Dr. J.S.chitode - Power Electronics - III-Technical Publications

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I
Strictly According to the Revised Syllabus of
Rajasthan Technical University
(RTU ~ 2006 Course)
Power Electronics • Ill

[SEEl] Semester - V (Electrical Engineering)
Dr. J. S. Chitode
M. E. (Electronics), Ph.D.
Fonnerty Professor & Head,
Department of Electronics Engineering
Bharati Vidyapeeth University
College of Engineering, Pune
Price Rs. 195/- I

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Power Electronics - Ill

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Table of Contents
Chapter-~1 ·Power Semlconductor'Devic~~~~~ · (1 -1) to (1--70)
1. 1 fntroduction . .... ..... . .. .. . ... .............. .. ... ..... ... . ... ..... ..... .... . ... ... .. . .... .. .... . .... 1 - 1
1.1.1 Applications of Power Electronics • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
1.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Electronic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
1.1.3 Block Diagram of Power Electronic Controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 3
1.2 Types of Power E1ectronic Converters................................................ 1 - 4
1.2.1 AC to DC Converters . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . 1 - 4
1.2.2 DC to AC Converters Inverters . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 1 - 4
1.2.3 DC to DC Converters (Choppers} . ... .•. . . • . .. ...... . ..... . . ... ....... . .. . .. 1- 5
12.4 AC to AC Converters cloconverters • . . • . . . •• . . • • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . • . . . . • 1 - 5
1.2.5 AC Regulators . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 1 - 5
1.3 Power Semiconductor Devices ............................................................ 1 - 6
1.4 Power Diodes ....................................................................................... 1 - 6
1.4.1 Structure of Power Diode ••• ••••••••••••••••....•. . ..•...... . ............• 1- 7
1.4.21-V Characteristics . . . .. . ....... . . .. ............. . .. . .. . .•.. .. ... . ..... . . 1 - 7
1.4.3 Switching Characteristics of Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . 1 - 8
1.4.4 Types of Diodes . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 9
1.4.4.1 General Purpose Diodes • • . . • • • . . . • . . . . • . . . . . • . . . 1 - 9
1.4.4.2 Fast Recovery Diodes (Switching Diodes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • 1 -10
1.4.4.3 Schottky Diodes . . • . . . . . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . 1 • 10
1.4.5 Applk:ations of Power Dkldes. . . . • • . • . . . • . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . . • • . . • • . . . • 1 - 12
1.4.6 Specifications and Ratings of Power Diodes ...•. . ...... ..... . .....•.... . . .. . 1 -12
1.5 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) ...................................................... 1 - 12
1.5.1 Construction of SCR • .......... .. ..... ..... .. ... ....•... .•.. .. •. . . . ... . . 1 - 13
1.5.2 Merits, Demerits and Applications of SCR . •...•........•..............••. . . 1 -14
1.6 SCR Characteristics and Modes of Operation .................................. 1 - 14
1.6.1 Reverse Blocking ~e.. . .... . . .. .... . .. . . .. ... . ... . .. . .. .. .... ... •...• 1 -14
1.6.2 Forward Blocking Mode ... . .....• . ..... .. ..•........ • . ... • ... •. ... . . .... 1 - 15
1.6.3 Forward Conduction Mode .. .. . ............ • . . . .. ........•........... . . . 1 -16
1.6.4 Latching and Holding currents . .... . .. . .... . . . . ... . . ................ . . .. . 1 -19
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1.6.4;1 Latching current (IL) 1 -19
1.6.4.2 Holding Current(~). 1 -20
1.6.4.3 Comparison (Difference) between Holding and Latching Currents . . 1 • 20

1.6.5 Two Transistor Model of SCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 26
1.7 SCR Tum-on and Tum-off ................................................................. 1 - 28
1.7.1 DifferentWaystoTum-ontheSCR ............. . . ......................... 1-28
1.7.2 Tum-on Dynamic Characteristics .. . .......... . ........•...•. ... •...•.... .. 1 - 29
1.7.3 SCR Tum-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30
1.7.4 Tum~ff Dynamic Characteristics . ........ ..... .. ... . ... ... . .. .. ... ..... . .. 1 - 30
1.7.5 Inverter Grade and Converter Grade SCRs .. ft •• , •• • 1- 32
ft . . . , •••• ft . . . . . . . II II.
1.8 SCR Gate Characteristics ................................................................. 1 - 32

1.8.1 Pulsed Gate Drive . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 1 - 33
1.8.2 Requirement of Gate Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 33
1.9 SCR Ratings .................................................................................... 1 - 34
1.9.1 Current Ratings . • . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 34
1.9.2 Voltage Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 35
1.10 Thyristor Types ................................................................................ 1 - 36
1.10.1 Gate Tum-off Thyristor (GTO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . • . . . . 1 - 36
1.10.1.1 Structure of GTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 -36
1.10.1.2 Characteristics of GTO . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 38
1.10.1.3 Advantages, Limitations and Applications of GTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 38
1.10.2 light Activated SCR (LASCR) . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 39
1.10.3 Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 1 - 39
1.10.4 Triac (Bidirectional Triode Thyristors)..................... . ................ 1 -40
1.10.4.1 V-1 Characteristics ofTrfac . . . . . . . 1 - 41
1.10.4.2 Operating Modes of Triac • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . 1 - 41
1.10.4.3 Merits, Limitations and Applications of Triac . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 1 -43
1.10.5 MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCD .... . . . ...... ... ...... ........ .......•. .. 1 - 44
1.10.5.1 Internal Structure of MCT . . . . . 1 - 44
1.10.5.2Tum-on and Tum-off MCT. . . . . . . 1-45
1.10.5.3 Characteristics of MCT . . . . . . . . . . 1- 46
1.10.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of MCT . . . 1-46
1.11 Power BJT ....................................................................................... 1 - 45·
1.11 .1 Structureof BJT . . . ... . .. . ... ..... . ... . . .. .. . . ..... . .. ... ... . . .... .... 1 -47
1.11.2 Steady State Characteristics of BJT. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . 1 - 47
1.11 .3 Safe Operating Area (SOA) of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . 1 - 49
1.11.4 SWitchlng Characteristics of BJT .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. .. .. . 1 - 50
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1.11.5 Merits, Demerits and Applications of BJT........ •. . ..... ... . . ..•.. . •. .. . . . . 1 - 51
1.12 Power MOSFET .............................................................................. 1 - 52
1.12.1 Structure of MOSFETs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. • . . .. .. 1 - 53
1.12.2 Steady State {V-1) Characteristics of MOSFETs • ..• . .. .•.. . .•...•.•.... • .... 1 - 54
1.12.3 Switching Characteristics of MOSFET . . • . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 55
1.12.4 Merits, Demerits and Applications of MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 57
1.1 3 IGBT................................................................................................ 1 - 58
1.13.1 Structure of IGBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . . • 1 - 58
1.13.1.1 Punch through IGBT . . . • . • • . . . . . . . . 1-59
1.13.1.2 Non-punch through IGBT . . . . . . . . . . . • . • 1-59
1.13.1.3 Operation of IGBT . .. . . . • . . . .. 1- 60
1.13.1.4 Latchup in IGBT. . . • . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . • . • . • . 1- 62
1.13.1.5 Body-Source-Short and its Reason • • . • • • . • . . . . • • . . • . . . 1- 62
1.13.2 Safe Operating Area (SOA) of IGBT . . . .. .•..• . ...... .•. . ..•. . •.. . . . ... . • . 1 - 63
1.13.3 Steady State (V-1) Characteristics of IGBT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . 1 - 64
1.13.4 Switching Characteristics of IGBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 64
1.13.5 Merits, Demerits and Applications of IGBT. . .. .. . .................... .. ..... 1 - 66
1.13.6 Protection Circuits for IGBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 66
1.13.6.1 Gate Overvoltage Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 1 - 66
1.13.6.2 Overcurrent Protection . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 1 - 67
1.13.6.3 Snubber Circuits for IGBT . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 67
1.13.7 Comparison of Power Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 1 • 69
Chapter• 2 Drive and Protection Circuits for Power.Devices (2 • 1) to (2 ·. 66)
2.1 Firin Circ.uits for the· SCR ................................................................... 2 - 1
2.1.1 Features of Arin Circuits . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . • 2 - 2
2.1.2 R-Firing Circuit. . . . ...... . ...... . . .... .. . .. . .. .. ...... ... . .. .. . .. .... . .. 2 - 2
2.1.3 RC Firing Circuit . . .. . . ... . .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . ... .. ...... ... ......... . .. ... 2 - 3
2.1.4 Full Wave RC Firing Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
2.1.5 UJT Triggering Circuit . . ................ . ....... . .......... . ....... . ... .. 2 - 7
2.1.6 Pedestal Circuit with Cosine Modified Ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 2 - 10
2.1.7 SCR I TRIAC Triggering using Diac . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
2.1.7.1 V-l Characteristics of Dlac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • 2 - 20
2.1.7.2 DIAC-TRJAC Phase Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
2.2 Drive Circuits for BJT ......................................................................... 2 - 21
2.2.1 Base Drive Control During Tum-on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . 2 - 22
2.2.2 Base Drive Control During Tum-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 23
2.2.3 Proportional Base Controj . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 24
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2.2.4 Anti-saturation Control . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 24
2.2.5 Typical Driver Circuit for Power BJT. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . •• . .•....•.. 2 - 26
2.3 Drive Circuit for MOSFET .................................................................. 2 - 27
2.4 Driver Circuit for IGBT and MOSFET................................................. 2 - 27
2.5 Isolation of Gate and Base Drives ..................................... ............... 2 - 28
2.5.1 Necessityof Isolation . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 28
2.5.2 Isolation using Pulse Transformer ..... . .. .. . . ... . . . . ... . .. . . . . •. . .... . .... 2 - 29
2.5.3 Isolation using Optocoupters . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. • . . .. . .. .. . . 2 - 30
2.6 Protection Circuits ............................................................... ............... 2 - 31
2.7 Protection Against d¾tand Overvoltages........................ ............... 2 - 32
2.7.1 Snubber Circuits (Tum-?ff Snubber) ..... . . • . .. .. ... .... . .•.. . .•. . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 32
2.7.2 Metal Oxide Varistors {MOVs) . . .. . ......... ... ...... . ........•.. . . ... . . .. 2 • 36
2.7.3 Improving dv/dt Rating with the Help of Cathode Short . ..... . .... . .•. . .... . .. .. 2- 37
2.8 ¾t Protection with the Help of Inductor (Tum-on Snubber) ............ 2 - 38
2.9 Overcurrent Protection ...................................................................... 2 - 47
2.9.1 FuS8' ... .. , . .. . ....... . ....... . . .... . ...... .... . ... .. . : ... .. . . . . ....... 2 - 47
2.9.2 Semiconductor Fuses.... . ..... . •. .. .•. . ........ ... .....•.. . •......... . . 2 - 48
2.10 Cooling of Semiconductor Devices .................................................. 2 - 49
2.10.1 Concept of Thermal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 49
2.10.2 Thermal Model of a Power Device • . ..... . ....... . ............•...... . ...• 2 - 50
2.11 Types of Cooling ............................................................... ............... 2 - 55
2.11.1 Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 55
2J 1.2 Forced Air Cooling • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . 2 - 56
2.1 1.3 Liquid Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 2 - 56
2.11.4 Vapour Phase Cooling . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . • . . . . 2 - 58
2.12 Series and Parallel Operation of Thyristors ..................................... 2 - 59
2.12.1 Necessity of Series and Parallel Connection ..... . . . . . ... . . .. . .. . ...... . .... 2 - 59
2.12.2 Series Connection of Thyristors . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 59
2.12.2.1 ProblemsEncountered inSeriesConnection . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 59
2.12.2.2 Equalizing Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 60
2.12.2.3 Dynamic Equalization Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . 2- 61
2.12.3 Parallel Connection of Thyristors ....... .. • . .. • . . ••.. . . .. .. ..• • . . •. .. .• .. . 2 - 65
2.12.3.1 Problems Occurred In Parallel Connection . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 2 - 65
2.12.3.2 Equalizing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 65
~tfl pter • 3 Single and Three Phase AC/DC Converters

3.1 Introduction ................ ......................................................................... 3 - 1
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3.1.1 Principle of AC/DC Conversion (Control'led Rectifier) . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 1
3.1.2 Concept of Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 3 - 2
3.2 Single Phase Half Wave and Full Converter....................................... 3 - 4
3.2.1 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 4
3.2.2 Half Wave Coqtrolled Rectifier with RL Load .• .• . . ...... . . ... •..•..•.•• • , ••• , • 3- 6
3.2.3 Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode .. . ..... : ......•. .. . ..... 3 - 8
3.2.4 Single Phase Full Wave Converter with Resistive Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 15
3.2.5 Single Phase Full Wave Converter with Inductive Load Circuit Diagram . . ... . .....• 3 -16
3.3 Single Ph ase Semi converters (Half Bridge Converter) ..................... 3 .. 18
3.3.1 Circuit Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2 Working with Resistive Load . ....... . ... .. ... . ....... ... . .... .. .. . ... . . .. 3 -19
3.3.3 Working with Inductive (R-l) Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • 3 - 22
3.3.3.1 Continuous Current Mode . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 3-22
3.3.3.2 Discontinuous Current Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . 3 - 24
3.3.3.3 Continuous and Ripplefree Current for Large Inductive Load . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 25
3.3.4 Asymmetrical Half Bridge Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 35
3.3.4.1 Operation wi1h Resistive load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3- 35
3.3.4.2 Operation of Asymmetrical Half Bridge Converter with Level Load. . . . . . • . . 3 - 37
3.3.4.3 Comparison of Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Configurations . . . . . . . . . . 3- 39
3.4 Single Phase Full Converters ........................................................... 3 - 39
3.4.1 Working with Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 40
3.4.2 Working with Inductive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 44
3.4.2.1 Continuous Load Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 44
3.4.2.2 Olscontlnuous Load Current . • . . . . . . . . • • • • • • , • , • • • , 3 - 45
3.4.2.3 Continuous and Rlpplefree Current for Large Inductive Load . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 46
3.4.3 Inversion in 1tt, Full Converter ........ . .............. .......... n .. . .. ... . 3- 61
•
3.4.4 Comparison of Half Controlled and Full Controlled Rectifiers • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . 3 - 63
3.5 Three Phase Half Wave Converters ................................ :................ 3 - 64
3.5.1 Operation with Resistive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 64
3.5.2.Operation with Inductive Load . ... ................. ..... . ........ . .•. ... .• 3 - 73
3.6 Three Phase Semiconverters ........................................................... 3 - 78
3.6.1 Operation with Resistive Load . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 78
3.6.2 Operation with Inductive Load . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ~ 84
3.7 Three Phase Full Converters ............................................................. 3 - 87
3.7.1 Operation with Resistive Load ............... . .... . .. .. .... . ... . .......... 3 - 87
3.7.2 0 ra•tion with Hi hi Inductive Load . . . . . .. •. .•.... • .. . .. . . . ....... . .•. . .• 3 - 93
3.7.3 Comparison between 3q> and 1ct, Converters ............................ ... 3 • 101
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3.8 Effect of Source Inductance ..........................: .................................. 3 - 101
3.8.1 Effect of Source Inductance in 1~ Full Converter.. .. . .. ... .. • .. . . ... .... . ... . 3 - 102
3.9 Single Phase Dual Converters ......................................................... 3 - 106
3.9.1 Ckculating Cunent and Non-circulating Current Dual Converters....... . •. ..•... 3 -109
3.9.2 Comparison between Circulating and Non-circulating Current Modes ... . ......... 3- 109
3.1 0 Three Phase Dual Converters ...................................................... 3 - 11 1
3.10.1 CirculatingCurrentMode . ... . . . . . .... ... ... . ...... •... • .. ... ..•. . .. • . . 3-111
3.10.2 Non-circulating Current Mode . . . ...... . ....•.... ... .. .. .. .. .......... .. 3-115
3.11 Power Factor Im rovement.. .......................................................... 3 - 115
3.11.1 Extinction AA le Control . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . • . . • . . • . . . . • . . • • . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . 3 - 116
3.11.2 Symmetrical Angle Control (SAC) • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 3 - 118
3.11.3 Putse Width Modulation (PWM) .... . ........ •..•. . .. ... .. ... .• ...•...... 3-120
3.11.4 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation . .. . .....•..•....•........... . .. . : •... 3 - 121
Summa ........ ........................................................................................ 3 - 123
. . c~,,._ ~~ . ).
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 4 - 1
4.2 SteP:down Chopper ............................................................................. 4 - 2
4.2.1 Chopper Control Techniques ... .. . . .. . . . .• .. . ....... .. . .. ... . ... . •. ..• . .•• 4 - 7
4.3 Step-down Chopper with RL Load .................................................... 4 - 11
4.3.1 Continuous Load Current . .. . .. . .......... . .. . .... . .• .. . ... . .. . ......... 4-12
4.3.2 Discontinuous Load Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 • 13
4.4 Step-up Chopper............................................................................... 4 - 27
4.4.1 Use of step-up Operation for Energy Transfer ... . ..• . .. .•. . ......••... . ..... 4 - 34
4.5 Chopper Classification ...................................................................... 4 - 36
4.5.1 Class A Chopper . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 36
1
4.5.2 Class B Chopper .•. . .....•..•... .. ... . ................... .. .......... . 4 • 37

