffee pot
handles, the foam core of refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and
microwave cookware. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.
3. Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of

strength. Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame structure of space
stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which is used in
bulletproof vests. Some polymers float in water while others sink. But, compared to
the density of stone, concrete, steel, copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight
materials.
4. Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers or heavy
pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can produce very intricate parts or
large car body panels. Plastics can be molded into drums or be mixed with solvents to
become adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very flexible.
Some plastics are stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink
bottles. Other polymers can be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam™), polyurethane
and polyethylene.
5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and

colors. Polymers have many inherent properties that can be further enhanced by a wide
range of additives to broaden their uses and applications. Polymers can be made to
mimic cotton, silk, and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and
zinc. Polymers can also make possible products that do not readily come from the
natural world, such as clear sheets and flexible films.
6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many polymers are made
of repeat units derived from natural gas or coal or crude oil. But building block repeat
units can sometimes be made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from
corn or cellulosics from cotton linters. Some plastics have always been made from
renewable materials such as cellulose acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift
ribbon. When the building blocks can be made more economically from renewable
materials than from fossil fuels, either old plastics find new raw materials or new
plastics are introduced.
7. Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other
materials. Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof films. PVC is used to make
medical tubing and blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and blood
products. PVC safely delivers flammable oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And
148
anti-thrombogenic material, such as heparin, can be incorporated into flexible PVC
catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and blood collection. Many medical devices
rely on polymers to permit effective functioning.
Guide Questions:
1. Based on your observation and experience in using some polymers at your home,
what are the general properties of polymers?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
2. How does the structure of a polymer affect its properties? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
Rubrics for Scoring
1. In Table 1, a 20-point score shall be given upon completion of the needed data
regardless of the accuracy of answers. In Table 2, each item under columns 2, 4 and 5
with the correct answer shall be given a score of one (1) point while items in column 3
shall be given two (2) points each.
The rubric will be utilized in activities 1 and 2.
Criteria
Score
4 3 2 1
Structure All sentences are Most sentences are Most sentences are Sentences sound
well constructed well constructed well constructed, awkward, are
and have varied and have varied but they have a distractingly
structure and structure and similar structure repetitive, or are
length. The author length. The author and/or length. The difficult to
makes no errors in makes a few errors author makes understand. The
grammar, in grammar, several errors in author makes
mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or grammar, numerous errors
spelling. spelling, but they mechanics, and/or in grammar,
do not interfere spelling that mechanics,
149
with interfere with and/or spelling
understanding. understanding. that interfere with
understanding.
Content There is one clear, There is one clear, There is one topic. The topic and
well focused topic. well focused topic. Main ideas are main ideas are not
Main ideas are Main ideas are somewhat clear. clear
clear and are well clear but are not
supported by well supported by
detailed and detailed
accurate information.
information.
Total Score: ________ Evaluator’s Name and Signature: ____________________
Reflection
Direction: Complete the following statements.

1. I learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Foundation, C. (2021). CK12-Foundation. Retrieved 30 March 2021, from

2.0/section/25.21/primary/lesson/polymerization-%e2%80%93-condensation-
polymers-chem
Polymer Formation | MATSE 81: Materials In Today's World. (2021). Retrieved 30 March
2021, from https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2208
The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties. (2021). Retrieved 30 March 2021, from
https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastics/The-Basics/
What are Monomers and Polymers and How Do They Fit Together?. (2021). Retrieved 30
March 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/monomers-and-polymers-intro-608928
150
Answer Key
Table 1. Physical Properties of Polymers.

Name of the Texture Hardness Flexibility Strength
Material (smooth (hard/soft) (stretchable/not) (breakable/not)
/rough)
A. Plastic bag Smooth Soft Stretchable Unbreakable
B. Styrofoam Smooth Soft Non-Stretchable Unbreakable
C. PVC pipe Smooth Hard Non-stretchable Unbreakable
D. Starch Smooth Soft N/A N/A
Table 2. Chemical Structure and Properties of Polymers
Chemical Structure Water Heat

