A L L IT E R A R Y C R IT IC IS M

C L A S S IC
s b e£ o re th er e is an y mention of th
rm
c e rt a in c le a r- c u t fo N o r is it k n o w n who introdu:~
it s p o e ts .
w h o a re n a m e d a s ra li ty o f ac to rs , and other things
e s, o r a p lu
m a sk s, o ~ p ro lo g u rk e d o u t p lo ts originated in Sicilr
e rl y w o
o f th a t k 1 n d . P ro p is ; o f A th en ia n poets Crates was
and P h o rm
w it h E p ic h a n n u s p o o n p a tt e rn an d to adopt stories
th e la m
th e fi rs t to d is c a rd
m o re g e n e ra l n at u re .
a n d p lo ts o f a
it h tr a g e d y to th e extent that it is 2
s w
E p ic p o e tr y a g re e
_ v er se , _ 9 f se ri o u s _$tioos, ~ ~}
cj ig n i_fieq
~ p _ r~ s~ n ta tj p n ,_j n _ ep ic k ee p· s to a si n g le metre and 1s If
th a t
d if fe r, h o w e v e r, in p o in t o f di ff e. rence is their ,length
n o th e ~
w u :r at iv e fo rm . A ib le to k ee p w it h in a single revol~11
as p o ss
tr a g e d y tr ie s as fa r ig h tl y, to ex ce ed it , whereas thest-'1thi2
on ly sl
ti o n o f th e su n , o r m e_ Q f_a ct io n - al th o u g ~ at ~
.q
i_ _i ts ti
~ ~ .r ve_s_n o li m it s_ w as th e sa m e in tr ag ed ie s as m epics. O
ec t
p ra c ti c e in th is re sp m e a re c o n u n o n to b o th kinds, a?'
ts , so
th e co n st it u en t p ar y . T h u s an y o n e w h o can di s
to tr ag ed
so m.e a re p ec u li ar g o o d a n d w h a t is b ad in traged;
what is
cr im in at e b et w ee n p ic ;· fo r al l th e el em en ts o f epic arr
it h e
ca n d o th e sa m e w h n o t ev er yt h in g th a t bel.ongs ti
th o u g
fo u n d in tr ag ed y , . ep ic . 1
b e fo u n d in
tr ag ~ d y is to

CHAPTER 6

A Description ef Tra
geefy

th e fo rm o f im it at io n th a t us~
r ab o u t
I S H A L L sp ea k la te me~y, b u t fo r th e m o m e n t I p ro o se to
t co
h ex am et er s an d ab o u h to g et h er th e d el in it io n po f its
rs t dra;.1ng
d is cu ss tr ag ed y , r6fr re ad y b ee n s~_..;d
o m w . at as al . • .
·a1 ch ar ac te · re se ta · n o f an . . a t is w o rt h
es se nt1 d th en 1s a re p n t.
.
lo
. ac t1 on th
- T ra g e Y, ' t U .
or th po 1n t1 ng ou st if ic at io n of
st ot le gi ve s to ~
. it is pe rh ap s w th e Ju
tm en t th at A ri
I. H er em ,
th e fa r fu ll er tr ea to ha v 1.
lig io us fe st iv al at w hi ch he ho pe d gr an ~ ~ P er fo rm ed
th e re ce , rh e ar ch on ,
h en fo r pe rf or m an
ho , as :e fo it a ch
or us , :
in ch ar ge o f w ea lth ~ ci tiz en w J. ,
sa ch or eg us , a ie r • 1 on a£ P ub
If th ~ pl ay w as i~ e~ se s o f th e pr od uc t.l oo . T he ea rl
vo U.Otee.t"s , p le ,
th at is , he pr ov ~x p~ .o ex pe ns es . .t"e-
se rv ic e, pa id tthheeu - o
bl y pa id 38
s ur na
L&_ ~ l
- AR IST OT LE : ON TH E AR T
OF PO ET RY
only one plot for audience to get lost in
ious attention, com plete in itself, an d of some amplitude; in
~;~guage enriched by a variety ~f artistic
~evices appropriat_e to
the several parts of the play; presented
tn the for m of action,
not narration; by means of pity and fea
r bri ng ing ab ou t the
purgation of such emotions. By language
tha t is enriched I
refer to landialcets
guageoneponeeds to create for the play to be interesting
ssessing rhythm, an d music or son g; and
artistic devices appropriate to the severa by
l parts I mean tha t
some are produced by the medium of ver
se alone, an d others
again with the help of song. ·
Now since the representation is carried ou
t by men perform-
ing the actions, it follows, in the first pla
ce, tha t spectacle is an
essential part of tragedy, and secondly tha
t there must be son g
and diction, these being the medium
of representation. By
diction I mean h~re the arrangement of
the verses; song is a
term whose sense is obvious to -everyone.
In tragedy it is action tha t is imitated
, an d this action is
brought about by agents wh o necessa_rily
display certain dis-
tinctive qualities bo th of character an d
of tho ug ht, according
to which we also define the nature of the
actions. Th ou gh t and
character are, then, the tw o natural causes
.
of actions , and it is
on them that ·an me n depend for success
or failure. Th e repre-
sentation of the action is the plo t of the tra
gedy; for the
arrangement of the incidents is wh at I me plot needs to beord ere
good forda good
an by plot.
on the other ha nd , is tha t which enables tragic ply. Character,
us to define the nature
of the participants~ an d tho ug ht comes
ou t in what they say
when they are pro vin g a po int or expres
sing an opinion.
Necessarily, then, every tragedy has six
constituents, which
will determine its quality. Th ey are plo
t, ~haracter, diction,
tho ug ht, spectacle, an d son g. Of these, tw
o represent the media
in which the action is represented, on e inv
olves the manner of
representation, an d thr ee are connect~d
wi th the o?jects o~ the
representation; be yo nd the m no t~n g
furth~r 1s required.
These, it may be said, are the dramatic ele
ments tha~ have been
used by practfcally all playwrights; for
all plays alike possess
spectacle, character, plo t, diction, song,
and thought. .
Of the se elements the mo st im po rta nt is
the plot, the ordering
of the incidents ; for tra ged y is a repres
entation, ~ot of men,
bu t of action an d life, of happiness an
happiness an d unhappiness are bo un
d unh_appine_ss -
d up with actton.
~!
39
 A R Y C R IT IC IS M
C LA SS IC A L LI TE R