4.5.3 Class C Chopper •.. .... . . . ..... . ... .. . ..... ...... . .. .. ... ..... .. ...... 4 - 38
4.5.4 Class D Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . 4 - 40
4.5.5 Class E Ch r Four Quadrant Cho r . •.... . ......•. . .•. ... .. .. . ..•.. . 4 - 41
4 .6 Application1s of Choppers ................................................................... 4 - 44
4.7 Switching Mode Regulators (SMPS).................................................. 4 - 45
4.7.1 Classification of SMPS .. . . ... ..... . . . , . . .. . .. . .... . .•. . ... ... ••..• . ..• .. 4- 46
4.• Nonisolated Converters ..................................................................... 4 - 47
4.8.1 Buck Regulators . . . .... . . . ........... . ....... . ............ . ... . .. .. •.. 4 - 47
4.8.2 Boost Regulators ........ . .. . .. . ....... . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . ... .. .. . .. . .. 4 • 53
4.8.3 Buck Boost Regulators . .. ..... . .•. . . . .. . .. .... . ...... ... . ...... . . ....• . 4 - 57
4.8.4 Cuk Regulators .• ... •. ... .... . ......... . ..... . .. ... . . . ...... . .. .. •... . . 4 - 60
Copyrighted mat r al
4.9 Isolated Converters ............................................................................. 4 - 65
4.9.1 Flybadk Converter·.... ... ....... . . .. . .. ....... . . . .. .. ........ .. ...... . . 4 - 65
4.9.2 Forward Converter . .. . .. . .....·..... . .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. . ....... .. . ...... 4 - 70
4.10 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications ................................. 4 - 73
4.10.1 .Advantages.......•..•..•......•...•... •. .•. . .•.. .. ... .•.•..• ..... .• . 4 - 73
4.102 Disaclvantag.es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 73
4.10.3 Appllcations of SMPS •. .. ... . .. . .. . ... . .. .. ............. . . ....... .. . . .. 4 - 73
4.10.4 Comparison between Linear Switched Mode and Resonant Converters . .. ..... 4 - 74
Summary.................................................................................................. 4 - 74
,-A tmmn -RelatloDI
Abbreviations and Symbols
A Anode
tan Tum-on time of switch
AC AC supply current or voltage
t, tajf Circuit tum-off time
I
B Base or B-phase voltage
tq Tum-off time of switch
C Collector or capacitor
Toff Off period of switch
D Diode
t, Rise time
DFW Freewheeling diode tp Spread time
E Ba.ck emf of the motor, Emitter
td Delay time
Eg ,eg Back emf of the motor
~ Reverse recovery time
f Frequency
tgr Gate recovery time
fnpplt Ripple frequency Vs, Vs Supply voltage
G Gate
Vm Peak value of supply phase voltage
HF Harmonic factor
VBO Forward break-over voltage
Is,~ Supply current
VBR Reverse break-down voltage
Im Peak or maximum current
Vdc Supply or load DC voltage
ICI i, Capacitor current or charging
Vo, Vo Output voltage
current
Vrms RMS voltage
Io, io Output current
v(av) Average voltage
iL Inductance curr,ent
Vg Gate voltage
Ig I ig Gate current
VB Base voltage
'B Base current
v, Capacitor voltage
/AK Anode to cathode current
Vp, VP Peak voltage in UJT or supply
Ir Average current rating (SCR)
V 88 , V Bias voltage or UJT supply voltage
ITR RMS current rating (SCR)
1ripple Ripple current Vripple Ripple voltage
v R, Vy, v 8 3$ supply voltages
1FW Freewheeling CWTent
VAi< Anode to cathode voltage
l(av) Average current
11 Intrinsic standoff ratio
lrm.s RMS current dv
ic1, Circulating current dt
Rate of change of voltage
K Cathode di
L, L, Inductance, or current limiting - Rate of change of current
dt
reactor
PF Power factor
0 Duty cycle
Pa, P; Output, input power
7t Pi or half cycle period of supply
R Resistance or R-phase voltage a Triggering angle or firing angle
T Period of the waveform, transistor ro Angular frequency
orSCR J} Extinction angle
Ton On or conduction period of switch
(xii)
Power Semiconductor Devices
Objectives
• Principle of operation of power converter . Necessity, Input, output and controls.

• Applfcattons of power electontcs. Advantages and disadvantages.
• ClassJftcatton of power converters depending upon input and output.
• Introduction to power semiconductor devices, their Important rat1ngs.
• Charaderistics of power devices.
1.1 Introduction
• Power electronics is one of the important branch of electronics and electrical
engineering. It deals with conversion and control of electric energy. We
know that AC voltage and current of fixed frequency is available from
mains. This supply cannot be used always directly. For example computer
needs SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) for its working.
• Fig. 1.1.1 shows the basic functioning of
power electronic system. The electric Electric
energy in one form is given at the input Electric
energy
Power energy
electronic in the
The power electronic system converts the In one sys,tem another
electric energy in the other form. For form form
Control&
example, the input may be AC and the conversion
output can be DC. We know that such
conversion is performed by rectifier. Thus Fig. 1.1.1 Basic inputs/outputs of
rectifier is a power electronic system. power electronic systems
• The power electronic system thus performs conversion of electric energy. It

also controls the amount of el~c energy to be given to the output.
• The word puwer means high amplitudes of current and voltages.
(1 • 1)
Power Electronics -111 1-2 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.1.1 App,lications of Power Electronics

We will briefly present the various applications where power electronic systems
are used. There are numet;qus applications coming up every day in power electronics.
Some of them are mentioned below :
1. Uninterruptible power supplies and stand by power supplies (emergency power
supplies) for critical loads such as computers, medical equipments etc.
2. Power control in resistance welding, induction heating, electrolysis, process
industry etc.
3. Power conversion for HVOC and HVAC transmission systems.
4. Speed control of motors which are used in trat tion drives, textile mills, rolling
mills, cranes, lifts, compressors, pumps etc.
5. Solid state power compensators, static contactors, transformer tap changers etc.
6. High voltage supplies for electrostatic precipitators, and x-ray generators, etc.
7. Power supplies for communication systems, telephone exchanges, satellite
systems etc.
These are some of the important applications of power electronics.
1.1 .2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Electronic Controllers

The control and conversion of electric power is performed with the help of power
electronic controllers. Thus power electronic systems consists of controllers. The power
electronic controllers are also called as power electronic converters.
The power electronic controllers have following advantages :
1. Fast dynamic response due to static de~ices.
2. High efficiency of conversion due to low losses in electronic devices.
3. Compact size and light weight of the <:9ntrollers due to electronic devices.
4. Increased operating life and reduced maintenance since there are no moving
parts.
5. Power electronic controllers use digital or microprocessor based control. Hence
their operation is highly flexible.
6. Since solid state devices are used, the electromagnetic interference and a
acoustic noise is reduced.
The power electronic controllers have some drawbacks also. They are as follows :
1. The power electronic controllers generate harmonics. These harmonics affect the
performance of other loads.
Power Electronics • Ill 1-3 Power Semiconductor Devices
2. The power factor of some power electronic controllers is very low. Hence
power factor correction is necessary to reduce reactive power.
3. For very simple conversion requirements, power electronic converters may be
costly.
Here note that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. Hence power electronic
controllers are used in large number of applications. ·•
1.1.3 Block Diagram of Power Electronic Controller

Fig. 1.1.2 shows the block diagram of the system which uses power controller.
Here note that the power controller or converter can use thyristor (SCR), G'l'O,
MOSFET, BJT or IGBT as a switch.
;.J
Power
Power L
controller L
source .. or .. Load
converter
I(
'
Reference Sensing &
Control
settings unit feedback
&commands circuUs
Fig. 1.1.2 Block diagram of the system having power controller
• The power source can be AC mains, generator or batteries. The power

controller converts the input power which is suitable for the load. For
example, if the load is OC motor, then it needs de voltage and current. Then
the power controller converts the input AC into controlled DC which is
suitable for the motor.
• The sensing and feedback circuits monitor the load conditions. For example,
speed and output current are sensed in case of motor loads. This feedback is
given to the control unit.
• The control unit consists of drive circuits of the power controller. The drives
of the switches are adjusted according to feedback and the reference settings.
In case of motor drives, the reference settings can be; required speeds at
different times.
Power Electronics - Ill Power Semiconductor Devices
• The control unit adjusts the drives whenever there is difference between
feedback (actual) speed and reference speed. The control unit also accepts
commands from .the user. These commands are given for the proper
functioning of the power electronic system and the load.
Our major study of power electronics is centered around the study of various
power controllers (converters), their performance for different loads, control and drive
circuits, design of feedback and sensing circuits etc.
1.2 Types of Power Electronic Converters

The power electronic circuits are classified into five broad categories depending
upon the input, output and job they perform. These power electronic circuits are
discussed briefly as follows :
1.2.1 AC to DC Converters
• Fig. 1.2.1 shows the inputs and
outputs of AC to DC converters.
The input is single phase or three
1~or I
~c _ __...,. AC to DC
Variable or
i----"' fixed DC
A converters output
phase AC supply normally supply
available from the mains. The
Fig. 1.2.1 AC to DC converters
output is the controlled OC voltage
and current.
• The AC to OC converters include diode rectifiers as well as controlled
rectifiers. The controlled rectifiers mainly use SCRs. Since the input is AC
supply, the SCRs are turned off by natural commutation. Hence external
commutation circuits are not required. Hence AC to OC converters are also
called as line (supply) commutated converters.
• These converters are used for DC drives, UPS and HVDC systems.
1.2.2 DC to AC Converters (Inverters)

• Fig. 1.2.2 shows the inputs and outputs of DC to AC converters. These
converters are commonly
called inverters. The input Fixed DC to AC Variable voltage
DC _ ___ converters
voltage
to the inverters is fixed OC - -- -variable frequency
or AC output
voltage. Normally this OC input Inverters
voltage is obtained from the
batteries. The output of the Fig. 1.2.2 DC to AC converters or Inverters
inverter is the fixed or
variable frequency AC voltage. The AC voltage magnitude is also variable.
Power Electronics - Ill 1-5 Power Semiconductor Devices
• Inverters are mainly used whenever mains is not available. For example UPS
use inverters inside to generate AC output from batteries. Inverters are also
used for speed control of induction motors. The voltage, frequency or both
are v~ried by inverter to control the speed of induction motors. Inverters are
also used in standby and emergency power supplies.
1.2.3 DC to DC Converters (Choppers)

• Fig. 1.2.3 shows the inputs and outputs of DC to DC converters or choppers.
The choppers take input from fixed voltage DC supply such as battery or
output of uncontrolled
DC to DC Fixed or variable
rectifier. The output of ,the Fixed voltage converters 1---voltage DC
chopper is fixed or variable DC supply - - - . t or
output
DC voltage. choppers
• The choppers are normally Fig. 1.2.3 Inputs and outputs of the DC to DC
converter or chopper
used in DC drives. The
speed of the motor can be
controlled in forward and reverse directions. The choppers ,a re also used in
switched mode power supplies (SMPS).
1.2.4 AC to AC Converters (Cycloconverters)

• Fig. 1.2.4 shows the
inputs and outputs Fixed voltage AC to AC Variable frequency
fixed frequency converter 1 - - -variable voltage
of cycloconverters. AC supply - - 4 or
AC output
The input to the (mains) cycloconverter
cycloconverters is
Fig. 1.2.4 Inputs and outputs of cycloconverters
normally 1 t or 3 t
AC mains supply. It is fixed voltage and fixed frequency. The
cycloconverters provide the output which has variable voltage and variable
frequency. The output frequency is lower than the input frequency.
• The cycloconverters are used mainly for AC traction drives.
1.2.5 AC Regulators
• Fig. 1.2.5 shows the
inputs and outputs of
AC regulator. The input Fixed voltage I
AC supply _ ......,..
AC
regulator ---•
Variable voltage
AC output
to the AC regulator is
fixed voltage AC mains.
The output is variable Fig. 1.2.5 Inputs and outputs of AC regulators
AC voltage which is
-
suitable for load. Here note that the output frequency is same as input
frequency. Thus AC regulators does not change the frequency. Whereas
cycloconverters change the frequency also. This is the difference between AC
regulators and cyrloconverters.
• The AC regulators are used for the speed control of large fans and pumps.
1.3 Power Semiconductor Devices

The power semiconductor devices are used as on/off switches in power control
circuit. These devices are classified as follows :
Power Devices
J t J
~: Diodes Thyristors Transistors
1. General purpose 1. SCRs 1. BJT

2. High speed 2. GTO 2. MOSFET
3. Schottky 3. RCT 3.IGBT
4. SITH 4. SIT
5. GATT
6. LASCR
7.MCT
8. TRIAC
In this chapter we will briefly study the characteristics, power rating and operating
frequencies of these devices.
1.4 Power Diodes