Name of the Resistance Resistan
Material (Yes/No) ce
(Yes/No)
A. polyethylene YES NO
B. polystyrene YES NO
C. polyvinyl YES NO
chloride
151
D. amylopectin NO NO
Questions:
1. Based on your observation and experience in using some polymers at your home, cite the
general properties of polymers?
Polymers generally are smooth, elastic, have low density, high tensile strength making
it durable, water resistant, and have low melting point making it non-resistant to heat.
(Answer may vary)
2. How does the structure of a polymer structure affect its properties? Explain.
Polymers are made up of monomers bonded by different molecular interactions thus,
they exhibit different properties. Monomers forming linear chains with weak bonding tend
to be more elastic and soft. Polymers with strong forces of interaction between the
monomer in both linear and between the chains have higher tensile strength and tend to be
durable. As chain length and cross-linking increases the tensile strength of the polymer
increases. Polymers with Van der Waals forces linking chains have low melting point and
tend to be weak. Polymers with straight chains have higher density because they pack
closely with each other unlike if it is branched, it cannot be packed closely.
(Answer may vary)
Prepared by:
MARIA ROSARIO C. ESPIRITU, RPh
152
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Describe the Structure of Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Lipids, and
Carbohydrates and Relate Them to their Functions
As discussed in the previous lesson, a monomer is a single unit of molecules and a

polymer is a large molecule made up of many monomers linked together with a bond.
Polymers are either man-made or natural. Natural polymers are substances that are produced
by plants and animals or extensively found in nature. Our body is also made up of these organic
molecules known as “biomolecules”.
Biological macromolecules (biomolecules) are large molecules built from smaller

organic molecules that are necessary for the development and continuity of life. There are four
major classes: proteins, nucleic acids (found in DNA and RNA), lipids, and carbohydrates.
In this lesson, we will discuss each group of macromolecules and compare each other
in terms of structure and functions.
Describe the structure of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates, and relate them to
their function (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-95)
Directions:

153
Learning Activity 1
Think-Pair-Share BIOMOLECULES
Read
Proteins are essential in all living organisms as these are the components of body
tissues like muscles, hemoglobin, hair, and collagen. They act as enzymes, receptors,
hormones, transport molecules, antibodies and regulatory proteins for gene expression. A
protein molecule is very large compared with other biomolecules and consists of many amino
acids joined together by a peptide bond to form long chains like beads arranged on a string.
Amino acids, as monomers of proteins, are organic molecules that contains both an
amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a side chain (R), bonded to a central
carbon atom. (See figure 1 below for the structure of an amino acid)
Figure 1. An amino acid has a central asymmetric carbon to which an amino group, a
carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group) are attached.
Source: lumenlearning.com
The structure of protein is very complex and can be broken down into four levels as
shown in the Figure below.
Figure 2. Four levels of Protein Structure

Source: microbenotes.com
154
The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. The local folding of the
polypeptide to form structures such as the α helix and β-pleated sheet constitutes the secondary
structure. The overall three-dimensional structure is the tertiary structure. When two or more
polypeptides combine to form the complete protein structure, the configuration is known as the
quaternary structure of a protein. Protein shape and function are intricately linked; any change
in shape caused by changes in temperature or pH may lead to protein denaturation and a loss
in function. For example, an enzyme binds to a specific receptor in order to elicit a response.
If the shape of the protein receptor is altered, the enzyme may not be able to bind into it, thus,
making the enzyme inactive or ineffective.
Nucleic acids are molecules made up of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell
division and protein synthesis. A nucleotide molecule contains a five-carbon sugar (pentose),
a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. The five-carbon sugar is either ribose, in
case of RNA, and deoxyribose, in case of DNA. The only difference between the two molecules
is the presence of a hydroxyl group attached to one member of the carbon ring in RNA. In
DNA, that same carbon atom is attached only to a hydrogen atom. (see Figure below).
Figure 3. Nucleotide structure
Three of the bases in RNA and DNA are identical (adenine, cytosine, and guanine).
Thymine is found in DNA while uracil is found in RNA. These macromolecules carry the
genetic blueprint of a cell making them very important for the continuity of life.
Lipids are nonpolar compounds that make up living things and carry out life processes.
These are the major components of cell membranes and used to store energy. This group of
biomolecules consists mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which may be in carbon-carbon
or carbon hydrogen bonds. Examples are fats and oils. Both fats and oils are made up of long
chains of carbon atoms that are bonded together to form a chain called fatty acids which may
be saturated (if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon
chain) or unsaturated (when the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond). (See figure 4.)
Stearic acid is a common saturated fatty acid
155
Oleic acid is a common unsaturated fatty acid.
Figure 4. Fatty Acids

Fats, also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides, contains three molecules of fatty

acids attached to a glycerol by a dehydration reaction.(see Figure 4 below). These serve as long
storage of energy in the human body.
Figure 5. A triglyceride molecule.