of liv in g is an en d w hi ch is a ki nd of activity' not a

Purpose it is th ei. r characters, 111 . d eed , th at make men wh
h they are happaty
quality; . tio . t at
h
n of t eir ac ns
they are, bu t it is by reas_o t pe rf or med, therefore i
ed ie s ar e no
or the reverse. Tr aracter; although character is involvedfo:
ag
or de r to represent ch cidents an d the plot are the
th e ac tio n. T hu s th e in
th e sake of w ay s, th e en d·_is everything.
tra ge dy , an d as al
end aimed at in a tr ag ed y without action,
e, th er e co ul d no t be
Furthermor te r; in de ed the tragedies of
w ith ou t ch ar ac
bu t th er e could be to pr es en t character, and the
ce nt pl ay w ri gh ts fa il
most of ou r re w ri gh ts of ot he r periods. A
of m an y pl ay
same m ig ht be said be tw ee n Zeuxis and Poly-
st co ul d b~ dr aw n
similar contra re pr es en ts character well,
amateur actors work but the plot has to be perfect. r Po ly gn ot us
gnotus as painters, fo w ith it in hi s pa in tin g. Again,
is no t co nc er ne d
whereas Zeuxis es ex pr es si ve of character,
s of sp ee ch
if someone writes a serie t an d di ct io n ar e concerned,
d as fa r as th ou gh
and well compose ef fect of tr ag ed y; this ~ ill be
no t ac hi ev e th e pr op er
he will still hi ch is less successful in its use
r by a tr ag ed y w
done much bette a pl ot gi vi ng an ordere
d
em en ~s , ~u t w hi ch ha s
of th~se ~l no th er po in t to no te is th at the
of 1n c1 de nt s. A
comb1nat1o_n ch ~r ag ed y pl ay s on OU!
ea ~s by ,w hi
tw~ most 1mro1;ant mals and recogrut1'o ns ' , are b oth con-
fe.elings, that 1s, revers f is th at be gi nn er s can
ot.d i~ ~u rth er pr oo
stlhituents of th e p~ lo n an d th e po rt ra ya l O f h
ac eve accuracy ct
th e in ci d t c ar ac te t
111
co ns tru ct a pl ot ou t of
before they can e ea rli es t dr ai nati· en s, an d this
m os t al l th
could be said of al• h . l of tr ag ed c po et s.
, e p1ot, th en, 1s t e first eskes the seco d
Th
so to speak, an d ch ar ac te r ta
an
se

ar
nt ia

tis t w n
r, . .
Its lif~-hlood,
Pa ce . It ls much
the same in paintin g; fo r if
t be au tif ul co lo ur s la id onere to da ub hihs ca nv as
with th e m os atdrra nd.0 .tn, e w ou ld
. . h 1 su re as he w ou ld b
no t give t e same p ea te . Tr aged Y: aw in g a re co gn1z..
.
it in bl ac k an d w hi
able po rt ra d · ch1e
·1t 1s · nuy on account Y 1s f th e re pr es en t •
· a:10_n
of an action, an rson s.
0
th e ac tio n th
also a representation of pe th h at lt 1S
pr op er ty of tra ge dy is
The third
ha t is po ss ib le an d ap propri :tu ~ t. This is th e ab 'Ii
to say w
. wh at, 1n . the spee - ches in the In an Y giv-e . l ty
t .it 1s
s ances; ol de re pl ay , is tela~ Cltcurn...
rh et or ic . Th e
art~ of politics and m en hdraruatic P ed to th e
rs ta lk lik e st at es
their charac te , w ereas th oets lll ade
40 ose of
today
 AR'I' OF pOE'I'RY
E" ON THE . h
.ARIS1'0tL • . . Character · is that wh1c
talk like rhetor1~1ans.F ·-n -a man chooses or
makel thp:onal choice, the ~ndsThof
revea 5 · not obvious.
:!1:h~e is.no revelation
refer-
.ects when that ts . hich the speaker shows no P .
ri character in speeches tn W. Thought on the oth~r hand, 1s
:nces or aversions wh~ever;omething 'is being sho~n to. be
present in speech:: :h~te some general opinion 1s ~eing
true or untrue, expressive use of words just like in a prose
expressed. h d' t' of the speeches. By diction I mean,
h comes t e 1tc. tond the expressive use of word s, and
Fourt
I have already exp a1ne ' . .
thi~~::~:~::ig
as force in verse and tn prose.
cleme_nts, the music is the most important of
the leasurable additions to the flay. Spectacle, or stage~effect,
.

is a~ attraction, of course, but tt has the least to do with the

laywright's craft or with the art of poetry. For the power of
iragedy is independent both of performance and o[ actors, and
besides, the production of spectacular effects _is more the
province of the property-man than of the playwright.
plot being the most important.