Power diodes are required in most of the Anode(A)
power converters. Power diode is uncontrolled
device. Fig. 1.4.1 shows the symbol of power
diode. +
V
When anode (A) is positive with respect to
cathode (I<), diode starts conducting. Normally a
forward bias of 1 volt is suficient to push the
diode in conduction. Current flows from anode Cathode (K)
to cathode. The diode does not conduct when Fig. 1.4.1 Symbol of power diode
anode to cathode voltage is negative. The diode
is said to be reverse biased.
1.4.1 Structure of Power Diode

The structure of the power diode is little
Anode (A)
different than the small signal diodes. Fig. 1.4.2
shows the structure I of power diode. In this
figure observe that there is heavil{g doped n +
14 3 substrate with doping level of 10 _9 / cm 3 • This
r, drift region 10 / cm
substrate forms a cathode of the diode. On n +
substrate, lightly doped n - epitaxial layer is
grown.
n.,. substrate 1019/ cm3
1his layer is also called drift region. The
doping level of n - layer is about 1014 / cm 3 . Then
Cathode (K}
the p-n junction is formed by diffusing a heavily
doped p + region. This p + region forms anode of
Fig. 1.4.2 Structure of power diode the diode. The doping level of p+ region is
1019 /cm3. The thickness of p+ region is 10 µm.
The thickness of n + substrate is 250 µm. The thickness of n - drift layer depends upon
the breakdown voltage of the diode. For higher breakdown voltages, the drift region is
wide. The n - drift region is absent in low power signal diodes. The drift region
absorbs depletion layer of the reverse biased p + n - junction.
Conductivity modulation of the drift layer
Now let us see what will happen when the power diode is forward biased. Under
this condition, the holes will be injected from the p + region into the drift region. Some
of the holes combine with the electrons in the drift region. Since injected holes are
large, they attract electrons from the n + layer. Thus holes and electrons are injected in
the drift region simultaneously. Hen.ce resistance of the drift region reduces
significantly. Thus diode current goes on increasing, but drift region resistance remains
almost constant Hence on-state losses in the diode are reduced. This phenomena is
called conductivity modulation of drift region. 'This phenomena is present in almost all
the power devices.
.1.4.2 1-V Characteristics

The 1-V characteristics of power Anode current
increases linearty
diode are shown in Fig. 1.4.3. In the with voltage
forward biased condition, anode
Reverse breakdown
current increases linearly with 1101ta9e
voltage. In lower power diodes, +
current increases exponentially. The Veo
T
J...-~i---~,-----vw.
0
linear rise takes place because of
ohmic resistance inn- layer. Then-
drift region is lightly doped. Hence,
it appears as lo,w value internal
Fig. 1.4.3 v-i characteristics of power diode
resistance of the diode. Therefore current is linearly proportional to voltage. A forward

bias of 1 V is sufficient to trigger diode into conduction.
When the diode is reverse biased, a very small anode current flows. This current is
called leakage current. When the reverse bias is greater than reverse breakdown
voltage, anode current starts rising rapidly. Hence, large power dissipation takes place
in the diode and it is damaged.
1.4.3 Switching Characteristics of Diodes

Power diodes are mainly used in commutation and freewheeling circuits. The !~
through the diode is controlled by these circuits. The voltage across the diode changes
according to current through it. Fig. 1.4.4 shows the current and voltage through the
diode during switching periods. These waveforms are also called switching
characteristics.
As shown in the figure, the diode is reverse biased (-VR) initially. Hence. space
charge is stored in the depletion region. When diode current starts increasing during
period t 1, the voltage also increases. At the end of t 1, the voltage across diode
becomes at peak. This voltage overshoot occurs, because there is no conductivity
modulation during t 1. Hence, ohmic resistance of the drift region and inductance
offered by silicon wafer is high. Therefore there is large voltage drop in the diode.
There is large amount of carrier injection in the drift region. Hence, space charge in
the drift region is discharged to its thermal equilibrium. By this time diode current
reaches to its steady state value. Then during time t 2 , conductivity modulation begins
and resistance of drift region starts reducing. Hence, voltage across diode reduces and
comes down to minimum value. At the end of time t 2 , diode voltage drop becomes
minimum and remains steady.
Now let us consider the case when di is negative. That is when diode current
dt
red~ces. As shown in Fig. 1.4.4, the voltage also reduces by small value. During t 3
and t 4 , diode current is reducing. But voltage drops by a small value. During this
period there are excess carriers in the drift region. Hence, even if diode current is
negative in t 4 , the voltage drops by a small value. At the end of t 4 , all the excess
carriers in drift region are removed. Hence, the junctions p + n - and n + n - are reverse
biased. The negative current continues to flow in ts . Hence, depletion regions are
created in drift layer. Therefore diode voltage becomes negative. The negative diode
current goes to zero at the end of ts since there are no carriers. Hence, the diode
voltage falls to negative bias voltage -VR as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.
IFlg. 1.4.4 Switching characteristics of power diode
During t 4 and t5 , excess carriers are removed from the diode and reverse voltage
is buildup. Tilis period is called reverse recovery period of the diode. And the portion
of characteristics (Fig. 1.4.4) from t 3 to t5 is called reverse recovery characteristics.
1.4.4 Types of Diodes

There are three types of diodes as discussed next :
1.4.4.1 General Purpose Diodes

• General purpose diodes handle power at the mains frequency (i.e. 50 Hz) or
frequencies below 1 kHz.
• The on-state drop of general purprue diodes is kept as low as possible, but
its trun-off switching time is more. This is achieved with the help of
increasing the doping level.
• Therefore reverse recovery time is large i.e. about 25 µsec.
• The ratings of general purpose diodes vary from 1 A/50 V to 5 kA/ 10 kV.
C pyrght al
Power Electronics .. Ill 1 -10 Power Semiconductor Devices
• The general purpose diode consists of additional lightly doped n - epitaxial

layer (drift region) that absorbs depletion layer formed due to reverse
voltage.
• These diodes are used in rectifiers and converters.
1.4.4.2 Fast Recovery Diodes (Switching Diodes)

• Fast recovery diodes have the reverse recovery time of the order of
25 - 100 ns.
• Fast recovery diode constists of a highly doped p-type and n + type layers
sandwitched by a lightly doped n- layer.
• The thickness of n- layer is increased to increase the voltage blocking
capacity.
• The reverse recovery time is reduced by reducing the stored charge in the
neutral region and minimizing carrier life time. This is achieved by forming
recombination centers in neutral ·region.
• For very high frequency applications p--i-n diodes are used.
• Past recovery diodes have ratings from 1 A / 50 V to 1 kA / 3 kV with
reverse recovery time less than 5 µs. ·
Applications
Fast recovery diodes are used in inverters, choppers, SMPS, UPS, de-de converters,
resonant converters etc.
1.4.4.3 Schottky Diodes

• In schottky diodes, the p-n junction is
Anode
eliminated. A thin film of metal is placed
directly on the semiconductor as shown
in Fig. 1.4.5. Normally aluminium is Junction
deposited on n-type semiconductor. The
Semiconductor
metal is anode and semiconductor is
cathode.
• Since, there is no p-n junction, the
Cathode
storage time is absent. Hence, turn-off
time is very small. Hence schottky diodes Fig. 1.4.5 A schottky diode
have high switching frequencies.
• The drift layer is absent. Hence on-state losses are very low. But schottky
diodes have large reverse leakage currents.
Copyright ma r al
Power Electronics - 111 1 -11 Power Semiconductor Devices
1-V characteristics of schottky diodes
! ! I
•I I
I I
I I : I
'
I
,- --,
I
I ' Schottky
diode
I
-t.
. '
-
I
I
I
I
i
'
I
I
!
I
I
I
'·-1--I
I
I
/ p-n j unction
diode - -
-il
I
I
.... I I
I '' : I I I
I
____
i_/ voltag~'-.,. .-- W- i--
I
Reverse breakdown I I _....
I - --
~ I __1_.. i,
I
--+ -
,/
..-- i--- ---- ----- ,_r -
.,.__ ,_
0
,__ ,_ , _ ,_
- - -
I
~ -
I
. J_
- r
!
I
I
I -- -- I I
,-,-
'
I
1-
I
- >-- - - --
,__ ,_ I
-- I \
I
.,._
'
I
- L
I
I
I
-- - -
-t- ,_ _I
I
- .---
Fig. 1.4.6 1-V characteristics of schottky diodes
• The schottky diodes have similar 1-V characteristics to that of p-n junction
diodes.
• Schottky diodes have very low cut-in voltage (0.2 V).
• Reverse breakdown voltage of the schottky diode is about 50 V compared to
150 V of p-n junction diodes.
Applications of schottky diodes

Schottky diodes are used in
i) Switched mode power supplies.
ii) ·AC to DC converters
iii) Radar systems
iv) Mixers and detectors in communication circuits.
v) Feedback and freewheeling operations of power converters.
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -1 2 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.4.5 Applications of Power Diodes

Power diodes are required in almost all the power converters. Some of the
applications are mentioned below :
1. Power diodes are used in uncontrolled rectifiers.
2. Feedback and freewheeling operations in choppers, inverters and controlled
converters use power diodes.
3. Almost all the commutating circuits for SCRs use power diodes.
4. Half controlled converters and half bridge inverters use power diodes.
1.4.6 Specifications and Ratings of Power Diodes

Following table lists the available rating of power diodes.
Table 1.4.1 Ratings of available power diodes
Serial Type of the Voltage-current Maximum On..state drop

No. diode ratings frequency
1. General purpose 10 kV/5 kA 2 kHz 1-2 V
2. High speed 3 kV/1 kA 12 kHz 1-1.5 V.
3. Schottky 50 V/50 A 20 kHz 0.S-1 V
1.5 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

SCR belongs to thyristor family. Some of the devices of thyristor family are as
follows :
1. Silicon con.trolled rectifiers (SCR)
2. Gate tum-off thyristor (GTO)
3. Reverse conducting thyristor (RCI)
4. Static induction thyristor (SITH)
5. Gate assisted turn-off thyristor (GATI)
6. Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR)
7. MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT)
8. TRIAC
Out of all these devices, SCR is the most commonly used thyristor.
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -13 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.5.1 Construction of SCR

• We know that SCR is a four layer device. Fig. 1.5.1 (a)
shows the symbol of the SCR. It has three terminals : Anode (A)
Anode (A), Cathode (K) and Gate (G). A small positive

voltage between gate and cathode turns on the SCR.
• Pig. 1.5.l{b) shows the detailed structure. The p+ layer is Gate
(G)
doped at 1019/cm 3 . The p-layer is doped at The 1017 /cm 3 .
p and p+ layers from anode (A) of the SCR. The thickness Cathode (K)
of the p-layer is 30 to 50 µ m. The n - layer is lightly
doped. The doping level of this layer is 1014 /cm 3 . The Fig. 1.5.1 (a) Symbol
width of n - layer is 50 to 1000 µm. This layer absorbs
depletion layer of the junction l 2.
• When SCR is forward biased (VAK positive), junction J2 is reverse biased. And J1
and J3 are forward biased. The depletion layer of l 2 is absorbed by n - layer
when SCR is forward biased. The wiclth of n - layer decides forward blocking
capability of the SCR. The next p-layer, having doping level of 10 17 / cm 3 forms
the gate of SCR. The width of this layer is 30 to 100 µm. The next, i.e. n + layer
(doping level of 1019 /cm 3 ) forms the cathode of SCR.
• Fig. 1.5.l(c) shows the simplified structure of SCR. The gate - cathode junction is
l 3 . When this junction is forward biased, (i.e. gate signal applied) SCR can be
turn-on. Due to gate signal, current starts flowing across l 3 . Some carriers flow
across J2 also. Hence, inte.m al regeneration starts and SCR turns on. This process
is explained in detail with the help of two transistor analogy in next section.
Gate (G) Cathode (K)
n• Cathode (K)
J3 IJ
p 1cJ7 /cm3
J2
..
n- n
1d4 /cm3 J3
p - Gate
-
J1 J2 (G)
p 1d 7 /cm3 n
J1
p• 1<Y 9 3
/cm p
Anode (A)
1
Anode (A)
(b) Structure of SCR (c) SlmpUfled structure of SCR
Fig. 1.5.1
Power Electronics -111 1 -14 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.5.2 Merits, Demerits and Applications of SCR

Merits of SCR
i. Very small amount of gate drive is required since SCR is a regenerative device.
ii. SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
ill. On-state losses in SCRs are reduced.
Demerits of SCR
i. Gate has no control, once the SCR is turned on.
ii. External circuits are required to turn-off the SCR.
w. Operating frequencies are very low.
iv. Snubbers (RC circuits) are required for dv / dt protection.
Applications of SCR
i. SCRs are best suitable for controlled rectifiers.
ii. AC regulators, lighting and heating applications.
w . DC motor drives, large power supplies and electronic circuit breakers.
Review Question
1. With tht http of characteristics, aplam thl modes of operation of thl thyristor.
1.6 SCR Characteristics and Modes of Operation

The working of the SCR can be discussed into three modes : Reverse blocking
mod e, forward blocking mode and forward conduction mode. Fig. 1.6.1 shows the V-1
characteristics of the SCR. (See Fig. 1.6.1 on next page)
The characteristics shown in the are called static characteristics. The anode to
cathode current I AK is plotted with respect to anode to cathode voltage VAK . The
voltage · V80 • is the forward break over voltage. ' V 8R ' is the reverse break-down
voltage. And I g 1 , I g 2 , I g 3 are the gate currents applied to the SCR.
A
1.6.1 Reverse Blocking Mode
Fig. 1.6.2 shows the situation when the p
thyristor will be in reverse blocking mode. J1
In the above figure, observe that the anode

G -
N
p
J2 ---+
--
(A) is made negative with respect to cathode J3
(K). The gate is kept open. There are three PN N
junctions in the SCR : J1, I 2 and J3 . Due to

this reverse bias, junctions J1 and J3 are also K
Fig. 1.6.2 A reverse blued SCR
Forward
conduction
(ON state)
Reverse ON-state 193 > Ig2 > 191
breakdown voltage drop
w-e
"-
1
___gJ lg2 I
Forward
leakage
"' __
R_
ev_e_~_oc_k_
in_g_ ,,.,..: ~:~;.- --_::-.:-~~ current
Ve~ ' .~·:::·.- ·- ·- ·-
- - - ~ - ~----_-_-T~_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-____ 1_'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..__ _ VAK
Reverse Forward blocking

leakage (OFF state)
current Forward
breakover
voltage
Fig. 1.6.1 Static V~ characteristics of a SCR
reverse biased. And junction J2 is forward biased. The SCR doesnot conduct due to
this reverse bias. A very small current flows from cathode to anode. 1bis current is
called reverse leakage current of the SCR This mode is called reverse blocking mode.
Fig. 1.6.1 shows the characteristic of SCR in reverse blocking mode. Observe that
reverse voltage increases but very small current flows. At reverse break down voltage
(VsR), the reverse current increases rapidly. At the time of reverse breakdown, the
high voltage is present across the SCR and heavy current flows through it. Hence
large power dissipation takes place in the thyristor. Due to this dissipation, the
junction temperature exceeds the permissible value and the SCR is damaged. Hence a
reverse voltage across the SCR should never exceed V8 0 .
· During the reverse blocking mode, the positive gate signal should not be applied..
H the positive signal is applied between gate and cathode, junction J3 is forward
biased. Hence current starts flowing through it. This current adds to reverse leakage
current of the SCR. Hence dissipation is also increased.
1.6.2 Forward Blocking Mode