Some lipids contain the element phosphorus in addition to C, H, and O, called

“phospholipids” which make up the cell membrane. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid
chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached as
in triglycerides, however, there are two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol, and the third carbon
of the glycerol backbone is occupied by a modified phosphate group. (see Figure 6).
Figure 6. Structure of a phospholipid molecule.

Another example of lipids are steroids like cholesterol. Unlike the phospholipids and
fats, these molecules are composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings. Cholesterol is an
important constituent of the plasma membrane, where it helps to maintain the fluid nature of
the membrane. It is also the precursor of steroid hormones such as testosterone. For the
structure of a cholesterol, see Figure 7.
156
Figure 7. Structure of a cholesterol molecule.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant source of energy found in most foods. This
group of macromolecules provides energy sources for the cell and serve as structural support
to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and
spiders. Majority of this group contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1,
making for an empirical formula of CH2O. These are monomers and polymers of aldehydes
and ketones that have multiple hydroxyl groups attached. Carbohydrates are classified based
on the number of sugar units: monosaccharide with one unit; disaccharide with two units; and
polysaccharide with three or more units.
Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed as a result of
dehydration reactions, forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with the elimination of a
water molecule for each bond formed. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common
monosaccharides, whereas common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch
and glycogen, examples of polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose in plants and
animals, respectively. The long polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched.
Cellulose is an example of an unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent
of starch, is a highly branched molecule. Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch
of glycogen, makes it slightly less accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from
leaking out of the cell or creating a high osmotic pressure that could cause excessive water
uptake by the cell.
The figure below shows molecular structure of carbohydrates (Figure 8).
monosaccharide, disaccharide unbranched polysaccharide

and branched polysaccharide
Figure 8. Structure carbohydrate molecules

157
For further understanding about the structure and functions of biomolecules, you may watch
the link below.
Watch
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1zeAWuTxzIhZUoPYY9xjGVrnu9jltDSQh/view
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1R669QvbHdhX1T0w8ugUuD9i8lxhQ0djg/view
A. Pair the items on the left to the items on the right by writing the letters on the space
provided.
1. monomer biomolecule
Fatty acids and glycerol A. protein
Monosaccharide B. lipid
Nucleotide C. carbohydrate
Amino acid D. nucleic acid
2. polymer biomolecule
DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) A. protein