CHAPTER 7

The Scope of the Plot ·

Now that these definitions have been established, I must go
on to discuss the arrangement of the incidents, for this is of the
first importance •in tragedy. I have already laid down that
tragedy is the representation of an action that is complete and
whole and of a certain amplitude-for a thing may be whole and
yet lack amplitude. Now a whole is that which has a beginning,
a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which does not
necessarily come after something else, although something
else exists or comes about after it. An end, on the contrary, is
that which naturally follows something else either as a neces-
sary or a,s a usual consequence, and is not itself followed by
anything. A middle is that which follows something else, and
is itself followed by something. Thus well-constructed plots
must neither begin nor end in a haphazard way, but must
conform to the pattern I have been describing. ·
41
 C L A S S IC A L L IT
E R A R Y C R IT IC
IS M \
Furthermore, w h at ev
er is b e a u ~ u l, wh_
b. ether it b e a li\rin
creature o r an O Ject m ad e u p o f v ar io u s p ar ts ,
. m u st neces .g
no t only ha ve its p ar ts p ro p er ly o r der ed , b u t satih
a propriate size, fo r b . b d al so be of
ea u ty is o u n u p w · h · 1
art
P. nutely small creature th si
er e£o re , w o u ld n o t ze an d order. A
nu it
would ta ke almost n , . b e be au ti fu l £o .
o ti m e to se e 1t a n
would b e b lu rr ed ; d o u r p er ce p ti o n, oft it
n o r w o u ld a n e~ re it
it could no t b e ta ke n m e~ y la rg e one, fot
in al l at o n ce , an d it
would b e lo st to th e s u ru ty an d wholene
v ie w o f th e b eh o ld s
there were a creature er - if , fo r exam.pl~
a th o u sa n d m il es lo n
N ow in just th e same g.
w ay as li v in g cr ea tu
compounded o f many re s a n d organisnu
p ar ts m u st b e o f a re
they can b e easily ta ke as o n ab le size, so that
n in b y th e ey e, so to
reasonable le ng th , so o p lo ts m u st b e of
th at th ey m ay b e
memory. The limits in ea si ly h el d in the1
le n g th to b e -o b se rv
co n ce ~ perform~nce ed , in as fa r as thq
o n th e st ag e, h av e
dramatic ar:t; fo r if a h n o th in g to d o with
the u n d re d tr ag ed ie s h a
dramatt.c co~tests, they d to b e p er fo rm ed ~
water-clock, as 1.nde d w o u ld b e re g u la te d in
re ga rd to the limit e · · .d le n g th b v the
b it is sai th ey w er
i~t e a t o n e ti m e. 1 W 1
story is the more ~::. ith
Y _na~re o f th e ac ti o n
clear. T o give a simp~ , th e lo n g er the
. h t d finiit_~ il l b e, p ro v
ei t er o f probab e e tl o n l id ed th a t it is quite
· ility f ~ h . -
1:11s~ry to happiness orr O necessitay enllg t w h ic h , as a mattet
O

limit o f length to be from h a . ' a o w s o f a ch an g e

ob
served. PPllless to m is er y 1• th from
8 e propet
sequwncw of events should move from misery to happiness and vice versa so the viewrs may
invest in the play and not get bored. lenghth should be something that readers find
comfortable. C li A l> 'I'
Ea 8
I I

Uniry 01 P lo t
A PL O T does n o t po
merely because it is ssess .
. d cd
th ing s m
ab ou t ;:n1ty,
as so ll \e
~ , may ha pp en ne tn an ~.,.
n o t co nt ri bu te to an to o n e • Lvtany I>eohl thinr c S\ll=> o
y k in d o f ~ n ,
and so &s, c a u :t l 8Ci
1. There. is no u n it y ; and 8 .tn ~ of th
seems an unprobab ev idence el se w he re tha . ess
le proceeding. ltnilatl'b- elll \\Till
Schmidt's emendatio ~
n (£u.u0aow for0 ..tne 18 th is wa 1 he
hwy do ne at ccrtat•n o th · alrn
er 'f'<l.Oll1)
tu ne s' , i.e.> 'With an 08 / C\
tc lh
?et .1
~C)l\
lllay
d ttart ""