The SCR is said to be forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to
cathode as shown in Fig. 1.6.3. Due to this forward bias the junction / 1 and / 3 are
forward biased and / 2 is reverse biased. Hence the forward voltage is to be hold by
jwtction J2 • A very small current flows from anode to cathode. 11tls current is called
forward leakage current This current is of the order of few milliamperes. In the
Power Electronics - 111 1 -16 Power Semiconductor Devices
-
forward blocking mode, the
A
thyristor is forward biased but it
doesnot tum-on. In the forward
p blocking mode a very small
J1
N forward leakage current flows. fu
J2 --+
-- the forward blocking mode the
G- p
J3 voltage (VAK ) can be increased till
N
Vao . This situation is shown in
Fig. 1.6.1. When the forward
K voltage reaches v80 , the SCR turns
on. The SCR goes from forward
Fig. 1.6.3 SCR in forward biased condition blocking mode to forward
conduction mode. Normally gate
drive is applied for this purpose. The highest voltage to be sustained in forward
blocking mode is forward break-over voltage, V80 .
When the voltage increases above V80 , the SCR goes into forward conduction
mode (i.e. turns-on) even if gate drive is not applied. Thus SCR is not damaged if
voltage VAK > V 80 , rather it is turned-on.
1.6.3 Forward Conduction Mode

When the SCR is forward biased, then it can go into forward conduction by
following techniques :
i) When VAK > VBo
ii) When gate drive is applied
iii) When dv exceeds permissible value

dt
iv) When gate cathode junction is exposed to light
Here note that the SCR can go in the forward conduction mode only if it is in the
forward blocking mode earlier.
(I) When V AK >Vso

The SCR is driven into forward conduction mode when anode to cathode voltage
(VAK) exceeds the forward break-over voltage (V80 ). The SCR is said to have
turned-on when it operates in forward conduction mode. When V A K > V 80 , the SCR is
driven in forward conduction even if gate is open. From Fig. 1.6.3, it is clear that
junction / 2 is reverse biased during forward blocking mode (VAK < V 80 ). When V AK
exceeds v8 0 , the avalanche break-down of junction / 2 takes place even if gate drive is
not applied. Hence heavy current starts flowing through the SCR and anode to
cathode voltage falls to very small value. This is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. The dotted line
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -17 Power Semiconductor Devlc.s
(...........) indicates switching of SCR ·

from forward blocking state (i.e. OFF)
to forward conduction state (i.e. ON).
Load
The anode to cathode current of the
SCR is only limited by the load. Fig.
1.6.4 shows such situation :
+
V When the SCR conducts in the
forward conduction mode, it is said to
have turned 'ON'. 'T he anode to
cathode voltage is less than 2 volts.
Fig. 1.6.4 Use of SCR in forward conduction This voltage is normally neglected in
calculations. Then the current through
the load and SCR will be,
V
1AK = Load ... {1.6.1)
Thus the SCR current is only limited by the load, once the SCR turns 'on'.
(II) When gate drive Is applled
A positive gate to cathode signal is applied whenever the SCR is to be driven into
forward conduction mode (ON state). This is also called gate triggering of the SQl.
Such situation is shown by the
typical circuit of Fig. 1.6.5. The SCR
A------ is in forward blocking mode when
p gate drive is not applied. When the
Load positive gate to cathode voltage is
applied, current flows from gate to
cathode. 1bis current adds to the
+
V forward leakage current. Hence
+
avalanche break-down of junction J2
takes place . at lower anode to
K
cathode voltage also. Thus SCR is
driven into forward conduction
Fig. 1.6.5 Gata triggering la used to tum.on mode (ON state) even if VAK <Vso·
·t he SCR Fig. 1.6.1 shows the characteristic by
center ( -----) lines when gate drive
is appµed. Observe that, as the gate current is increased, the SCR tu.ms-on at lower
and lower values of anode to cathode voltages. All these anode to cathode voltages
are less than V 80 . Thus gate triggering is the most convenient way of triggering the
SCR.
Power Electronics - Ill 1 - 18 Power Semiconductor Devices
Once the thyristor goes into forward conduction mode, the gate has no control
over the conduction of thyristor. The current I AK is only limited by the load, i.e.,
V
[AK = Load
The SCR cannot be driven back into forward blocking mode by r6Iloving the gate
drive. There are some other techniques. We will discuss those techniques next.
(Ill) When : exceeds permissible value
Here dv is the rate of change

A
dt
of anode to cathode voltage with
respect to time. Whenever the
. . p
. N
J1
SCR is in forward blocking state,
only forward leakage current
J2 --+ V
G p
J3
T- flows through the SCR. In such
N
state an equivalent internal
-r
capacitor is formed inside the
SCR from anode to gate and gate
K to cathode. Fig. 1.6.6 shows such
internal circuit. Whenever the
Fig. 1.6.6 SCR turns on by ' ; due to current
voltage applied across the SCR
flow in equivalent internal capacitor
changes rapidly, a transient
current flows through the SCR.
Th.is transient current flows due to rapid voltage variations ( !;) and internal
capacitance. This current adds to the forward leakage current. And hence the SCR
turns on even if VAK < V Bo or gate drive is not applied.
The !; tum-on makes false triggering (unwanted) of the SCR. It is never used for
triggering. Every SCR has dv rating. It is expressed in volts per microseconds

dt
(V I µ s) . The voltage variations across the SCR must be kept less than permissible
value of ~: to avoid false triggering. Normally a small resistance is connected between
gate and cathode to avoid false triggering of SCR due to dv. This resistance acts as a
dt
external path for leakage current generated by the internal capacitor.
(Iv) When a gate cathode Junction Is exposed to light

When the gate cathode junction is exposed to a beam of light, the current flows in
the junction due to photons of light. This current acts as a gate drive to the SCR and
it is driven into conduction. This type of triggering is normally used in light activated
SCRs (LASCR).
1.6.4 Latching and Holding Currents

Now let us briefly discuss the two important currents which flow through the
SCR. These currents are : latching current and the holding current.
1.6.4.1 Latching current (IL)

Consider that the SCR is in forward blocking state. Then the SCR can be turned-on
by applying a gate drive. Then the SCR goes into forward conduction mode
(ON state). For the SCR to remain in the 'ON' state, the anode Ito cathode current
( I AK) must be greater than latching current. i.e.,
I AK ~ IL ; to remain in ON state after triggering. ' Fig. 1.6.7 shows the V-1
characteristics of the SCR showing latching current
IJ, 1
.... ...........
.... ... ... ....
Fig. 1.6.7 V_. characteristics of the SCR showing latchlng current
Observe that latching current is the lowest current which flows through the SCR to
remain in forward conduction (ON state) after triggering. If the current through the
SCR is less than latching current, then the SCR goes back into forward blocking state
as soon as gate drive is removed. This is said to be SCR is not latched (i.e. not
turned-on). From the above discussion, the latching current can be dlefined as follows :
Latching current is the minimum forward current that flaws through the SCR to keep it
in forward conduction mode (i.e. ON state) at the time of triggering. If forward current is
less than latching current, SCR doesnot turn-on.
The latching current is of the order of 10 to 15 milliamperes.
1.6.4.2 Holding Current (IH)

Consider that the SCR is in forward conduction state (i.e. ON state). The SCR goes
into forward blocking state when current through it falls below holding current ( I H ) .
i.e., if I AK < I H ; SCR turns-off. Fig. 1.6.8 shows the V-1 characteristics of the SCR
showing holding ,c urrent.
---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_J~o===~====~----v AK
Fig. 1.6.8 V-1 characteristics of the SCR 'showing holding current
Observe that the holding current is the lowest current below which SCR turns-off.
In other words we can say that, for the SCR to remain in ON-state, its forward current
should not reduce below holding current. From the above discussion, the holding
current can be defined as follows :
Holding current is the minimum forward current that flaws through the SCR to keep it
in forward conduction mode. When forward current reduces below holding current, SCR
turns-off.
The holding current of the SCRs is of the order of 8 to 10 milliamperes.
1.6.4.3 Compariso:n (Difference) between Holding and Latching Currents

The definitions of holding current and latching current appear similar but they are
totally different. The differences are mentioned below :
Power Electronics • Ill Power Semiconductor Devices
1. Latching current is effective at the time of turning-ON, whereas holding current

is effective at the time of turning-OFF the SCR.
2. Latching current is the minimum current that should flow at the time of
triggering to tum-ON the SCR. Whereas once the SCR is already in ON-state,
its current should not reduce below holding current otherwise it turns-OFF.
3. Latching current is greater than holding current even though their magnitudes
are much related.
,. . Example 1.6.1 : The SCR shown in Fig. 1.6.9 has the latching current of 20 mA and
is fired by the pulse of width 50 µ sec. Determine whether the SCR triggers or not.
i(t)
R =20 0
+
V5 = 100 V
L= 0.5 H
..
Fig. 1.6.9 Circuit of example 1.6.1
Solution : A step of voltage is applied to the R-L load when SCR turns on. The
current through the RL circuit for step input is given as,
i (t) = ~ ( 1 - e-t ) ~ ... (1.6.2)
vg
,1
O SOµsec
I •
I I
i(t) at l : SCR current

50 µsec
---~--
1
I
Fig. 1.6.10 After 50 µsec, i(t) > IL to trigger the SCR property (triggerad)
Fig. 1.6.10 shows the gate pulse and current waveform. Here observe that the SCR
will be latched (triggered) if i (t) is greater than latching current when gate triggering
pulse is removed after 50 µ sec. Hence let us calculate current i (t) through the SCR at.
50 µ sec,
Power Electronics -111 1 - 22 Power Semiconductor Devices
Here note that current through the SCR is 10 mA. It is not reached to the latching
current level and trigger pulse is removed at 50µ.sec. Hence the SCR will not be
triggered.
,. . . Example 1.6.2 : A SCR is connected in series with a 0.5 H inductor and 20 n
resistance. A 100 V DC voltage is applied to this circuit. If the latching current of the
SCR is 4 mA, find the minimum width of the gate trigger pulse required to properly
turn-en the SeR.
Solution : Fig. 1.6.11 shows the circuit diagram.
i(t)
R=200
L= 0.5 H
Latching current, IL =4 mA (Given). The current through the RL circuit is given by

equation 1.6.2 as,
In the above equation when i(t) is equal to latching current, SCR turns on. Hence
with i(t) = IL, above equation becomes,
•
I ·'
R
IL= V: ( 1- e-T tR)
Now we hav,e to determine the time 't' in above equation. Putting other values,
1
4 xio- 3 = 2~(1-,-• ~)
Solving above equation for t,

t = 20 µsec
Thus the width of the gate trigger pulse must be 20 µ sec to turn-on the SCR.
,,.. Example 1.6. 3 : The latching current of an SCR used in a phase controlled circuit,
comprising an inductive load of R = 10 Q and L = 0.1 His 15 mA. The input voltage
is 325 sin 314 t. Obtain the minimum gate pulse width required for reliable triggering
of the SCR if gated at ; angle in every positive half cycle.
Solution : Fig. 1.6.12 shows the circuit diagram of this example.
i{t)
R = 100
V5 = 325 sin 314 t rv

L = 0.1 H
Thus SCR is triggered at ; . Hence applied voltage at this angle will be,
V5 = 325 sin ; = 281.458 volts.

.
Thus 281.458 volts is applied at the time when SCR is triggered. For short duration
(till SCR turns on) this voltage can be considered constant. The current through load is
then given by equation 1.6.2 as,
i(t) = '; ( 1 - e-I ~)

In this equation we have to determine the pulse width when SCR triggers
successfully. SCR will be triggered successfully when i(t) = I L= 15 mA. Putting other
values in above equation.
1sx10- 3 = 28 i;;58 ( 1-e_, ~~)

Solving the above equation,
t = 5.33 µsec
Thus, the minimum gate pulse should be 5.33 µ sec to reliably turn-on the SCR
, . . Example 1.6.4 : A SCR has a forward breakover voltage of 175 volts when a gate
pulse of 2 mA is made to flow. Find the conduction angle if a sinusoidal voltage of
350 V peak is applied.
Solution : When the gate pulse is applied, the SCR turns on at 175 volts. The
applied voltage is,
Vs = 350 sin rut
when Vs reaches to 175 SCR will turn on. i.e.

175 = 350 sin rut
Hence the value of conduction angle (rot) will be,
:. wt = 30°
Thus, at 3Cf, SCR will tum-on.
,. . Example 1.6.5 : In the SCR circuit shown in Fig. 1.6.13 below, the SCR has a
latching current of 50 mA and is fired by a pulse of length 50 µ sec Show that witlwut
resistance R, the SCR will fail to remian on, when the firing pulse ends and then find
the maximum value of R to ensure firing.
200
+
100V R
o.sn
Fig. 1.6.13 SCR circuit of example 1.6.5

Solution : To show that SCR does not latch
Here first consider the SCR circuit without resistance R. Titls circuit is shown
below in Fig. 1.6.14. ·
i(t)
R=200
+
V 5 =100V
L = 0.5 H
Fig. 1.6.14 SCR circuit of example 1.6.5 without R

Power Electronics - Ill 1 - 25 Power Semiconductor Devices
For this circuit the given data is,

Vs = 100
R = 200
L = 0.5 H
IL = SOmA
Pulse width = 50 µs
Now let us check whether the SCR current rises above latching current in the
firing pulse duration of 50 µs. The current in the RL circuit is given by equation 1.6.2
as,
Putting the value of R, Land V5
i(t) = l:(1- e-I ~ )
= 5(1- e- 40t)
The current after t = 50 µs will be,
i(t=50µs) = 5(1-e-40xSOxt0-6)
= 9.99 X 10- 3 = 10 mA
Thus during the firing pulse width of 50 µs, the SCR current rises upto 10 mA.
Since this current is less than latching current of 50 mA. SCR will fail to remain on
when firing pulse ends.
To determine value of R
The additional resistance
connected in parallel with RL
circuit increases the
through SCR. SCR takes 10 mA
current
--
i(t=50 µs} = 50 mA
40mA
current when firing pulse of width +

R
Vs=100V
50 µs ends. To latch the ~ 50
mA current should be passed
through it. Hence additional 40
mA current can be passed through
'R' as shown in Fig. 1.6.15. Fig. 1.6.15 Currents at t = 50 µs
H we neglect the voltage drop in the SCR, full V5 will appear across R. Hence,
V5 = 40mA x R
100
R = =
= 2500 Q
Thus a maximum R = 2.5 kQ will ensure firing of the SCR.
1.6.5 Two Transistor Model of SCR