Enzyme B. lipid
Triglyceride C. nucleic acid
Polysaccharide D. carbohydrate
cholesterol
3. polymer monomer
enzyme A. glucose
triglyceride B. fatty acids and glycerol
starch C. amino acid
DNA D. nucleotide
glycogen
cellulose
B. Review the reading article and video presented in Activity 1. (Note: The video is just
a supplement for further understanding of the topic, you may refer to the given
reading material if unable to access.)
Look at the molecular structure of the biomolecules presented in the table below.
158
Table 1. Biomolecule Structure Chart.
Biological Structure Biological Structure
Macromolec Macromolecule
ule
Lipids
Triglyceride
Carbohydrates
Phospholipid
Nucleic Acids
Cholesterol
Proteins
Based on the table above, and with your knowledge in the previous lessons,
a. describe the structure of the four biomolecules;
b. identify the functional group and elemental composition; and
c. list down the functions and examples of each biomolecule.
Summarize it by filling in the “BIOMOLECULE CHART”. The first item was done for you as
an example.
159
Table 2. Biomolecule Chart
Biological Structure Monomer & Elemental Function Example
Macromol Polymer composition/
ecule (Write N/A for Functional
items that do Group
not apply)
4 LEVELS OF Enzymes Hemoglobin
STRUCTURE: Monomer: (biological Insulin
Primary- Amino acid C,H,O,N catalysts), Collagen
sequence of oxygen Keratin
amino acid chain Polymer: carrier,
Secondary-local Polypeptide Amine generate
folding of the movement
polypeptide Carboxyl (contraction),
chain into helices group provide
or sheets structure
Tertiary-three
Proteins dimensional
folding pattern of
a protein due to
side chain
interactions
Quaternary-
protein
consisting of
more than one
amino acid
chain.
Monomer:
__________
Nucleic
Acids
Polymer:
__________
160
Lipids Monomer:
Tri- __________
glyceride
Polymer:
__________
Monomer:
__________
Phospho-
lipid Polymer:
__________
Monomer:
__________
Choleste- Polymer:
rol __________
Monomer:
__________
Carbohy- Dimer:
drates __________
Polymer:
__________
Guide Questions
1. Why are proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates called “biomolecules”?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. How does the structure of biomolecules related to its functions? Cite examples and
explain.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
161
Rubrics for Scoring
1. In Activity A, Numbers 1 to 5, each item with the correct answer shall be given a score
of one (1) point.
2. Table 2 is a formative assessment so it will be given a 20 points score if completed, 15
points if 75% completed and 10 points if less than 75% completed. Score will just be
recorded but will not be included in the computation of grade.
Criteria
Score
4 3 2 1
Structure All sentences are well Most sentences are Most sentences are Sentences sound
constructed and have well constructed well constructed, awkward, are distractingly
varied structure and and have varied but they have a repetitive, or are difficult
length. The author structure and similar structure to understand. The author
makes no errors in length. The author and/or length. The makes numerous errors in
grammar, mechanics, makes a few errors author makes grammar, mechanics,
and/or spelling. in grammar, several errors in and/or spelling that
mechanics, and/or grammar, interfere with
spelling, but they mechanics, and/or understanding.
do not interfere spelling that
with interfere with
understanding. understanding.
Content There is one clear, There is one clear, There is one topic. The topic and main ideas
well focused topic. well focused topic. Main ideas are are not clear
Main ideas are clear Main ideas are somewhat clear.
and are well clear but are not
supported by detailed well supported by
and accurate detailed
information. information.
Total Score: ________ Evaluator’s Name and Signature: _____________________
Reflection
1. I learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
162
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry/
Learning, L. (2021). Biology for Majors I | Simple Book Production. Retrieved 30 March 2021,
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/
Meet Google Drive – One place for all your files. (2021). Retrieved 30 March 2021, from
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1zeAWuTxzIhZUoPYY9xjGVrnu9jltDSQh/view?pli=1
PHSchool.com Retirement Notice - Savvas Learning Company. (2021). Retrieved 30 March

2021, from https://www.savvas.com/index.cfm?locator=PS3g2v
163
Answer Key
Learning Activity 1: Think-Pair-Share BIOMOLECULES
A. Pair the items on the left to the items on the right by writing the letters on the space
provided.
1. monomer biomolecule
Fatty acids and glycerol D A. protein
Monosaccharide C B. lipid
Nucleotide D C. carbohydrate
Amino acid A D. nucleic acid
2. polymer biomolecule
DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) C A. protein

Enzyme A B. lipid
Triglyceride B C. nucleic acid
Polysaccharide D D. carbohydrate
cholesterol B
3. polymer monomer
enzyme C A. glucose
triglyceride B B. fatty acids and glycerol
starch A C. amino acid
DNA D D. nucleotide
glycogen A
cellulose A
B. Biomolecule Chart
Biological Structure Monomer & Elemental Function Example

Macromo Polymer composition/
lecule (Write N/A for Functional
items that do not Group
apply)
4 LEVELS OF Enzymes Hemoglobin
STRUCTURE: Monomer: (biological Insulin
Proteins Primary- Amino acid C,H,O,N catalysts), Collagen
sequence of oxygen Keratin
amino acid chain Polymer: carrier,
164
Secondary-local Polypeptide Amine generate
folding of the movement
polypeptide Carboxyl (contractio
chain into group n), provide
helices or sheets structure
Tertiary-three
dimensional
folding pattern
of a protein due
to side chain
interactions
Quaternary-
protein
consisting of
more than one
amino acid
chain.
It is composed of Monomer: C,H,O,N,P Encoding,

nucleotides that Nucleotide transmittin
contain a five- Nitrogen base g, and
carbon sugar (amine) expressing DNA
(pentose), a Polymer: genetic RNA
phosphate DNA polymer Phosphate, informatio
Nucleic group, and a RNA polymer n
Acids nitrogen- Sugar
containing base. (aldehyde,
The five-carbon ketone)
sugar is either
ribose, in case of
RNA, and
deoxyribose, in
case of DNA
Lipids Monomers: C,H,O Energy Saturated