tbk
lltcc1 c. a
Pleas · 8lat ~
42. 11\ the lac, . l\<J it
'as aece
1
~~~ts
tc ~P-t
•
~
 AR IST OT LE : ON TH E AR T
OF PO ET RY
carry ou t ma ny act ion s fro m wh ich no
sin gle un ifie d act ion
wi ll em erg e. It see ms , the ref ore , tha t all
tho se po ets ha ve be en
on the wr on g tra ck wh o ha ve wr itte n
a Heracleid, or a Theseid,
or som e oth er po em of thi s kin d, in the
bel ief tha t, He rac les
bei ng a sin gle per son , his sto ry mu st nec
ess ari ly po sse ss un ity .
H om er, exc ept ion al in thi s as in all
oth er res pec ts, see ms ,
wh eth er by art or by ins tin ct, to ha ve be
en we ll aw are of wh at
was req uir ed. In wr itin g his Odyssey he did
no t pu t in ev ery thi ng
tha t hap pen ed to Od yss eus , tha t he wa
s wo un de d on Mo un t
Parnassus, for exa mp le, or tha t he fei
gn ed ma dn ess at the
time of the call to arm s, for it wa s no t
a ma tte r of nec ess ity or
pro bab ilit y tha t eit her of the se inc ide nts
sho uld ha ve led to the
oth er; on the con tra ry, he co nst ruc ted
the Odyssey rou nd a
single act ion of the kin d I ~a ve spo ke n
of, an d he did thi s wi th
the Iliad too . Th us, jus t as in the oth
er im ita tiv e art s eac h
ind ivi dua l rep res ent ati on is the rep res
en tat ion of a sin gle
object, so ~oo the plo t of a pla y, be ing the
rep res ent ati on of an
act ion , mu st pre sen t it as a un ifie d wh
ole ; an d its va rio us
lncidents mu st be so arr an ge d tha t if an
y on e of the m is differ-
~tl y pla ced or tak en aw ay the eff ect of
wh ole nes s wi ll be ser i-
'.)usly dis rup ted . Fo r if the pre sen ce or
abs enc e of som eth ing
makes no ap pa ren t dif fer enc e, it is no
rea l pa rt of the wh ole .

CH AP TE R 9
Poetic Tr uth an d Historical Tr uth
:Twill be cle ar fro m wh at I ha ve sai d tha
t it is no t the po et' s
unc tio n to des cri be wh at ha s act ua lly ha
pp en ed , bu t the kin ds
.f thi ng tha t mi gh t ha pp en , tha t is, that'c
ou ld ha pp en bec aus e
hey are, in the cir cu ms tan ces , eit he r pro
ba ble or nec ess ary .
1ie difference be tw een the his tor ian an d
the po et is no t tha t the
•n e wr ite s in pro se an d the oth er in ve
rse ; the wo rk of He r~-
otu s mi gh t be pu t int o ve rse , an d in
thi s ·me tric al for m 1t
1ou ld be no les s a kin
d of his tor y tha n it is wi tho ut me tre
b e difference is tha t the on e tel ls of wh .
at ha s ha pp en ed , the
the r of the kin ds of thi ng s tha t mi gh t ha
pp en . Fo r thi s rea son
oetry is som eth ing mo re ph ilo sop hic
al an d mo re wo rth y of
43
why is poetry important and what cultural idea it offers. difference between history and poetry.

.
CL AS SIC AL LI TE RA RY CR .Il'1 c1s ).{
.
I
ser iou s att
.h .
en tio n tha n his tor y·, £or w hil e poe t . .
ry ts cone,...
I
rsa l tru ths , his tor y tre ats o f parttcu . lar fa
wiB t un ive .
"lOC(!
kindcts.
Y: uru ver sal tru ths are to be un der sto odessthe 8
of thing a th
we
c~ tn ~p e_ of pe rso n wi ll pro ba
bly or nec aril
of po etr y 1 yh say or_ do in a ki
giv en s1t uat 1on ; an d thi s is the aim ' a t oug h 1t · s b)
·tn di v1'd ual na me s to its cha rac ter s. Th e par tic ular f:acts ofgive th cc
. , Al cib iad es did , or wh at ha e
hi sto ria n are wh.at,di say ppe ned to
B h st1
.
nct
.
1on has bec om e cle ar where comedy P'
him. y no w t 1s ol
. d up the ir plo ts out of prob .
1s co nc ern e , for co mi c po ets bu ild
nam es tha t occur to them• a<
abl e occ urr enc es, an d the n ad d an y
wr ite abou~ actual people.: eJ
the y do no t, lik e the iam bic po ets ,
tra ged y, on the oth er han d, the aut ho rs kee p to the names of e:
In
ple , the rea son bei ng tha t wh at is pos sib le is credible. rr
rea l peo
pos sib ilit y of something 1
Wh ere as we can no t be cer tai n of the iou sly pos- t:
ed, wh at has hap pen ed is obv
tha t has no t hap pen t bee n so. C
ve ha pp en ed if thi s had no
sib le, for it wo uld no t ha t
s, ev en in som e· tra ged ies on ly on e or tw o _of the
Ne ver the les
t are fic titi ous ; and tndeed
nam es are we ll kn ow n an d the res
ilia r, Ag ath on 's Anthem,
the re are som e in wh ich no thi ng is fam
ide nts an d the names are
for exa mp le, in wh ich bo th the inc tha t It
less we ll lik ed for di
fic titi ous , an d the pla y is no ne the " al
t1on .
kee p ent ire ly to the tra
is no t nec ess ary , the ref ore , to 11
ou r tra ged ies . Indeed
sto rie s wh ich for m the sub jec ts of
n the fam ilia r storie . s are
wo uld be ab sur d to do so, sin ce eve
ple ase eve ryb od y.
familiar- on ly to a few , an d yet the y
tha t the po et mu st be a
Wh at I hav e sai d ma kes it ob vio us
of plo ts rat her tha n of ver ses , sin ce he is a po et by virtue ·
ma ke r
s is act ion s. A
nd
ent ati on , an d wh at he rep res ent
of his rep res
ve act ual ly hap pen ed, that
ev en ifh e wr ite s ab ou t thi ng s tha t ha
et, for the re is no thi ng to
do es no t ma ke him any the less a po
hap pen ed fro m bei ng io
pre ve nt som e of the thi ng s tha t ha ve
an d pro bab ilit y, an d thus
acc ord anc e wi th the law s ofpo ssi bil ity
m.
he wi ll be a po et in wr itin g ab ou t the
of wh om the ear lies t ; nd
1.The old iam bic or lam poo nin g poe ts, wro te abo ut real pe l
tur y B.c.),
gre ate st was Arc hilo chu s (se ven th cen
, suc h as Ari sto pha nes . In th op e,
as did the poe ts of the Old Com edy
gre ate st rep res ent ativ e, the e Ne w
Co med y, of wh ich Me nan der is the
we re sto ck nam es wh ich , tho ugh the
y mig ht som etim es by assoeia ?a111es
ss» we.re not tho se of reaJ. tion or
ety mo log y hav e a cer tain appropriatene People.
44
 ARISTOTLE: ON THE ART OF POETRY

Of simple plots and actions those that are episodic are the
worst. By an episodic plot I mean one in which the sequence of
the episodes is neither probable nor necessary. Plays of this
kind are written by bad poets because they cannot help it, and
by good poets because of the actors; writing for the dramatic
competitions, they often strain a plot beyond the bounds of
possibility, and are thus obliged to dislocate the continuity
of events.
However, tragedy is the representation not only ofa complete
, action, but also of incidents that awaken fear and pity, and
effects of this kind are heightened when things happen un-