The operation of the SCR can be explained with the help of two transistor model.
Fig. 1.6.16 shows how the two transistor model of the SCR is formed.
As shown in Fig. 1.6.16(b), the middle two layers are split into two separate parts.
A
lo
A A
l51 = 1c 2
p p
J1 N N 1c1
N
J2 G p p
G p
J3 N G
N 182
K K lo
K
(a) Four layer (b) Middle two layers (c) Two trans'lstor mode
structure of split into two of the SCR from
SCR separate parts fig (b)
Fig. 1.6.16 A two transistor model of the SCR

Because of this, the two transistors are formed. These transistors are shown in
Fig. 1.6.16 (c). The transistor T1 is p-n-p, whereas T2 is n-p-n. The base of T 1 is
connected to collector of T2 . Similarly base of T2 is connected to collector of T 1 . These
transistors are in common base configuration. When the SCR is forward biased and
gate is open, various currents flow as shown in Fig. 1.6.16 (c). As sh own in this figure,
the anode to cathode current is JD. The collector current, emitter current and leakage
currents of T1 a,r;e related as,
... (1.6.3)
Power Electronics • Ill 1 -27 Power Semiconductor Devices
Here I EJ = ID and I c 01 is leakage current of T1. Similarly for T2,
lei = O.zl £2 + Ico2 ... (1.6.4)

Here I El = Io and I co2 is leakage current of T 2 .
Therefore equation 1.6.3 and 1.6.4 can be written as,
I c1 = o.1ID + Ico1 }
... (1.6.5)
lei =a.2Io +Ico2
In Fig. 1.6.16 (c), observe that the current I O flows through the collectors of T1 and
T 2. Hence we can write,
Io = I c 1 + 1c2
Putting the values from equation 1.6.5 in above equation,
Io = a. 11 D + Ico1 + a.2I D + Ico2

... lo = (a.1 +a.2)I o + 1co1 +Ico 2
I co1 + 1co2
.. Io =
l-(a.1+a.2)
... (1.6.6)
Ico1 + I co2 can be considered as total reverse leakage current of junction / 2 . This
current can be denoted by the Ico. Then above equation can be written as,
I - Ico
D - 1- (a. 1 +a.2) ... (1.6.7)
Here I co is the reverse leakage current of the reverse biased junction J2 . And a. 1
is the common base current gain of T 1 and a. 2 is common base current gain of T2 .
Initially when forward voltage is small, (a. 1 +a. 2 ) is very small and less than 1. Hence
forward blocking current as given by equation 1.6.7 is also small. As forward voltage
applied across the SCR increases, the values of a. 1 and a 2 also increase. When
(o. 1 +o. 2 ) tends unity, then Io approaches infinity as given by equation 1.6.7. At this
instant, internal regeneration starts and the SCR goes into forward conduction
(ON-state) mode. The current through the SCR is only limit~d by the external load.
Once the SCR goes into conduction, the two transistor model is no more
applicable. Here note that the internal regeneration takes place in the SCR due to
avalanche breakdown of reverse biased junction J2 . It does not take place when SCR
is reverse biased. When the current throu gh the SCR falls below holding current, the
forward blocking state is regained . Then o. 1 and a. 2 of transistors are also reduced to
small values.
When the gate current I is applied, then equation 1.6.7 will be written as,
Ico + l g
I o = l-(a1 +a2) ... (1.6.8)
Thus the forward leakage current (I O ) is increased due to gate drive (I g )- This
leakage current flows through junction J2 and its avalanche break-down occurs at
lower forward voltage. Thus with the gate drive, the SCR is tu.med on at voltages less
than V80 . Hence gate becomes convenient way of triggering the SCR. Once the SCR is
turned-on, the gate has no control over its conduction.
Review Questions
1. Explain the terms latching current and holding current and compare them.
2. Explain the operation of the SCR with the help of two tr,msist.or tmalogy.
1.7 SCR Tum-on and Turn-off
1.7.1 Different Ways to Tum-on the SCR

We know that SCR can be turned-on if the anode current is above latching
current. There is regenera,t:ive action in the SCR. SCR can be turned-on by followi...ng
ways:
1. Gate drive
SCR can be turned on by applying positive gate-cathode voltage. Injected gate
carriers increase the anode current and regenerative action starts. As shown in
equation 1.6.7, (a 1 +a 2 ) approaches unit and anode current (1 0 ) becomes large.
It is limited only by external load. Once the SCR is turned-on, there is no need
of gate drive. Hence it can be removed. Normally pulsed gate drive is applied
to reduce losses in the SCR gate.
2. High forward voltage
SCR turns on when its anode-cathode voltage exceeds forward break over
voltage, i.e. V Ak >-V80 . This is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. At these voltages, the
leakage current is so high, that internal regenerative starts in the device.
dv
3. dt
SCR can be thought of as a capacitor in the forward biased state. When the
anode-cathode voltage changes rapidly, leakage current thought the device
increases due to internal capacitor. The leads to tum-on of the SCR.
4. Light
SCR can be turned on by light, when it falls on gate cathode junction of the
SCR light induces electronic hole pairs and it helps to increases leakage current.
5. High temperature
SCR tu.ms on due to increased temperature. At higher temperature, there are
more electron-hole pairs across junctions. This inverses the leakage current and
the SCR turns on.
1.7.2 Tum-on Dynamic Characteristics

Fig. 1.7.1 shows the current and voltage of the SCR during tum-on. The gate pulse
is applied at t = 0. During the delay time (td ), the anode current rises very slowly and
flows only near the narrow region of the gate. Observe that anode to cathode voltage
doesnot reduce during td . It remains to the forward blocking value. During the rise
time (tr), the anode current increases rapidly and anode to cathode voltage falls
rapidly. The high voltage and current are present in the SCR. Hence large dissipation
takes place in the SCR.
Fig. 1.7.1 Dynamic characteristics of SCR durtog tum-on

This power dissipation is called switching loss of the SCR. The current starts
spreading in the remaining area of the SCR. During the spread time (tp)., the
conduction spreads over the complete cross-section of the SCR. The anode current
Copy ght ma r al
reaches to its maximum value. And the anode to cathode voltage falls to lowest value
(i.e. less than 2V). The dissipation in the SCR is also reduced. The turn on time (t011 ) of
the SCR is given as total of td ,t, and tp . Thus,
t 0 n = td +t, +tp
The turn on time can be defined as,
The turn-on time of the SCR is defined as the time from initiation of gate drive to the
time when anode current reaches to its full value.
The turn-on ti.me of the SCRs is about 1 to 3 microseconds. The tum-on time can
be effectively reduced by applying higher values of gate currents. Because of high gate
currents, more electron-holes are injected near junction J2 . Hence avalanche
break-down of / 2 takes place fast. Therefore anode current rises fast. Thus effective
turn-on time is reduced. To turn-on the SCR, the gate pulse is thus sufficient.
1.7.3 SCR Tum-off

We know that SCR can be turned-off, when its forward current falls below holding
current. The can be done by two methods :i) Natural commutation and ii) forced
commutation.
i) Natural Commutation : In this type of turn-off, the supply voltage becomes zero or
negative, Hence SCR is reverse biased. Therefore it is turned-off.
ii) Forced commutation : When the supply voltage is DC, then external commutation
component are used to tum-off the SCR. The commutation components apply reverse
bias across the SCR temporarily or pass impulse of negative current. Therefore SCR
turns-off.
1.7.4 Turn-off Dynamic Characteristics

Fig. 1.7.2 shows the SCR current and voltage during turn-off. The SCRs are not
turned off by gate. They need external circuit for turn-off. These circuits are called
commutation circuits. These commutation circuits has to hold negative voltage across
the SCR during tum-off period. The SCR is said to be turned-off when it regains
forward blocking capability after forward conduction. In the above fiigure observe that
anode current falls and then it becomes negative. The negative pulse of current .flows
through the SCR for short period. During the conducting state, the SCR is flooded
with carriers and it acts as short circuit. The negative anode current flows through the
SCR till all these carriers are removed. Then junctions J1 and J3 achleve their forward
blocking state. The time required for this is called reverse recovery time (trr ). At the end
of trr, reverse voltage appears across the SCR and anode current becomes zero. This is
shown in Fig. 1.7.2. But still, the SCR is not turned-on. The commutation circuit has to
Power Electronics -111 1 • 31 Power Semiconductor Devices
Fig. 1.7.2 Dynamic characteristics of SCR during tum-off
hold negative voltage across the SCR for gate recovery time (tgr )- During this time, the
excess carriers near junction J2 are recombined. If negative voltage is removed by
commutation circuit before tg, , then SCR may tum-on again due to these excess
carrier near junction J2 • Because they act like gate drive to the SCR. Hence the tum-off
is complete at the end of gate recovery time. The SCR regains its forward blocking
capability. The negative voltage imposed by commutation circuit can be removed at
the end of tgr . The turn-off time (tq) of the SCR is the total time required by re~~
recovery and gate recovery. i.e.,
tq = t" +tgr
The turn-off time can be defined as follows :
The turn-off time of the SCR is the time required to achieve forward blocking capability
after commutation is initiated.
The tum-off time of the SCR varies from 5 to 200 microseconds. The tum-off time
of the commutation circuit is called circuit turn-off time (tc)· And hence circuit turn-off
time must be greater than the turn-off time of the SCR (t, > tq).
1.7.5 Inverter Grade and Converter Grade SCRs

Inverter grade SCRs
The SCRs which have tum-off time less than 25 µs ar,e called inverter grade SCRs.
Such SCRs are used in inverters, choppers etc.
Converter grade SCRs
The SCRs having larger turn-off times (tq> 25 µ s) are called converter grade SCRs.
Such SCRs are used in controlled rectifiers, AC voltage controllers etc.
Review Questions
1. Explain the turn-on and turn-off dynamic characteristics of the SCR.
2. Define the following :
(i) turn-mi Hw (ii) turn.off time (iii) convmer grtW SCR (ro) Invmer grtW SCR
1.8 SCR Gate Characteristics

In the previous section we studied V-1 characteristics of SCR Now we will have a
closer look towards gate characteristics of the SCR. Fig. 1.8.1 shows the gate trigger
characteristics.
Gate voltage
vo
\
\
\
\
\
Reliable tum-on
--
0 Gate
Ig(max)
current
lg
Fig. 1.8.1 Gate trigger characteristics
Powar Electronics -111 1 -33 Power Semiconductor DevlcN
The gate voltage is plotted with respect to gate current in the above characteristics.
I (max} is the maximum gate current that can flow through the SCR without
Jamagmg it. Similarly v g (max) is the maximum gate voltage to be applied. Similarly
v g( min) and I g( min) are mmimum gate voltage and current, below which SCR will not
be turned-on. Hence to tum-on the SCR successfully the gate current and voltage
should be
1g(min) < l g < Ig(max)
and vg (min) < Vg < vg(max)
The characteristic of Fig. 1.8.1 also shows the curve for constant gate power (Pg)-
Thus for reliable tum-on, the ( v g, ig) point must lie in the shaded area in Fig. 1.8.1.
It turns-on SCR successfully. Note that any spurious voltage/current spikes at the gate
must be less than v g( min) and Ig (min) to avoid false triggering of the SCR. The gate
characteristics shown in Fig. 1.8.1 are for DC values of gate voltage and current.
1.8.1 Pulsed Gate Drive

Instead of applying a continuous (DC) gate drive, the pulsed gate drive is used.
The gate voltage and current are applied in the form of high frequency pulses. The
frequency of these pulses is upto 10 kHz. Hence the width of the pulse can be upto
100 micro seconds. The pulsed gate drive is applied for following reasons
(advantages) :
(i) The SCR has small turn-on time i.e. upto 5 microseconds. Hence a pulse of
gate drive is sufficient to tum-on the SCR.
(ii) Once SCR turns-on, there is no need of gate drive. Hence gate drive in the
form of pulses is suitable.
(iii) The DC gate voltage and current increases losses in the SCR. Pulsed gate drive
has reduced losses.
(iv) The pulsed gate drive can be easily passed through isolation transformers to
isolate SCR and trigger circuit.
1.8.2 Requirement of Gate Drive

The gate drive has to satisfy the following requirements :
(i) The maximum gate power should not be exceeded by gate drive, otherwise
SCR will be damaged.
(ii) The gate voltage and current should be within the limits specified by gate
characteristics (Fig. 1.8.1) for successful tum-on.
(iii) The gate drive should be preferably pulsed. In case of pulsed drive the
following relation must be satisfied :
(Maximum gate power x Pulse width) x (Pulse frequency) ~ Allowable average

gate power
(iv) The width of the pulse should be sufficient to turn-on the SCR successfully.
(v) The gate drive should be isolated electrically from the SCR This avoids any
damage to the trigger circuit if in case SCR is damaged.
(vi) The gate drive should not exceed permissible negative gate to cathode voltage,
otherwise the SCR is damaged.
(vii) The gate drive circuit should not sink current out of the SCR after turn-on.
Review Questions
1. Explain the SCR gate characteristics.
2. What are the requirements of gate drivt ? What is pulse gate drive ?
1.9 SCR Ratings

Every SCR is manufactured for particular voltage, current and switching
frequencies. If these values are exceeded, then the SCR can be damaged. These are
called ratings. The SCRs are to be protected when any of the voltage or current rating
tries to exceed. In this section we will discuss these concepts.
1.9.1 Current Ratings

The current flow through the SCR increase the junction temperature. The excess
current flow may exceed the permissible junction temperature and damage the device.
Hence the current should not exceed the rated value. The various current ratings are
discussed next :
(I) Average current rating (Ir)
The average current rating is the maximum repetitive average current that can
flow through the SCR. The power loss in the SCR depends upon average current
flowing through it If the SCR is operating at sufficiently high frequency, then
switching loss will also be significant. Hence switching losses may be added to losses
, due to average current.
(II) RMS current rating (ITR)
The RMS current rating is the maximum repetitive rms current that can flow
through the SCR The RMS current rating is same as average current rating for DC
,fllll'ent. This rating is required to prevent excessiv~ heating in metallic joints, leads
and interfaces of SCRs.
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -35 Power Semiconductor Devlcea
(Ill) Surge current rating ( lrsM )

The surge C\lfient rating is' the peak amplitude of the surge current that the SCR
can withstand only limited number of times in its life cycle. The surge current is
normally specified as number of cycles and peak amplitude. The SCR may be
damaged when surge current rating and its number of cycles are exceeded.
(Iv) 12 t rating
The i 2t rating is the measure of thermal energy that the device can abosrb for a
short period of tim.e. Whenever fault occurs, the fast acting fuse ~ such fault Due
to the fault, thermal energy is generated in the device also. The fuse should clear the
fault and device should be protected. Hence i 2 t rating is used to ~ermine about how
long the device can absorb the thermal energy. The fuse must clear the fault before
the device is damaged due to exceeding i 2 t rating.
di
(v) dt rating
The di rating specifies maximum allowable rate of change of current through the
dt
device. Due to rapid variations in anode current, the carriers doesnot spread across the
junctions at the turn-on time. Hence they are concentrated in a small area of the
device, creating local heating. This is called hot-spot created due to high current
density in the restricted area of the junctions. Because of this, the junction temperature
increases and the device may be damaged. The di rating specifies maximum allowable
dt
variations in anode current, so that the device will not be damaged. Normally it is
specified in Amperes/microseconds and typical values are from 50 A/µs to
800 A I µ sec.
1.9.2 Voltage Ratings