Tri- It contains 3 Storage fats
glyceride fatty acid chains Fatty acid Ester Protection Unsaturated
connected to a Glycerol hydroxyl Insulation Fats
glycerol group.
Monomer: C,H,O,P Cell
Phospho- It contains 2 Fatty acid Ester Permeabilit membrane
lipid fatty acid chains, Hydroxyl y in the cell
1 glycerol group Polymer: phosphate membrane
and 1 phosphate N/A
group.
Choles- Monomer: C,H,O Provides

terol It has a Fatty acid structure to Steroids
Hydrocarbon Hydroxyl the cell Testosterone
tail, 4 carbon Polymer: membrane,
165
rings and N/A precursor Progesteron
attached to a to steroid e
hydroxyl group hormones Cortisol
Contain carbon, Monomer: C,H,O Energy Glucose,

Carbo- hydrogen and Monosaccharide supply fructose,
hydrates oxygen in a ratio aldehyde galactose,
of 1:2:1. deoxyribose
Monomers and ketone , ribose
polymers of
aldehydes and Dimer: Energy Lactose,
ketones that Disaccharide supply maltose,
have multiple sucrose
hydroxyl groups
attached.
Polymer: Structure, Starch,
Polysaccharide storage, glycogen,
dietary chitin,
fiber cellulose
Answers to Guide Questions
1. Why are proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates called “biomolecules”?
Proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates are called biomolecules because these
molecules are the major chemical components of all living things and very essential in the
development and continuity of life.
(Answers may vary)
2. How does the structure of biomolecules relate to its functions? Cite an example and
explain.
The molecular structure of biomolecules is specialized specific to their functions. For
example, carbohydrates like starch and glycogen have a long chain of glucose molecules in
order to store more energy. Lipids like phospholipid have phosphate molecules and a long chain
of fatty acids in order to make the cell membrane semi-permeable. Proteins have a long chain
of amino acids arranged in a sequence dependent on their functions. For example, an enzyme
binds only to a protein receptor that fits into its shape in order to elicit a response or activity.
Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA have chains of nucleotides wherein the arrangement of the
bases determines the instruction or genetic code.
(Answers may vary)
Prepared by:

166
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Section: _______________________________________ Date: _________________

Preparation of Selected Organic Compounds
You have learned in the previous lessons about polymers and biomolecules. What do these
substances have in common? If you think that, they all have the carbon atoms bonded with
other atoms like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and halogen, you are right! These substances
belong to the group of compounds known as “organic compounds”.
In history, it was thought that only living things were capable of synthesizing carbon-
containing compounds. Eventually, it was proven that these compounds could be synthesize
from inorganic substances by chemical reactions. Organic reactions require the breaking of
strong covalent bonds, which requires input of energy and a catalyst. In this lesson, you will
learn about various general categories of organic reactions in the preparation of organic
compounds.
There are over a million known organic compounds, but you will only focus on some
organic compounds commonly found at home.
Describe the preparation of selected organic compounds (STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-97)
Directions:

167
Learning Activity 1
Preparation of Selected Organic Compounds
Seek Me first
1. The puzzle box below contains nine (9) organic compounds. Locate and encircle
them.
E N I E F F A C C H T S
D F A T T Y A C I D F T
I F A G T S L C I D E L
C C H H N O U M E S T E
A E A T N H T C O T E T
C T N A T N H T R S E A
I I H E O S C C O O A R
T T L L X A A R X C S A
E T H Y L A C E T A T E
C O G H J U R C I M S T
A D I C A O N I M A D S
L H B S S S O D I U M A
2. The organic compounds you have found in the puzzle box are the components of
the things commonly found at your home. Match these organic compounds to the
items below.
1. cooking oil ____________________________________