expectedly as _w ell as logically, for then they will be more
remarkable than if they seem merely mechanical or accidental.
Indeed, even chance occurrences seem most remarkable when
they have the appearance of having been brought about by
design - when, for example, the statue of Mitys at Argos killed
the man who had caused Mitys's death by falling down on him
at a public entertainment. Things like this do not seem mere
chance occurrences. Thus plots of this type are necessarily
better than others.

CHAPTER IO

Simple and Complex Plots

complex polt - moment of recognisyion. but it should be something the
audience is able to cath up with.
SOME plots are simple, a~d some complex, for the obvious
reason that the actions of which they are representations are of
on~ or_ ot~er of these kinds. By a simple action I refer to one
~hich is single and continuous in the sense of my earlier defini-
tion, and iri which the change of fortune comes about without a
reversal or a discovery. A complex action is one in which the
~ange is accompanied by a discovery or a reversal, or both.
ese should develop out of the very structure of the plot, so
that they a
h re the inevita
· · ble or probable consequence of what
bas gone before, for there is a big difference between what
app:ns as a result of something dse and what merely happens
after it.

4S
 CHAPTER I I

,Reversal, Discovery, and Calamity

-
As has aaffairs be
en noted a reversal is a change from 0

conforms, as I havne
heady .' .
to its opposite, one which
said, to probability or necessity. ~ eaipus, £
stat e of . I O J• e
o_r example, the
Messenger who came to cheer Oedipus ~nd reheve ~ of his
fear about his mother did the very opposite by revealing-to hini
who he was. In the Lynceus, again, Lynceus is being led off to
execution, followed by Danaus who is to kiUhim, when, as a
result of events that occurred earlier, it comes -about that he
is saved and it is Danaus who is put to death.
. As the word itself indicates, a discov.ery is a change from
ignorance to knowledge, ~nd it leads either to love or to hatred
betw~n persons destined for good or ill fortune. The most
effect1ve fo~ of disco:ery is. that which is aq:ompanied by
reversals, ~ke the one in Oedipus~ There are .o f course other
. . - 1 ' £or w hat I -ha:ve descri·.l;>ed· may-- happen in
forms. of discovern
relatlon to marumate and triflin Ob. . . .
possible to discover h th . g Jects, and moreover lt 1s
not. ~ut the form o;'di;co~r a person has ~one something or
plot and action of the la e_ry ~ost essentially related to the
discoveryof this.kind·1·npc y lbs _the_one described above £or a
.h . . om inat1 . h ,
wit. it. e.1.ther pity or fear, a~d . . on wit . a reversal will carry

:::g~mbination li~~~ :;~~~:;~:sents;a::d e;:~:

15
according to my defini . lt such actions h h
is
As it is persons wh . PPY or an unhappy
ha o are lnv 1 .
t t only one person's 1"d . o ved in the di
th d . entity · scov .
e secon being alread· kn is revealed t 0 ery> lt may be
> that o
natural recognition
. f Y
o two p • own. Somet1 .. another
w h en the identity of I hi ~tttes is nece mes, how
the sending of the lettp geru.a was tnad sksary, as for ever, a
er, and e n e)Can-- I
t o ma e
k hi m known to I . a second di own to Or .....tp e
Two elements of pi phigenia. scovery \V estes b
. . ot, the · as teq .
upon sueh mctdents as th n, reversal U1red
ese. A third . and di
ts suffe . scov-e
46 ring, o ty, turn
· tcaj .
ainity.
 E AR T O F PO ET RY
.A RI ST OT L·E : O N T H
re ve rsa l an d di sc ov er y ha ve al re ad y been de -
th uc tiv e or pain ful natured.,
re~ , . an ac tio n of a de str
Of these__ 1 •
d A oual1 1.1ty JS es en te d, ex ce ssiv e su .ff er ing, w ou n -
Jine · d th op en ly re pr
such as ea
iog, and the like.

CH AP TE R I 2

The Main Parts of Tragedy

rli er of th e va rio us -e le m en ts th at ar e~ o b~ em pl o~ ed
I SP OK E ea
nt s of tra ge dy . Th e se pa ra te se ct io ns in to w hi ch
the constitue e.,
rk is di vi de d ar e as fo llo w s: pr ol og ue , ep iso de , exod
:e wo iv id ed in to pa ro de an d
, th e la st be in g su bd
and choral song
. Th es e ar e co m m on to all tra ge di es ; so ng s fr om th e
stasimon ar ac te ris tic on ly ofso m e
oi ', ho w ev er , ar e a ch
actors an d' co mm
,
tragedies.
ue is th e w ho le of th at pa rt of a tra ge dy th at
The prolog
. th e pa ro de , or fir st en try of th e Ch or us . A n ep is od e
preced es
th at pa rt of a tra ge dy th at co m es be tw ee n co m -
is the whole of
th e w ho le of th at pa rt of
a
ch or al so ng s. Th e ex od e is
plete ng of th e Ch or us . In th e
is rto t fo llo we d by a so
tragedy whic~
se cti on s th e pa ro de is th e w ho le of th e -l irs t ut te ra nc e of
choral so ng w ith ou t an ap ae st s
d a sta sim on is a ch or al
the Chorus, an th
ch ee s. A 'co m m os ' is a pa ss ag e of la m en t in w hi ch bo
or tro
Chorus and actors ta ke pa rt.
n ar e th ~ s_ ep ara te se ct io ns in to w hi ch th e bo dy of
These th~ ea rli er th e el em en ts of
be di vi de d; I m en tio ne d
the_tra~edy 1s to
which 1t must be composed.

CH AP TE R I 3

Tragic Action
.
FO LL OW IN G
y wh t
upon th
. b ~ po in ts I ha ve already m ad e, I m us t go
on to sa ·
15 to ea un ed at an d wh at gu ard ed ag ai ns t in th e
aof
construction 1 ts , an d w ha t ar e th e sources of th e tra gi c
effect. Po

47

l;,a ., L
 C L A SS I C A L LI TE R A
R Y C R IT IC IS M
W e saw th at th e st ru ct ur e of
tr ag ed y at its best h
co m pl ex , no t s1. mpl e, and h . h ul
t at 1t s o d re pr es en t acst' ould b
. £
ab le of aw ak er un g ea r and . £or e
. pi ty - ion s ca
th is is a chara t . ... p
fu nc tio n o f re pr es en ta tio
. f hi
ns o t s ty pe . It fallows c ensu
pl a~ e th at ~o od m en s~ ou in the first
ld no t b~ sh ?w n pa ss in g fro
pe r1 ty to rm se ry , fo r th is m pros
do es no t in sp ir e fear or pi
di sg us ts us . N or ty , it merel
sh ou ld ev il m en be sh ow
m is er y to pr os pe ri ty . T hi n pr og re ss in g fro
s is th e m os t un tr ag ic of al
it ha s no ne of th e re qu is ite s of l plots, f
0
tr ag ed y; it do es no t appeal
hu m an ity , or aw ak en pi ty to ou
or fe ar in us . N or ag ai n sh
ut te rl y w or th le ss m an be ould a
se en fa lli ng fr om pr os pe rit