The SCR blocks the forward and reverse voltages. The voltage ratings mainly
specify the maximum allowable voltages those the device can withstand without
damaging the junctions.
1
(I) Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage {VDRM ) ·
This is the maximum voltage that the SCR can block in the forward direction. It is
specified with maximum allowable junction temperature 'and gate open circuited. If
this rating is exceeded, the device turns on. Note that device is not damaged.
'
(II} Peak repetitive reverse voltage {VRRM ) or peak Inverse voltage (PIV) ·
This is the maximum voltage that the device can withstand repetitivell in the
reverse blocking state. It is also specified at ma)dmum allowable junction temperature.
The device is damaged, when this rating is exceeded.
Powltr Electronics - Ill 1 - 36 Power Semiconductor Devices
(Ill) Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage {VRSM )

This the maximum transient voltage that the device can safely withstand in the
reverse direction. This transient is not repetitive. The device is damaged ,if transient is
exceeded or it occurs repetitively. This transient voltage can be increased by putting a
diode of same current rating in series with the SCR. The total transient voltage
capacity becomes due to SCR and diode.
dv
(Iv) dt rating
The !: rating specifies maximum allowable rate of change of forward voltage that
the device can withstand in forward direction. If the forward voltage variations exceed
dv rating, then the device turns on. Such tum-on is false triggering and disturbs the
dt
operation of the controller.
The other ratings are : tum-on time (ton), tum-off time (tq), gate voltage (vg ),
gate current (ig ), latching current (IL) and holding current ( JH ) . These ratings we
have discussed earlier in section 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8.
Review Question
1. Explain the following ratings :
(i) i2 t rating
(n..) dt
dv - -i.1
nmng
"') dt.
(m di ..:
raung
1.10 Thyristor Types

Now let us briefly discuss other members of thyristor family. They are gate
turn-off thyristor family (GTO), light activated SCR (LASCR) etc.
•
1.10.1 Gate Tum-off Thyristor (GTO)
1.10.1.1 Structure of GTO

At the beginning of the chapter we discussed structure and working of SCR. The
SCR is most commonly used member of thyristor family. But SCR needs external
circuits for tum-off. Now we present another thyristor called GTO. The GTO can be
turned-off by gate drive. Thus gate has full control over the operation of GTO.
Fig. 1.10.1 shows the structure of GTO.
1:
Pow.r Electronics -111 - 1-37 Power Semiconductor Devices
~·
Gate
I
Calhode -
l I I . ..,
n•
\ J \ n•
i
p•
n-
n• p• n•
!
Anode
Fig. 1.10.1 Structure of-GTO
Observe that the structure of GTO is almost similar to SCR But there are
significant differences that make GTO different than SCR. These differences are:
i Gate and cathodes are highly interdigited. with various geometric forms. This
maximizes periphery of the cathode and minimize gate-cathode distance.
ii. There are n+ regions at regular intervals in the p+anode layer. This n+Iayer
makes direct contact with n - layer. This is called anode short. This speeds up
the turn-off mechanism of GTO.
w . The operation of GTO can be explained with the help of two transistor
analogy. The gain of p-n-p transistor is reduced. This reduces the regenerative
action. Hence tum-off of GTO can be achieved by negative current from gate.
Fig. 1.10.2 shows the symbol of GTO.
Anode (A)
....
Cathode (K)
Flg: '1.10.2 Symbol of GTO
•,
Observe that there is double arrow on the gate. This indicates that bidirectional,
CUITent flows through the gate. The rest of the symbol is similar to SCR.
•
1.10.1.2 Characteristics of GTO

Fig. 1.10.3 shows the V-1 characteristics of GTO.
IAK
.... .....
~-- .. --~ ....
......
Fig. 1.10.3 V-1 characteristics of GTO
In this figure observe that the V-1 characteristics of GTO in forward direction are
similar to that of SCR. But in reverse direction GTO has virtually no blocking
capability. Observe that GTO starts conducting in reverse direction after very small
reverse (20 to 30 V) voltage. This is because of the anode short structure.
In Fig. 1.10.1 observe that junction / 3 blocks reverse voltages. But J3 has very
small reverse breakdown voltage. Thus GTO has asymmetric voltage blocking
capability.
1.10.1.3 Advantages, Umltations and Applications of GTO

Advantages
i. Higher voltage blocking capability
ii. Gate has full control over the operation of GTO.
ill. Low on-state loss.
1v. High ratio of peak surge current to average current
v. High on-state gain.
Limitations
i GTOs require large negative gate currents for turn-off. Hence they are suitable
.-:
for low power applications.
ii. Very small reverse voltage blocking capability.
ill. Switching frequencies are very small.
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -39 Power Semiconductor Devicet
Appllcatlons
i. GTOs are suitable mainly for low power applications.
ii. Induction heating and motor drives.
1.10.2 Light Activated SCR (LASCR)

The light activated SCRs can be triggered using a beam of light. Their gate region
is photosensitive. Fig. 1.10.4 shows the symbol and V-1 characteristics of LASCR.
Anode (A)
Gate~
(G)
Cathode (K)
(a) Symbol of LASCR (b) V-1 characteristics of LASCR

Fig. 1.10.4
The photons of light induce electrons in the gate-cathode junction. Because of these
electrons, current starts flowing across J3 and SCR turns-on. Once the SCR is turned
on, gate has no control over its operation.
Advantages
i. It can be turned-on by a beam 9f light. Hence isolation is provided between
control cir;cuit and SCR
ii. Because of optical triggering, effects of noise are reduced.
Applications
1. Used in high power applications like HVDC transmission, VAR compensation
etc.
ii. Used in noise environments for better triggering control.
1.10.3 Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT)

In most of the applications, an antiparallel diode is connected across the thyristor.
For example in chopper and inverter circuits, the antiparallel diode improves the
turn-off requirement of the circuit. The anti.parallel diode is also useful in case of
inductive loads to provide the path for feedback currents. A reverse conducting
thyristor (RCf) is similar to an SCR with antiparallel diode. Fig. 1.10.5 shows the
equivalent circuit of RCT. The RCT is also called as asymmetrical thyristor or ASCR. It
conducts in the reverse direction without any control. The conduction in the forward
direction is controlled by the gate. The characterictics are similar to SCR in the
forward direction. And the characteristics are similar to diode in reverse direction. It
has the capability of upto 2000 V/500 A in the forward direction. The reverse blocking
voltage is upto 40 V.
Fig. 1.10.5 RCT
-
1.10.4 Triec (Bidirectional Triode Thyristors)
The triac is the bidirectional device. It conducts in both the directions. We know
that SCR conducts only in one direction. The triac is equivalent to the two antiparallel
SCRs as shown in Fig. 1.10.6.
The triac has three terminals
: Main Terminal 1 (Mr 1), Main Main terminal 1(MT1)
Terminal 2 (MT2) and gate (G).
Observe that the symbol also
consists of antiparallel devices.
The current can flow &:om MT1 Gate
(G}
to MT2 when MI1 is forward
biased with respect to MT2.
Main terminal 2(MT2)
Similarly current flows from
MI2 to MTl when MT2 is (a) {b)
forward biased with respect to Trtac symbol Trtac equivalent
circuit
MTl. The current flows (i.e. triac
is switched 'on') whenever gate Fig. 1.10.6 Triac symbol and equivalent circuit
drive is applied. The triac is the
best device for AC phase control. The input is AC and the load is also AC. The power
is to be controlled in positive as well as negative half cycles. The triac is then
triggered in every half cycle. The triac turns-off when current falls to zero in every
half cycle. Thus the necessity of antiparallel SCRs is eliminated by triac. The word triac
is abbreviated from Tri of triode and AC. It is mainly used for AC phase control and
similar applications.
1.10.4.1 V-1 Characteristics of Trtac

Fig. 1.10.7 shows the V-1
characteristics of triac. The
Trlac'on'
current 'I' is plotted with -MT2 terminal
positive
respect to voltage 'V'. Here IF
is the forward current and VF
is the forward voltage.
-=:~=:-..~:--------
Similarly IR is the reverse vR_:-Vi..so~---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:.,,-_-,........k::========:::L-vF
current and VR is the reverse
voltage. V8 0 is the breakover
-------~:.-~=~-~=· 0
Vso
voltage of the triac. When gate
drive is applied, the triac turns Trtac 'on'
MT2 terminal
'on' at lower voltage than VBo. negative
Such characteristic is. shown by
center (-·--) line. The dotted
line in the characteristic
Fig. 1.10.7 V-1 characteristics of triac
indicates the switching of the
triac. Once the triac is turned 'on', the voltage across it drops and current increases
rapidly. Observe that the characteristics are exactly similar in the forward and reverse
directions.
1.10.4.2 Operating Modes of Triac

· Fig. 1.10.8 shows the internal structure of the triac. In this structme observe that
the terminal MT1 is connected to two layers : N2 and P2. Similarly Gate (G) is
connected to two layers : N 3 and P2 . Also observe that MT2 is connected to two
layers N 4 and P1.
Ohmic contact
MT2
Fig. 1.10.8 Internal structure of trtac
Power Electronics - 111 1 - 42 Power Semiconductor Devices
The operation of triac can be explained as follows:

(I) When MT2 is positive and MT1 Is negative
Under such condition,
the triac can be turned on
by applying positive
voltage signal between gate
and MT1. In this situation
the triac behaves like the
normal SCR, with four
layers P1 N 1 P2 N2. The +
anode becomes at P1 (i.e.
Mf2) and cathode becomes
at N 2 (i.e. Mf1 ). The gate
will be effectively at P2 •
Fig. 1.10.9 shows the
effective structure. The
positive gate signal at P2 Fig. 1.10.9 Equivalent structure when MT2 > MT1 and
triggers the device like trlac triggered by applying a positive voltage at gate
SCR.
Junction gate operation
When Mf2 is positive and Mf1 is negative, the triac can also be triggered by
applying negative signal to gate. This is called jm1ction gate operation. Refer to
Fig. 1.10.8. When gate is negative with respect to MT1, the junction P2 N 3 is forward
biased, and the left hand portion P1 N 1 P2 N 3 conducts like SCR. In this case Mf1 acts
like gate initially. The carriers spread in the layer P2 from left to right, i.e. towards
N 2 . This carrier flow from P2 to N 2 is like a conventional gate current and right
handside part P1 N 1 P2 N 2 conducts like SCR. Thus the device turns on.
(II) When MT1 Is positive and MT2 Is negative
Now consider the case when MT1 is positive and Mf2 is negative.
Remote gate operation
In this operation the triac is turned on by applying a positive voltage between gate
and Mf1. The device then turns on by remote gate operation. Consider the transistor
formed by N 2 P2 N 1 . For this transistor gate acts as a base. Since gate is positive, this
transistor turns on and current flows from N 2 to N 1. Because of this current flow, the
carrier concentration in N 1 increases. The junction N 1 P1 is reverse biased. But it
breaks due to increased carrier concentration in layer N 1 . Once, the junction N 1 P1
breaks, the device is switched 'on' and conducts heavily. The four layers of conduction
are P2 N 1 P1 N4..
1.10.4.3 Merits, Limitations and Appllcatlons of Trlac

Merits of Trlac
i. Triac is a bidirectional device, i.e. it conducts in both directions.
ii. Triac turns off when voltage is reversed.
w . Single gate controls conduction is both directions.
iv. Triacs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
Demerits of Triac
i. Triacs are latching devices like SCR Hence, they are not suitable for DC power
applications.
u. Gate has no control over the conduction once triac is turned on.
m. Triacs have very small switching frequencies.
Appllcatlons of Trlac
i. AC power controllers and heater, fan etc. controllers.
ii. Triggering device for SCRs.
,_. Example 1.10.1 : The gate-cathode characteristic of a triac is given by v g = 2 +51g. A
triggering pulse train with an amplitude of 10 V, ON period of 10 µsec is applied tu the
gate through a 10 n series register. Calculate :
( i) Peak gate power.
( ii) Triggering frequency to obtain an average gate power of 0.5 W.
Solution : (i) To obtain peak gate power
Fig. 1.10.10 shows the circuit diagram. From this diagram we can write,
Fig. 1.10.10 Gate trtggerfng circuit

.
10 V = l g xR + Vg
10 V = 101g + 2+51g
l g = 0.533 A.
Hence gate voltage can be obtained as,
Vg = 2+5 l g = 2+5 x 0.533 = 4.667
Here above Vg and 1g are calculated for peak amplitude of 10 V for the pulse
train. Hence Vg and I g indicate peak values.
:. Peak gate power Pg (peak) = Vg l g = 4.667 x 0 .533
= 2.48 w.
(ii) To obtain triggering frequency
Duty cycle = Pg (av) = O· 5 = 0.2
Pg(peak) 2.48
T
Duty cycle = ....£!!. =Ton x f
T
f = Duty cycle = 01 = 20 kHz.
T on l0 x lo- 6
1.10.5 MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
The MOS controlled thyristor (MCI') has two built in MOSFETs. One MOSFET is
used for tum-on and the other MOSFET is used for tum-off. MCT is similar to GTO
except the MOSFETs.
1.10.5.1 Internal Structure of MCT
Fig. 1.10.11 shows the internal structure of MCT.
G A
ON-FET
OFF-FET p-<:hannel
n-channel
OFF-FET
J2 ON-FET
Four layers
like thyristor
Fig. 1.10.11 Internal structure of p-type MCT

Pow.r Electronics - HI 1-45 Power Semiconductor Devices
There are two types :

p-MCT and n-MCT. Fig. 1.10.11 shows the internal structure of p-MCT. The p-type
of layer is lightly doped. In the forw~d blocking stage this layer contains the
depletion region of junction J2 . The ON-PET is p-channel MOSFET and OFF-PET is
n-channel MOSFET. Fig. 1.10.12 (a) shows the equivalent circuit of p-MCT and
Fig. 1.10.12 (b) shows its symbol.
A
1'
A
G-----
OFF-FET ON-FET
K
K
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Symbol
Fig. 1.10.12
In the equivalent circuit observe that drains(D) of both the MOSFETs are
connected to anode. The source(s) of ON-FET is connected to base region (pl of the
n-p-n transistor.
1.10.5.2 Tum-on and Tum-off MCT

MCT can be turned-on by applying negative gate-anode voltage. Because of this
voltage the p-channel is induced as shown in Fig. 1.10.11. Hence ON-PET starts
conducting the current of ON-PET goes to base of the n-p-n transistor and the device
turns on by regeneration.
The MCT can be turned-off by applying positive gate-anode voltage. This induces
the n-clumnel in the device as shown in Fig. 1.10.11. The OFF-PET then starts
conducting. In Fig. 1.10.12 (a) observe that the OFF-FET is connected across emitter
base of p-n-p transistor. Since OFF-FET is turned on, the base-emitter of p-~-p
transistor is shorted. Hence it comes out of saturation and starts turning OFF.
Therefore n-p-n transistor also ~off and the MCT is turned off.
1.1l.5.3 Characteristics of MCT