2. vinegar ____________________________________
3. coffee ____________________________________
4. wine ____________________________________
5. soap ____________________________________
6. sugar ____________________________________
7. margarine ____________________________________
8. perfumes ____________________________________
9. milk ____________________________________
10. eggs ____________________________________
168
Read
Some organic compounds occur naturally in plants and animals, while others are
prepared synthetically. Such preparation involves several chemical reactions: substitution,
addition, condensation, saponification and polymerization.
Substitution Reactions
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one or more atoms replace another atom
or group of atoms in a molecule. Alkyl halides are formed by the substitution of a halogen atom
for a hydrogen atom. For example, when methane reacts with chlorine gas, ultraviolet light can
act as a catalyst for the reaction to produce chloromethane and hydrogen chloride.
When the mixture is allowed to react for longer periods of time further substitution
reactions may occur producing dichloromethane.
Addition Reactions
An addition reaction is a reaction in which an atom or molecule is added to another
molecule, making a single product. It can be thought of as adding a molecule across the double
or triple bond of an alkene or carbonyl or across the triple bond of alkyne. Types of additional
reactions include hydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation.
Hydrogenation is a reaction that occurs when molecular hydrogen is added to an
alkene to produce an alkane. The reaction is typically performed with the use of a transition
metal catalyst. For example, ethene reacts with hydrogen to form ethane.
This chemical reaction is also involved in the saturation of fats. The carbon chains of
fatty acids in vegetable oils are unsaturated, usually containing multiple double bonds. When
hydrogen gas is blown through a sample of the oil, hydrogen atoms add across the double
bonds. This conversion changes the substance from a liquid oil into a solid fat like in the
production of margarine from vegetable oils.
Hydration is a chemical reaction involving addition of water into an alkene. This can take
place when the alkene and water are heated to near 100°C in the presence of strong acid, which
acts as a catalyst. For example, ethanol is produced by hydration of ethane.
Oxidation reactions often involve the addition of oxygen to a compound, which changes the
functional group that is present in it. For example, methane is oxidized first to methanol, then
to methanol, then to methanoic acid, and finally to carbon dioxide.
169
The oxidation of alcohol can produce either an aldehyde or a ketone. Ethanol can be
oxidized in the laboratory by slight warming combined with the addition of an oxidizing agent
such as the dichromate ion, which catalyzes this reaction in acidic solution. The reaction
produces the aldehyde ethanal. When a primary alcohol, ethanal, is oxidized to an aldehyde in
the presence of water, the reaction can be difficult to stop because the aldehyde can be further
oxidized to the corresponding carboxylic acid. This produces ethanoic acid or acetic acid. The
production of wine through fermentation involves this process.
Condensation Reaction
Condensation reaction is a reaction in which two molecules combine to form a single

molecule usually accompanied by the removal of water molecules. For example, amino acids
combine in this process to make protein molecules.
Amino acids join together to form a molecule called a dipeptide. The –OH from the
carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with a hydrogen atom from the amino group of
the other amino acid to produce water (blue).
Source: CK 12.org/flexbook/Chemistry Intermediate
A subcategory of condensation reaction is known as esterification. This is a reaction

in which an ester is formed from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid with the release of water
molecules. An example is the ethyl acetate, which is used in the production of cosmetics and
perfumes.
Esterification reaction is reversible. When an ester is heated in the presence of a strong

base such as sodium hydroxide, the ester breaks down producing alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
170
Saponification Reaction
Saponification describes the alkaline hydrolysis reaction of an ester. This involves the
hydrolysis of long-chain esters called fatty acids esters to produce soap molecules, which are
salts of fatty acids. One such soap molecule is sodium stearate, formed from the hydrolysis of
ethyl stearate.
Polymerization
Polymerization as discussed in the previous lesson is another process of preparing organic

compounds.
Source: CK12-Flexbook-Chemistry-Intermediate
Guide Questions
Give at least three (3) organic compounds from the puzzle box. Explain how these
compounds are prepared.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Rubrics for Scoring