mise1:y. Su ch a co ur se m y int
ig ht in de ed pl ay up on ou
fe el in gs , bu t it w ou ld no t ar r human
ou se ei th er pi ty or fe ar ; fo r
is aw ak en ed by un de se rv ed ou r pi
m is fo rtu ne , an d ou r fe ar by
so m eo ne ju st lik e ou rs el ve that
s - pi ty fo r th e un de se rv in g
an d fe ar fo r th e m an lik e suffer
ou rs el ve s - so th at th e situa
qu es tio n w ou ld ha ve no th in tion ·
g in it ei th er pi tif ul or fearfu
Th er e re m ai ns a m ea n be tw l.
ee n th es e ex tre m es . Th is is
so rt of m an w ho is no t co ns th
pi cu ou s fo r vi rtu e an d justi
w ho se fa ll in to m is er y is no ce, an
t du e to vi ce .a nd de pr av ity
ra th er to so m e er ro r, a m an , bu
w ho en jo ys pr os pe rit y an d
re pu ta tio n, lik e O ed ip us ancharacter whose reversal of fortune happensa hig
d Th
he rs of fa m ili es lik e th ei rs . becauseyeansteroor
es anhe d ot he
comit not rbecause
fa m ou hesisme
a bad
or good character from the startin in this way the
In ev ita bl y, th en , th e we ll-audience will feel more connected.
co nc ei
in te re st , an d no t, as ~ome sa ve d pl ot w ill ha ve a singl
y, a do ub le . Th e ch an ge in fo
w ill be , no t fr om trusery to rtun
pr os pe rit y, bu t th e re ve rs e,
pr os pe rit y to m is e~ , an ? it wi fro
so m e gr ea t er ro r ei th er in su ll be du e, no t to de pr av ity , bu
ch a m an as I ha ve de sc rib ed tt
on e b~ tte r th an th is, bu t no t wo or ·
pr ac tic e. Fo r at first th e poet rs e. Th is is bo rn e ou t by existin
i ,•th ha nd , bu t now~~ays th e be s tre at ed an y sto rie s th at ca m
st tragedies ar e w rit te n ab oue t
ha nd fu l of fatn1lies, th os e t
O ed ip us an d Oreste~ an d Mele of Al cm ae on , fo r ex am ple, an
ot he rs w ho m 1t ha s befallen ag er an d Th ye ste s an d Te le ph
~d
. to suffer or inflict t . u
experiences. . ~hl
," T h be st tragedies in th e tec -
hn l sense are constru
. e Th os e critics are on th eica w ro ng tack, there£ Cted 1D .
, ~ s. ~a y. Eu rip id es for follo
cr:1t1ciz_e wing such a procedu Ot ~, W
d co m pl ai n th at many of th em en d in _t ho
tra ge di es , an e tn his
~
lllisfoN-.~
'~ un e;
 ARISTO TLE: ON THE ART OF POETR Y

for, as I have said, this is the right ending. The stronge st evi-
dence of this is that on the stage and in the dramati c compet i-
tions plays of this kind, when properl y worked out, are the
most tragic of all, and Euripid es, faulty as is his manage ment of
other points, is neverth eless regarde d as the most tragic of our
dramatic poets.
The next best type of structur e, ranked first by some critics,
is that ~hich, like the Odyssey, has a double thread of plot, and
ends in opposite ways for the good and the bad characte rs. It is
considered the best only because of the feeble judgem ent of the .
audience, for the poets pander to· the taste of the spectato rs.
But this is not th~ pleasure that is proper to tragedy . It belongs
rather to comedy , where those who have been the bitteres t of
enemies in the original story, Orestes and Aegisth us, for ex-
. ample, go off at the end as friends, and' nobody is killed by
anybody. ·

CHAPT ER 14

Fear and Piry

FEAR and pity may be excited by means of spectacl e; but they
can also take their rise from the .very structur e of the action,
which is the p~eferable method and the mark of a better dram-
matic poet. For the plot should be so ordered that even without
seeing it perform ed anyone merely hearing what is afoot will
shudder with fear and pity as a resQlt of what is happeni ng - as
indeed would he the experien ce of anyone hearing the story of
Oedipus. To produce this effect by means of stage-sp ectacle is
less artistic, and requires the coopera tion of the produce r.
Those who employ spectacl e·to produc e an effect, not of fear,
hut of somethi ng merely monstro us, have nothing to do with
tragedy, for not every kind of pleasur e should be demand ed of
traged~, but only that which is proper to it; and since the
dramatic poet has by means of his represe ntation to produce
the ~ragic pleasure
that is associat ed with pity and fear, it is
obvious that this ~£feet is bound up with the events of the plot.
Let us now conside r· what kinds of inciden t are to be

49
 CL ASS ICA L LIT ER AR Y CR ITI CIS M

reg ard ed as fear ful or piti abl e. Dee ds tha t fit this
descri .
mu st of cou rse inv olv e peo ple wh o are eith er frie
. s, or net• h N nds t!tion
ano ther , or ene nue if . .
t er. ow a ma n tnJu res his enc one
the re is not hin g piti abl e eith er in his act or in hi~
intenti~Y,
exc ept in so far as suff erin g is infl icte d; -nor is the
re if they a~
indi ffer ent to eac h oth er. Bu t wh en the suff erin gs invo
lve those
.wh o are nea r and dea r to one ano the r, whe n
for example
bro the r kill s bro the r, son fath er, mo the r son , or son
mother, or
if suc h a dee d is con tem plat ed, or som eth ing else of the kind
ii
actu ally don e, the n we hav e a situ atio n of the kin d
to be aimed
at. Thu s it wil l not do to tam per wit h the trad itio nal
stories, the
mu rde r of Cly tem nes tra by Ore stes , for inst anc e,
and that of
Erip hyl e by Alc mae on; on the oth er han d, the ·poe
t mus t use
his ima gina tion and han dle the trad itio nal mat eria l
effectively, ·
I mu st exp lain mo re clea rly wha t I mea n -by 'effe
ctively',
The dee d may be don e by cha ract ers acti ng con scio
usly and in
full kno wle dge of the fact s, as was the way of the earl
y dramatic
poe ts, whe n for inst anc e Eur ipid es mad e Me dea
kill her
chil dren." ?r they may do it wit hou t real izin g the hor
ror of the
dee d unt il late r, whe n they disc ove r the trut h; this
is what
Sop hoc les ~d wit h Oed ipus . Her e ind eed the rele van
t incident
occ urs outs1d~ the acti on of the play ; but it may be a par
trag t of the
. edy' as wit h Alo naeon · tn
· A d
sty ama s's play , or Tele gon u!
1n The Wounded Odysseus. A thir d alt
• • £
is abo ut to do a ter "bl d . . ern attv e 1s or som eon e who
disc ove r the trut h~e; or: eie ~tgn~ ranc e of the rela tion
ship to
sibilities, for the _d eed,mus t eithoesbit. The se are the onl
y pos·
som eon e eith er with or wit hou ~ e don e or not don e,
and b1
The leas t acceptable of thes e altowl e?g e of the fact s.