The V-1 characteristics of MCT are similar to that of GTO.
1.10.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of MCT

Advantages
1. MCT can be turned-on and turned-off by low gate voltages.
ii. MCT has fast s~tching times (typically t 0 n = 0.3 µs and t0ff = 1 µsec).
iii. MCT has low switching losses.
iv. MCT has high gate input impedance due to its MOS gates.
v. Paralleling of MCTs is easier.
Disadvantages
1. If current through MCT is greater than gate controllable current then it cannot
be turned off. Then MCT has to be commutated externally like SCR.
11. For larger anode currents, the gate pulses of longer duration are required.
ill. Gate draws peak current during tum-off.
1.11 Power BJT

The power BJT is the bipolar device. Fig. 1.11.1 shows the symbols of BJT. The BJT
is also called as power transistors in general. The BJTs are of two types : n-p-n and
p-n-p. BJT has collector (C) base (B) and emitter (E). In the npn BJT, when the base
emitter junction is forward biased to saturation, th~ transistor turns 'on' and current
flows from collector to emitter. When the BJT turns 'on', the collector emitter drop
becomes negligible. The BJT turns-off as soon as base emitter drive is removed.
Similarly in case of p-n-p Bfr, when base emitter junction is forward biased to
saturation, the transistor turns 'on' and current flows from emitter to collector. The
transistor tu.ms-off as soon as base emitter drive is removed. Thus the drive has full
control over the conduction of BJT. No commutating components are required by BIT
for turn-off.
Collector {C) Collector (C}
t
Emitter (E} Emitter {E)
(a) n-p-n BJT (b} p-n-p BJT
Fig. 1.11.1 Symbols of BJT

1.11.1 Structure of BJT

The structure of power BJT is different compared to small signal transistors.
Fig. 1.11.2 shows the vertical cross section of the n-p-n power BJT. The vertical
structure maximizes the cross sectional area through which the current in the device is
flowing. Because of this, the on-state resistance and power dissipation in the transistor
is reduced. In the above structure, observe that there is highly doped emitter region
(about 10 19 per cm 3 ). The emitter region has the thickness of about 10 µm The base
has moderate· ioping of the order of 10 16 per cm 3 . The thickness of the base can vary
from 5 to 20 µ m. Small base thickness provides good amplification capabilities. But
breakdown voltage capability of the transistor is reduced for small base regions. The
collector is split into two regions as shown in Fig. 1.11.2. These two regions are
n - (with 1014 per cm 3 ) and n+ (with 1019 per cm 3 ) . The n - region has light doping
and it is called collector drift region. The thickness of n - layer determines the
breakdown voltage capability of the transistor. The n + region has high doping
intensity. It's doping is similar to that of emitter. The n + region serves as collector
contact for external circuits. In the practical power transistors, the emitters and bases
are interleaved. This reduces the effects of current crowding and hence possibility of
second breakdown.
Base Emitter
10µm
Base
5-20 µm p 1d 6 cm-3
Collector drift
50-200 µm n- 1d4 cm-3 region
Collector
Collector
Fig. 1.11.2 Vertical cross section of npn power BJT
1.11.2 Steady State Characteristics of BJT

Fig. 1.11.3 shows the V-1 characteristics of BJT. These characteristics are also called
output characteristics. The collector current (ic) is plotted with respect to collector
emitter voltage (Ve£) for different values of base current (i 8 ) .
Quasi-saturation
le5>I94>le? le2
Primary
194 breakdown
le3
102
1e1
Ieo
0 Vee
BVcao
Fig. 1.11.3 V-1 characteristics-of n1)-11 power BJT and different regions of operation
• There are four regions clearly shown : Cutoff region, Active region,
quasi-saturation and hard saturation.
Cutoff region : The cutoff region ~ the area where base current is almost 7.el'O.
Hence no collector current flows and transistor is ' off'.
Quasi-saturation : In the quasi saturation and hard saturation, the base drive is
applied and transistor is said to be 'on'. Hence collector current £lows depending upon
the load. The BJT is never operated in the active region (i.e. as an amplifier). It is
operated in cutoff and saturation. Thus BJT acts as a switch. The ' B Vsus' is the
maximum collector to emitter voltage that can be sustained when BJT is carrying
substantial collector current. 'BVcEo ' is the maximum collector to emitter breakdown
voltage that can be sustained when base current is zero (i.e. base open circuitted). And
'BVc80 ' is the collector base breakdown voltage when the emitter is open circuitted.
Primary breakdown : The primary breakdown in BJT takes place because of
avalanche breakdown of the collector base junction. The large power dissipation
normally leads to primary breakdown.
Second breakdown : It is clear from Fig. 1.11.3 that, at the large collector currents,
the collector emitter voltage drops. Due to this drop in voltage, the collector current
increases. Here there is substantial increase in power dissipation. This power
dissipation is not evenly spread across the entire volume of the device. But it is
concentrated in the highly localiz.ed regions. In these regions the local temperature
grows very rapidly and the BJT is damaged.
Power Electronics - HI 1 .49 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.11.3 Safe Operating Area (SOA) of BJT

The safe operating area (SOA} of the BJT is the area on the ic -Vcs plane where
BJT should be operated. It gives the combinations of ic and VcE for which BJT will
function safely.
Forward biased SOA (FBSOA)
Fig. 1.11.4 shows the forward biased
SOA of BJT. The dotted region is the
SOA for continuous or DC operation. The
junction temperature is maximum along
the boundary of SOA. The SOA is
effectively increased for pulsed operation.
In power electronic converters, BJTs are
normally used in pulsed mode (i.e. at
high frequencies) hence effective SOA is EO Yee
larger. The l cM is the maximum collector Fig. 1.11.4 Forward biased SOA of BJT
current even as a pulse. BVCEO is the
maximum collector to emitter- voltage when base is open circuitted. The SOA is
normally supplied by the manufacturers in the specifications.
Reverse biased SOA(RBSOA)

Fig. 1.11.5 shows the RBSOA of power BJT. It is pulsed SOA.
1CM t - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0 BVceo BVceo vce

Fig. 1.11.5 The RBSOA of BJT
• This RBSOA is larger than FBSOA because of BVcBo at low collector

currents.
1.11.4 Switching Characteristics of BJT

Consider the model of npn
transistor shown in Fig. 1.11.6 The
--r------~ ~---------oc
Bio
. equivalent colJector-ba~e junction
capacitance (Cw ) and base-emitter
junction capacitances (C be) play
significant role during tum-on and
turn-off. Effect of . these
capacitances can be neglected
under steady state conditions. But
Fig. 1.11.6 Equivalent model of BJT
1
tum-on and tum-off (i.e. transient
or switching conditions) are
affected due to internal capacitances of BJI. The values of internal capacitances
depend upon junction voltages and physical construction of the BJT.
Fig. 1.11.7 shows the switching waveforms of the BJT. The base-emitter voltage is
made pbsitive to turn-on the BJT. This voltage is v ·BE(on) . As the base voltage becomes
positive, the base current also starts flowing. The value of base current is I B(on) .
Fig. 1.11.7 Switching waveforms of BJT
C pyrght al
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -51 Power Semiconductor DevlCM
In the Fig. 1.11.7 observe that collector current does not start flowing as soon as
base drive is applied. This is because, the collector-base junction capacitance (Cbt)
starts charging when base drive is applied. The delay time (td) is the time delay
involved when collector current starts increasing after base drive is applied. When C1,t
charges to forward bias voltage of 0.7 volts, collector current reaches to its steady state
value. The BJT is then said to be turned-on fully. The rise time (t,) is ...the time
required to raise collector current to it's steady state value. The tum-on time (t0 n) of
the BJT is equal to sum. of delay time and rise time. i.e.,
ton = td +t,
The tum-off the transistor, base voltage is made negative. Hence, the base current
is also negative. But the collector current does not change for time ts. 11tls is called ·
storage time. During this period, the saturating charge is removed from the base. After
the stored charges are removed, the base current starts reducing and collector current
also starts falling. The stored charge is removed because of the negative base current.
Once the stored charge in base is removed, C be is charged to negative base voltage
and base current becomes zero. The decay of collector current depends .. upon the
stored charge and hence on C be . The turn-off time of the transistor is equal to sum of
storage time and fall time (ti). i.e.,
to.ff = ts +ti
The fall time is the time required by the collector current to decay to its 10 %
value. Here note that if base is highly saturated, storage time is more. Because more
time is required to remove extra charge from the base.
. 1.11.5 Merits, Demerits and Applications of BJT

Merits of BJT
1. BJTs have small turn-on and tum-off times, hence their switching frequencies
are higher.
ii. BJTs have small tum-on losses.
111. Base drive has full control over the operation of Bff.
iv. Bffs do not require commutation circuits.
v. BJT is a bipolar device.
vi. B]Ts are available easily with much reduced costs.
Demerits of BJT
i. Drive circuit of BJT is complex
ii. Storage charge in base reduces switching frequencies.
iii. Negative temperature coefficient creates problems in paralleling of Bffs.
Powar Electronics - Ill 1 -52 Power Semiconductor Devices
Applications of BJT
i. Switched Mode Power Supplies
ii. Bridge inverters
w . DC to DC converter (~oppers)
1v. Power factor correction techniques.
Sr. SCR BJT

No.
1. Four layer {P-N-P-N) device. Three layer (P-N-P or N-P-N) device.
2. Tums-on by regeneration. No regeneration exists
3. Gate has no control once SCR Is turned on Base has full control ov,er the operation of
BJT.
•
4. External circuits are required to tum-off the No external circuits are required. BJT
SCR tums--off if base drive Is removed.
5. Switching frequencies are low. Switching frequencies are high.
6. False triggering takes place if dv/dt is BJT Is damaged If dv/dt Is exceeded.

exceeded.
7. Used for controlled rectifiers, AC regulators Used for inverters, UPS, AC motor drives
and DC motor drtves. and SMPS.
Table 1.11.1 Comparison of BJT and SCR
Review Question
1. Explain the switching characteristics of power BJT.
1.12 Power MOSFET

The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFE1) are majority carrier
devices. Fig. 1.12.1 shows the symbols of MOSFETs.
Observe that there are two
Drain(D) . Drain(D)
types of power MOSFETs
n-channel MOSFET an~ p-channe1
MOSFET. The MOSFET has three
·Gate ..___JJ Gate ..___JJ
terminals : gate (G), drain (D) and
source (S).
(G) --i
9
Source (S)
(G) ......
9
Source (S)
When the MOSFET is turned (a) n--channel (b) p-channel
'on' the current flows from drain
to source. The voltage is applied Fig. 1.12.1 Symbols of MOSFETs
between gate-source to turn 'on'
the MOSFET. Very small current flows from gate to source. Only voltage is to be
applied to turn on the MOSFET. The MOSFET can be turned-off by removing the gate
to source voltage. Thus gate has full control over the conduction of the MOSFET. The
turn-on and tum-off times of MOSFETs are very small. Hence they operate at very
high frequencies. Hence MOSFETs are preferred in applications such as choppers and
inverters. Since only voltage drive (gate-source) is required, the drive circuits of
MOSFETs are very simple. The paralleling of MOSFETs is easier due to their positive
temperature coefficient (PTC). MOSFETs have high on-state resistance, R DS (on). Hence
for higher currents, losses in the MOSFETs are substantially increased. Hence
MOSFETs are mainly used for low power applications.
1.12.1 Structure of MOSFETs

There are two types of MOSFETs
depletion type MOSFET and Metal
enhancement type MOSFET. In both of
these types the MOSFETs can be
n-channel or p-channel. Fig. 1.12.2
shows the structure of n-channel
enhancement type MOSFET. The source
and drain are connected to n + regions.
These regions are heavily doped with
p - type body
the intensity of 1019 per cm 3 . The regjon or substrate
p-type body region forms the channel
between drain and source. The body
region has the doping level of 10 16 per Flg.1.12.2 Structure of n-channel
enchancemode MOSFET.
cm 3 . The gate is not directly connected (Drift layer 1.s not shown)
to the p-type region. There is insulating
oxide (SiO 2 ) layer between gate metal and p-type layer. When gate is made positive
with respect to source an
s G accumulation layer is formed in
the channel as shown in
Fig. 1.12.3. 1his accumulation
layer is formed because of Vcs·
The gate terminal (metal) is
000000 positive. The other side of oxide
000000 layer is p-type of body region.
Induced
channel _ _ ___, ios Accumulation layer of electrons is
of electrons generated in the body region near
p - type body
region oxide layer. This is also called
induced channel of electrons.
Fig. 1.12.3 Formation of Inversion layer or
channel Therefore current (i 05 ) starts
Power Electronics • Ill 1-54 Power Semiconductor Devices
flowing through this induced channel. The current flows from drain to source. H
Vcs= 0, then induced channel is absent md no current flows. Since channel is made of
electrons, this is called n-channel MOSFET.
Fig. 1.12.4 shows the four layer structure of n-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET. This is n+pn-n+ structure. A drift region (n-) is shown in this structure.
The drift region is lightly doped (10 14 per cm 3 ).
Metal---
s
Body
region
p
Channel
created in
body region n-drift region
t'. I
0
Fig. 1.12.4 Four layer structure of n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET
In the Fig. 1.12.4 structure observe that the sour1:e is connected to n + region as
well as p-type body region. The gate also overlaps p-type region and n + region. The
gate is isolated from these regions by Si0 2 layer. When Yes is positive, an n-type
channel is induced in the body region as shown in Fig. 1.12.4. Hence current (i os)
starts flowing from drain to source as shown. Because of drift region, the on-state
drop of MOSFET increases. The thickness of drift region determines breakdown
voltage of MOSFET. In Fig. 1.12.4 observe that a parasitic BJT is formed as shown.
Base of this parasitic BJT is the p-type body region. Emitter is n + region and collector
is n - drift region. The emitter and base of this parasitic BJT are shorted to source.
Hence it does not conduct. 1his is the reason for shorting p-type body region to
source.
Advantages of vertical structure
1. On~state resistance of MOSFET is reduced.
2. Width of the gate is maximized. Hence, Gain of the device is increased.
1.12.2 S~ady State (V-1) Characteristics of MOSFETs