1. In numbers 1 and 2 of this activity, each item with the correct answer shall be given a
score of one (1) point.
2. Answers to the guide question will be given a score based on the rubric below.
171
Criteria Score
4 3 2 1
Content There are three organic There are three There are less than Presented less
and compounds presented. organic compounds three organic than three
structure Explained clearly the presented. Explained compounds organic
preparation of each the preparation of less presented. compounds
organic compound. than three organic Explanation is not so without any
compounds. clear. explanation of
Sentences are its preparation.
constructed with correct Sentences are Sentences are
grammar and spelling. constructed with constructed with few
correct grammar and errors in grammar Sentences are
spelling. and spelling. constructed
with numerous
errors in
grammar and
spelling.
Total Score: _rubric score X 2_
Reflection
1. I learned that
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry/
Organic Compounds Examples. (2021). Retrieved 30 March 2021, from

https://www.softschools.com/examples/science/organic_compounds_examples/29/
What are Monomers and Polymers and How Do They Fit Together?. (2021). Retrieved 30
March 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/monomers-and-polymers-intro-608928
172
Answer Key
1. Puzzle box
E N I E F F A C C H T S
D F A T T Y A C I D F T
I F A G T S L C I D E L
C C H H N O U M E S T E
A E A T N H T C O T E T
C T N A T N H T R S E A
I I H E O S C C O O A R
T T L L X A A R X C S A
E T H Y L A C E T A T E
C O G H J U R C I M S T
A D I C A O N I M A D S
L H B S S S O D I U M A
2. The following things that are commonly found at your home contain organic
substances. Indicate the name of the organic compounds that you have found in the
puzzle box present in each item.
1. cooking oil ___fatty acids____

2. vinegar ___acetic acid____
3. coffee ____caffeine______
4. wine ____ethanol_______
5. soap ____sodium stearate_
6. sugar ____sucrose_______
7. margarine ____fatty acids_____
8. perfumes ____ethylacetate____
9. milk ____lactose________
10. eggs ____amino acids____
173
Answers to Guide Question:
Give at least three (3) organic compounds from the puzzle box. Explain how these
compounds are prepared.
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), ethyl acetate, acetic acid and sodium stearate can be prepared
through chemical reactions. Ethyl alcohol can be prepared by a hydration process wherein
ethane and water are heated to near 100°C in the presence of strong acid as catalyst. It can
also be produced by fermentation of sugars wherein oxidation reaction is involved in the
presence of yeast as catalyst.
Ethyl acetate can be made by esterification wherein it is formed from an alcohol and a
carboxylic acid with the release of water molecules. Reversibly alcohol and carboxylic acid
could be produced in the presence of strong bases like sodium hydroxide.
Sodium stearate, a component of soap, is formed by saponification process. This

involves hydrolysis of long-chain esters called fatty acid esters to produce soap molecules,
which are salts of fatty acids.
(Answers may vary)
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General Chemistry 1 Las Quarter 4

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11

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

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Printed by DepEd Regional Office No. 02

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Describe the preparation of selected organic compounds

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LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Background Information for Learners

Dual Nature of Light

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Source: https://www. britannica.

Heisenberg used a different mathematical approach to locate the possible location of

Heisenberg uncertainty principle (x)( mv) ≥

If (x)( ⊗mv) ≥ then ((x) ≥

Quantum mechanical model

Learning Competency with Code

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How to use the material?

Principal Quantum Number, n

n = the maximum number of electrons for an n is 1; thus n value is 2(1)2 = 2

Azimuthal Quantum Number, l

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l Sublevel Orbital Shape

⮚ A sublevel in a particular main energy level is defined by its n and l values.

Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

Spin Quantum Number, ms

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DID YOU KNOW?

The letters s, p, d and f were taken from the words sharp,

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What shall you learn from the activity?

Rules governing the combination of quantum numbers

e.g., n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on

Imaginary spin directions of two electrons occupying the same

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What shall you learn from the activity?

1. Calculate the maximum wavelength of light capable of removing an electron for a

3. I want to learn more on

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Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2020. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA. Accessed July 8, 2020.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Background information for Learners

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Learning Competency with Code

Electron configuration of an atom is a representation of its arrangement and

There are three rules apply in the distribution of electrons.

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Below are the standard and condensed notation of sodium.

Standard notation: 11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

2. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity

Example: Give the electron configuration of 8O and orbital diagram.

1s2 2s2 2p4

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1s2 2s2 2p4

• Each orbital is filled with electrons of opposite spins

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Rubrics for Scoring

3. I want to learn more on

References for Learners

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