in pos sess ion of the facts is on th ern~trves is whe n som
eone
do so, for this mer ely sho cks u: po :t ~f acti ng but
fail s to
invo lv~d , itis not tragic. Hen ce ~o :d, ~lnce no suff
like this , or only seld om, as whe n Hae my ts a._ll0 wed erin g i!
to heha,
the Anti gon e. Nex t in ord er of effectivenon f~s to kill Cte
• • b o ~
actu ally d one , and h ere it 1s ette r that thess ts
h whe n t ed nv
h .
in igno ranc e and only lear n the trut h aJ:
c arac ter sha h :ed is
not hin g in this to outr age our fe~lings erw ~rds, fot
com es as a surprise. How eve r, the best me; hand . the t""
thd act
. the Cresph ere is
for example, 1n ontes. Merop e inteOnd 18 thel~s',;\>"ejatio.
·
o
,o . s to k-:h t, \\rh
~ ll eo,
~ son,
L ~
. .
 ARISTOTLE: ON THE ART OF POETRY

but recognizes him ahd does not do so; or when the same thing
happens with brother and ~ister fn Iphigenia in Tauris; or when,
in the Helle, the son recogruzes hfa mother when he is just about
to betray her.
This then is the reason why, as I said before, our tragedies
keep to a few families. For in their search for dramatic material
it was by chance rather than by technical knowledge that the
poets discovered how to gain tragic effects in their plots. And
they are still obliged to have recourse to those families in which
sufferings of th~ kind I have described have been experienced.
I have said enough now about the arrangement of the in-
cidents in a tragedy and the type of plot it ought to have.

CHAPTER I 5
The Characters of Tragedy
-
IN characterization there are four things to aim at. First and
foremost, the characters should be good. Now character will
be displayed, as I have .pointed out, if some preference is
revealed in speech or action, and if it is a preference for what is
good the character will be good. There can be goodness in
every class of person; for instance, a woman or a slave may be
good, though the one is possibly an inferior being and the other
in general an insignificant one.
In the second place the portrayal should be·appropriate. For
example> a cha_racter may possess manly qualities, but it is not
appropriate that a female character should be given manliness
or cleverness.
Thirdly, the characters should .be lifelike. This is not the
same thing as making them good, or appropriate in the sense
in which I have used the word.
And fourthly, they should be consistent. Even if the person
who is being represented is inconsistent, and this trait is the
basis of his ·c haracter, he must nevertheless be portraye_d as
consistently inconsistent.
As an example of unnecessary badness of character, there is
Menelaus in the Orestes. The character who behaves in an

51
,

CL AS SIC AL LIT ER AR Y C
• . RI' l'IC ts~
un sui tab le and ina pp rop ria te wa y is ex
Ii
lam ent in the Scylla, and in Me lan ipp e's
. h . ;pmp hfied. i~ Odyssr-i,.1
chara cte r 1s s ow n 1n Iphigenia at Auliseec£ . An l ~consiste.II[
,1
sup pli ant is qu ite unl ike wh at she is late 1 iit
)! r.' or Phigenia as t
'I' ,I I I • .
As in the arr ang em ent of the incidents
so to ·
I"
1Zat1on on e mu st alw ays bea r in mi nd ' o ln char
1
what will b a~ct.
\I ll
1\ I· :
nec ess ary or pro bab le; in oth er wo rds
b bl
ord pro ah e thhin~t suc h dandimils~ch a pehrson'
it should be e euhct
necessa
I '

an sue a t g, an s
~hould say or do
ar1y t at this particular incident
sul
sho uld fol low on tha t.
Fu rth erm ore , it is obv iou s tha t the unr
avelling of the plot
I sho uld ari se fro m the cir cum sta nce s of
the plo t itself, and not
be bro ug ht abo ut ex machina, as is don e
in the Medea and in the
epi sod e of the em bar kat ion in the Iliad.
Th e deus ex machi~
sho uld be use d onl y for ma tter s out sid e
the play proper, either
for thi ngs tha t hap pen ed bef ore it and tha
t cannot be known~
the hum an characters, or for thi ngs tha
t are yet to come and
tha t req uir e to be for eto ld pro phe tica lly
- for we allow to the
god s _the po we r to s~e all thi ngs . Ho we
iI ver , there should be
no thi ng inexplicable abo ut wh at hap pen
s, or if there must be,
it sho uld be kep t out sid e the tragedy, as is
don e in Sophocles's
Oed ipus.
1

Since tra ged y is a rep res ent atio n of peo

ple wh o are better
tha n the average, we mu st cop y the go
od por tra it-p ain t~
Th ese , wh ile rep rod uci ng the dis tin ctiv
e appearance of tbell
sitters and ma kin g likenesses; pai nt the m
better-looking than
the y are. In the same way the poe t, in
por tra yin g men who
are ho t-t~ per ed, or phlegmatic,' or wh o
hav e oth er defects of
character~ mu st bri ng ou t these qualities
in the m, and at the
same tjrne sho w the m as decent people, as
Ag ath on and Home!
hav e por tra yed Achilles.
Th ese poi nts mu st be carefully watched,
as too mu st those
means used to appeal to the eye, which
are necessarily de--
pen den t on the poe t's art ; for here too it
is o~ en pos sib le to
ma ke mistakes. However, eno ugh has bee
n sai d abo ut the se
matters in my published works. .

... • Aristotle is here referrin. g to the fact ftha t Oed ipu s re.rn~;.. d ~
.-r

man y years ign ora nt of the arcu mst anc es Lai , d th

o us s ca • Cf."'44, e .cot
~p ter
%4, P· 7°•
5.2.
 CH AP TE R 16
-
The Different Kinds of Discovery
1 HAVE alteady ex.plained wh at
I m ea n by discovery. O f th e
different kinds of discovery, th
e first is th e least artistic, an d
mostly used from sheer lack of is
in ve nt io n; this is discovery by
means of visible signs or to ke
ns . Th es e may be congenita
marks, like 'th e spearhead th at l
th e Ea rthbo rn be ar ', or 'st ar s',
such as those th at Carcinus uses
ill' his T hyestes; or they may be
acquired, whether marks on th
e bo dy su ch as scars, or externa
objects such as necklaces - or l
, in th e Tyro, th e discovery by
means of the cradle. Ho we ve
r, so me ways of using these
tokens are better th an ot he rs;
fo r example, th e discovery of
Odysseus th ro ug h his scar is m
ad e in on e way by his nurse an
in another way by th e swinehe d
rds. Th es e discoveries, wh en
made merely to ga in credence,
ar e less effective, as are all types
of discovery used fo r su ch in ten
tio ns ; be tte r are those th at are
unexpected, as happens in th e W
ashing Episode in th e Odyssey.
The second class of discov.erie
s are those which are manu-
factured by th e po et, a_n d wh ich
ar e inartistic for th at reason.
An example occurs in Iphigenia
in T auris when Orestes reveals
who he is. While th e identity of
Iphigenia is revealed by means
of the letter, Orestes himself is
ma de to say what th e poet here
requires instead of its be in g do
ne th ro ug h the pl ot ; an d this is
not far removed fro m th e faul
t I spoke about a moment ago,
fo'r he m ig ht ha ve br ou gh t so
me tokens as well. Another ex
ample is 'th e voice of th e sh ut -
tle ' in Sophocles's Tereus.
A th ird ki nd is th e discovery
th at is du e to memory, when
the sight of so me th in g leads
to th e required under~tanding.
Thus in The Cyprians, by Dicaeo
genes, Teuc~r bursts into tears
on seeing th e po rtr ait , an d in Th
e Tale of Alcznous Odysseus also
weeps wh en th e so un d of th e
minstrel's harp r~ wa ke ns the
past for hi m an d this is ho w th
ese tw o are recogruzed. ·
Th e fo ur th ki nd is th e result
of reasoning, such as is found
in The Choephori: 'S om eo ne wh
o is like m e has come; no one
is like me except Or es tes ; theref
ore it is Orestes who has come.'
S3
 - ad a

CLASSICAL LITERARY CRITICISM:

Another example is what the sophist Polyidus sug

Jnhigenia, £or 1t. 1s
. likely enough t h at O restes shouldgests fo t the
:r his sister was sacr1'ficed , so too 1t
as . was his. fate to bereason. that
. . d . h T
Then there·1s the episo e 11i t e ydeus of Theodectes wh ced,
sacr1fi. ,
father has come to find his son, and realizes that he is hi en the
die• or that 1n . the Phznetuae
. . J wh ere, on seeing . a particulalllse}f toI
. er that t h ey are f:ated to di e there, for it was 1ac
the 'women inf r Pth e,
. that they had been exposed at birth. ere
There is also a fictitious form of discovery arising from th
fallacious reasoning of the parties concerned, as in Ot!Jsseu:
the False J..tfessenger; he said that he would know the bow, which
he had not seen; but it was false reasoning to suppose from this!
1

that he would know it again. 1

Of all the forms of discovery, the best is that which is brought 1

about by the incidents themselves, when ~he startling dis.

closure results from events that are probable, as happens in
Sophocles's Oedipus, and again in the Iphigenia - for it was quite
probable that sh~ should _wish to send off a_ letter. D~scovery
.scenes of this kind are. the only ones that dispense with such
artificial aids as tokens and necklaces. The next best are those
that depend on reasoning.

CHAPTER 17
Some Rules for the Tragic Poet
IN putting to~ether._his plots and working out the kind o
speech to go with ~hem, the po·~ should as far as possible kee·
t~e. scene before his eyes. I~ this way, seeing everything vet
v1v1~y, as thoug~ he-were ~mself an eyewitness of th~ event
he will find what 1s-appropr1ate, and will be least likely t · ·
. . . E 'd oIDve
look 1ncons1stene1es. v1 ~ce of this is the censure laid
Carcinus, by whom Amphiaraus was made to come a
temple; this would have escaped notice if the Chis d ohaut of
. r ,o e d n(
1 • The !ext here seems to be d~fectiv~, arid it is diflicu}
satisfactorily. Bywater translates: He said he should kn t ~o tender
which he had not seen; but to sup'?ose from that that he ow the bow
amiin
c-
(as though he had once seen it) was ha~ reasoni~g... : •.• 'W'9U}d know

54
 ARI STO TLE : ON THE ART OF POE TRY

been actually seen, but the audience took offence at it, and
the
was not a success on the stage.
1
PaAs far as possible, too, the dramatic poe t _should carry out the
propriate gestures as he composes his speeches, for
of
ap iters with equal abilities those who can actually make them-
wr .
elves feel the relevant emotion s w1'll b e the mos t convincing -
:gitation or rage will be mos t vividly reproduced by one
who
is himself agitated or in a passion. Hence poetry is the prod
uct
either of a man of great natural ability or of one not who
lly
saJ)e; the one is highly responsive, the othe r possessed.
As for the stories, whether he is taki ng over somethi
ng
ready-made or inventing for himself, the poet should first
plan
in general outline, and. then expa_n d by wor king out appr
op-
riate episodes. What I mean by planning in outline may
,be
illustrated from the Iphigenia, as follows: A young girl
was
offered as a sacrifice, and mysteriously disappeared from
the
·view of her sacrificers; she was set dow n in another coun
try,
where it was the cust om to sacrifice strangers to the godd
ess,
and became the priestess of this rite. Some time later it
hap-
pened that the priestess's brot her arrived (the fact that
the
oracle had for a certain reason told him to go there and
the
purpose of his journey are matters that lie outside the plot).
On
his arrival he was seized, and was abo ut to be sacrificed, whe
n
he revealed who he was, ·either in the way that Euripides mak
es
it happen or, as Polyidus suggests, by making the not
un-
natural remark that not only his sister, it seemed, was fated
to
be sacrificed, but himself too ; and thus he was saved.
When he has reached this stage the poet may supply
the
proper names and fill in the episodes, making sure that they
are
appropriate, like .the fit of madness in Orestes which led
to his
capture, and his escape by the device of the purification.
In plays the episodes are of course shor t; in epic poetry they
are wha t supply the r~quisite length. The story of the Odys
sey,
for example, is not a long one. A man is kept away from
his
home for man y years; Pose idon is watching him with a jealo
us
eye, and he is alone. The state of affairs at hom e is that
his
wealth is bein g squa nder ed by his wife's suitors, and plot
s are
being laid agai nst his son' s life. After _b:ing ~uffeted by
many
storms he retu rns hom e and reveals his 1dent1ty; he falls
upo n
55

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I r ; !I ! ,1 CLASSICAL LITERARY CRITICISM

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his enemies and destroys them, but preserves his own life,
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There you have the essential story of the Otfy11!7; the rest of the
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~ poem ls made up of episodes.
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