Fig. 1.12.5 shows the V-1 characteristics of n-ch.annel power MOSFET. The drain
current i O is plotted with respect to drain to source voltage v DS· These characteristics
are plotted for various values of gate source voltages (Yes)· In Fig. 1.12.5 observe that
Power Electronics - Ill 1 -55 Power Semiconductor Devices ·
Ohmic region :
VGs>VGS{th) i v
I GSS
I
I
,' VGS2
Fig. 1.12.5 V•I characteristics of n-channel power MOSFET
there are three regions in the characteristics : Ohmic, region, active region and cutoff
region. In the cu.t off region, the drain current is negligible and the MOSFET is said to
be in 'OFF' state. The MOSFET is driven in cutoff region by applying VGs < Vcs(th)'
Here VGS(th) is the threshold gate source voltage. When gate to source voltage is less
than thres'hold gate source voltage, MOSFET is off, Le. in cutoff region. The MOSFET
is driven into ohmic region when Vcs >> Vcs(th)· In the ohmic region, the MOSFET
conducts heavily. Hence it is said to be 'on' in the ohmic region. Thus by applying
heavy gate to source voltage, MOSFET can be tu.med on. In the power electronic
applications, MOSFET is never operated in the active region. In active region it acts as
an amplifier. For switching applications, MOSFET is operated only in ohmic and cutoff
regions. The BVDSS is the drain to source breakdown voltage, when the gate is open
circuitted. The MOSFET is damaged if drain to source voltage is increased above
BVoss•
1.12.3 Switching Characteristics of MOSFET

The internal capacitances of
MOSFET affect the tum-on and G-- -,.- ~~- - - , . - - - - , . - - ---.-- --0
tum-off times of MOSFETs. These
capacitances have no effect during
steady state. Fig. 1.12.6 shows the
switching model of MOSFET.
In the Fig. 1.12.6 Cgs is the
gate to source parasitic
capacitance and C gd is the gate to
s
Fig. 1.12.6 Switching model of MOSFET
Power Electronics • Ill 1 -56 Power Semiconductor Devices
drain parasitic capacitance.. The MOSFET can be turned on by applying positive gate
voltage as shown in Fig. 1.12.7.
Fig. 1.12.7 Switching characteristics of MOSFET
When the gate voltage is applied, the gate to source capacitance Cgs starts
charging. The turn-on delay (td(on) ) is the time required to charge Cgs to threshold
voltage (VT)- After this voltage, the drain current (io ) starts rising. The Cgs charges
from threshold voltage to full gate voltage (vgsp ). The time required for this charging .
is called rise time (t, ). Observe that during this period, the drain current rises to its full
value, i.e. 10 • The MOSFET is then said to have fully turned on. Thus, the total
turn-on time of the MOSFET is,
ton = t d(on) +t,

To turn-off the MOSFET, the gate voltage is made negative or zero. The gate to
source voltage then reduces from Vgs(on) to vgsp· That is, C gs discharges from
overdrive to pinch-off region gate voltage. The time required for this discharge is
called turn-off delay time (td(ff )). The drain current also start reducing. The Cgs keeps
on discharging and its voltage becomes equal to threshold voltage (Vr ). The time
required to discharge Cgs from v gsp to VT is called fall time (ti ). The drain current
becomes zero when vGs S VT . The MOSPET is then said to have turned-off. The Cgs
Cop ht ma al
then discharges to zero voltage. The tum-off time of the MOSFET is equal to sum of
tum-off delay time and fall time. i.e.,
t ojf = t d(off) + tf
1.12.4 Merits, Demerits and Applications of MOSFETs

Merits of MOSFETs
L MOSFETs are majority carrier devices.
ii. MOSFETs have positive temperature coefficient, hence their paralleling is easy.
iii. MOSFETs have very simple drive circuits.
iv. MOSFETs have short tum-on and turn-off times, hence they operate at high
frequencies.
v. MOSFETs do not require commutation circuits.
vi. Gate has full control over the operation of MOSFET.
Demerits of MOSFET
1. On-state losses in MOSPETs are high.
ii. MOSFETs are used only for low power applications.
iii. MOSFETs suffer from static charge.
Applications of MOSFETs
i. High frequency and low power inverters.
ii. High frequency SMPS.
iii. High frequency inverters and choppers.
1v. Low power AC and DC drives.
Sr. BJT MOSFET

No.
1. This is bi,polar device. This is majority carrier device.
2. Controlled by base. Controlled by gate.
3. Current controlled device. Voltage controlled device.
4. Negative temperature coefficient. Positive temperature coefficient.
5. Paralleling of BJTs is difficult. Paralleling of MOSFETs Is simple.
6. Losses are low. Losses are higher than BJTs.
7. Drive circuit is complex. Drive circuit I$ simple.
8. Switching frequency Is lower than MOSFET. Switching frequency is high.

Power El~ctronics - Ill 1 -58 Power Semiconductor Devices
9. BJTs are suitable for high power MOSFETs are suitable for low power
applications. application.
10. BJTs are available with higher voltage and MOSFETs have less voltage and current
current ratings. ratings.
Table 1.12.1 Comparison of BJT and MOSFET
Review Question
1. Explain the steady state and switching characteristics of MOSFET.
1.13 IGBT
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is the
latest device in power electronics. It is obtained by Collector (C)
combining the properties of BJT and MOSFET. We

Gate ________J
know that Bff has lower on-state losses for high (G} - - i
values of collector current. But the drive requirement
of BJT is little complicated. The drive of MOSFET is Emitter (E)
very simple (i.e. only voltage is to be applied between
gate and source). But MOSFET has high on-state Fig. 1.13.1 Symbol of IGBT
losses. The gate circuit of MOSFET and collector
emitter circuits of BJT are combined together to form a new device. This device is
called IGBT. Thus IGBT has advantages of both the BJT and MOSFETs. Fig. 1.13.1
shows the symbol of IGBT. Observe that the symbol clearly indicates combination of
MOSFET and BJT.
The IGBT has three terminals : Gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E). Current
flows from collector to emitter whenever a voltage between gate and emitter is
applied. The IGBT is said to have turned 'on'. When gate emitter voltage is removed,
IGBT turns-off. Thus gate has full control over the conduction of IGBT. Wilen the gate
to emitter volta,ge is applied, very small (negligible) current flows. This is similar to
the gate circuit of MOSFET. The on-state collector to emitter drop is very small like
BJT.
1.13.1 Structure of IGBT
The structure of IGBT is similar to that of MOSFET. Fig. 1.13.2 shows the vertical
cross section of IGBT. In this structure observe that there is additional p+ layer. This
layer is collector (Drain) of IGBT.
Emitter (E)
(source} G
Metal
contact
Si0 2 ---;::::::::t:=::---..L....---
p - body region
n- drift region
n• Buffer layer
p• Injecting layer
Collector (C)
(Drain)
Fig. 1.13.2 Vertical cross section of IGBT
This p+ injecting layer is heavily doped. It has the doping intensity of

1019 percm 3 . The doping of other layers is similar to that of MOSFET. n+ layers have
10 per cm . p-type body region has doping level of 1016 per cm 3 . The n - drift
19 3
region is lightly doped (10 14 per cm 3).
1.13.1.1 Punch through IGBT

The n + buffer layer is not necessary for the operation of IGBT. The IGBTs which
have n + buffer layer are called pWlch through IGBTs. Such IGBTs have asymmetric
voltage blocking capabilities. Punch through IGBTs have faster tum-off times. Hence
they are used for inverter and chopper circuits.
1.13.1.2 Non-punch through IGBT

The IGBTs without n + buffer layer are called non-punch through IGBTs. These
IGBTs have symmetric voltage blocking capabilities. These IGBTs are used for rectifier
type applications.
1.13.1.3 Operation of IGBT

Now let us see how IGBT operates. When VGS > VGS(threshold)1 then the channel of
electrons is formed beneath the gate as shown in Fig. 1.13.3. These electrons attract
holes from p+ layer. Hence, holes are injected from p+ layer into n - drift region. Thus
hole/electron current starts flowing from collector to emitter. When holes enter p-type
body region, they attract more electrons from n + layer. 'This action is exactly similar
to MOSFET.
G E G
VGS
----.11.,_
+ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
- .,_+_ _ _....,
1
ChanneI
of electrons ....
..-.('
1..\. ~;.. ,f I
I
,..__
-: _
)
-•
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
p - body region
•_
Hole/electron - - - - t..,' t f
n- drift region
current ~~~c
I 1' : T [
- -----------------1 1
•, 1 1 1 n•
! I : I I
I I I
Holes
injected
Fig. 1.13.3 A positive gate to source voltage initiates MOSFET action
G E
.
R1~
<
T2
.
p--1 ~
p Conductivity
modulation of
region - -- n- drift region due
to T1 and T 2
Fig. 1.13.4 Structure of IGBT

Now let us see how p+ injecting layer makes the operation different than
MOSFET. Fig. 1.13.4 shows the structure of IGBT showing how internal MOSFETs and
transistors are formed. The MOSFET is formed with input gate, emitter as source and
n - drift region as drain. The two transistors T1 and T 2 are formed as shown. The
holes injected by the p+ injecting layer go to the n - drift region. This n- drift region
is base of T1 and collector of T2 . The holes in the n - drift region further go to the
p-type body region, which is connected to the emitter. The electrons from n + region
(which is emitter) pass through the transistor T 2 and further in the n - drift region.
Thus holes and electrons are injected in large amounts in n - drift region. This reduces
the resistance of the n - drift region. This is called conductivity modulation of n - drift
region. Note that such conductivity modulation does not exist in MOSFET. The
connection of T 1 and T 2 is such that large amount of hole/electrons are injected inn-
drift region. The action of T1 and T2 is like SCR which is regenerative. The gate serves
c as trigger for T1 through internally formed
MOSFET. Fig. 1.13.5 shows the equivalent
Drift region circuit. In this figure observe that when
resistance
gate is applied (Yes> Vc~th)), the internal
equivalent MOSFET turns on. This gives
base drive to T1. Hence T1 starts
conducting. The collector of T1 is base of
R Body region T2. Therefore T2 also turns on. The
1
resistance collector of T 2 is base of T 1 . Thus the
regenerative loop begins and large number
of carriers are injected in n - drift region.
E
This reduces the on-state loss of the IGBT
Fig. 1.13.5 Equivalent circuit of IGBT
just like BJT. This happens due to
conductivity modulation of n - drift region.
When the gate drive is removed, the IGBT should turn-off. When gate is removed,
the induced channel will be vanished and C
internal equivalent MOSFET will tum-off. Hence
Drift region
T1 will tum-off if T2 turns-off. T2 will tum-off if resistance
the p-type body region resistance R 1 is very
very smalL Under such situation, its base and
emitter will be virtually shorted. Hence T2 _____J
turns-off. Therefore T1 will also tum-off. Hence G---i
structure of IGBT is organized sµch that body
region resistance (R 1 ) is very very small.
H R1 is very very small, then T 2 will never
conduct and the equivalent circuit of IGBT will E
be as shown in Fig. 1.13.6. IGBTs are thus Fig. 1.13.6 Simplified equivalent
circuit of IGBT
-
different than MOSFETs because of conduction of current from collector to emitter. For
MOSFETs, on state losses are high since resistance of drift region remains same. But in
IGBTs, resistance of drift region reduces when gate drive is applied. This resistance
reduces because of p+injecting region. Hence, on-state loss of IGBT is very small.
1.13.1.4 Latchup in IGBT

• Latchup means IGBT remains in ON condition even if gate drive is removed.
• Causes of latchup : The current in p-type body region flows vertically as
well as laterally. In equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.13.5 observe that the lateral
component of current flows through the body region resistance R1. Therefore
the drop across this body region resistance is sufficient to tum-on n-p-n
transistor T2 . Therefore p-n-p transistor T 1 is also turned on and regeneration
takes place. Under this situation gate has no control over the current flow.
Thus IGBT remains in ON condition even if gate drive is removed.
• To avoid latchups :
i) Efforts are made to reduce the body resistance R 1. This can be achieved by
using special geometries for the structure of IGBT.
ii) The circuit should be designed in such a way that maximum specified current
should not be exceeded.
iii) Latchups can also be avoided by increasing the tum-off time and controlling
h FE of the pnp transistor.
1.13.1.5 Body-Source-Short and Its Reason

What is body-source-short?
In the structure of IGBT observe that the source (or emitter 'E') is connected. to
p-type body region as well as n + region. This means p-type body region is shorted to
source (or emitter 'E').
Reason
In Fig. 1.13.4 observe that various layers of IGBT form internal parasitic thyristor.
i.e. (p+- n + n- - p - n ~- The body-source short avoids possible tum-on of this parasitic
thyristor. The base-emitter (i.e p-type body region and n+ region) of transistor T2 are
shorted due to body-source-short. Hence it does not conduct. It also helps in avoiding
latch up in IGBT.
Power Electronics .. Ill 1-63 Power Semiconductor Devices
1.13.2 Safe Operating Area (SOA) of IGBT

Forward biased SOA (FBSOA)
• The FBSOA is the square for turn-on times less than 1 msec.
• For reduced switching times FBSOA is limited by maximum junction
temperature.
-5
10
Pulsed
-3 operation
10 sec
DC
0 BVoss
Fig. 1.13.7 FBSOA of IGBT
Reverse biased SOA (RBSOA)

• The RBSOA depends upon the reapplied rate of change of drain-source
voltage.
• Observe that the RBSOA reduces as dVvs I dt increases.
• The reduction in RBSOA is necessary to avoid latchups.
1oM
1000 V/µs
2000 V/µs Reapplied

dVos
3000 V/µs dt
_ _ ____________....__ _ _ _ _ Vos
o BVoss
Fig. 1.13.8 RBSOA of IGBT
Copyright ma r al
Superiority of SOA of IGBT

• The SOA of IGBT is square for short switching times.
• The RBSOA of IGBT indicates significantly higher values of reapplied dv / dt.
• The SOA of IGBT is wider compared to that of BJT.
• As switching frequency increases, the SOA of BJT reduces considerably.
1.13.3 Steady Stat.e (V-1) Characteristics of IGBT

Fig. 1.13.9 shows the V-I characteristics of n-channel IGBT. Som,e time the collector
is also called drain and emitter is also called source. The above characteristics are
plotted for drain (collector) current i D with respect to drain source (collector emitter)
voltage V05 . The characteristics are plotted for different values of gate to source (Vcs )
voltages. When the gate to source voltage is greater than the threshold voltage VGS(th)'
then IGBT turns-on. The IGBT is off when Vcs is less than vGS(th )· Fig. 1.13.9 shows
. the 'on' and 'off' regions of IGBT. The BV 055 is the breakdown dram to source voltage
when gate is open circuitted. The IGBT is the popular device now-a-days. IGBT has
simplest drive circuit and it has low on-state losses.
GS1
VRM
_ __ ....,__--1~...__ _.,;::
O"'- F _ _ _ __ __.__ _ _ vDS
F'-
BVoss
Fig. 1.13.9 V-1 characteristics of n-channel IGBT

1.13.4 Switching Characteristics of IGBT
Fig. 1.13.10 shows the switching characteristics of IGBT. The gate to source voltage
is normally negative. 1bis voltage is made positive to tum-on the IGBT. When
Vcs > Vc~th), the collector current starts increasing. Tum-on delay, t d(on) is the delay
when gate drive is applied and i, starts increasing. When ic increases to its full value,
collector emitter voltage starts falling. 'tr;' is the rise time of collector and tfa is the fall
time of voltage. Thus, tum-on time of IGBT is,
ton = td( on} + tr; + tfa

POW9r a.ctronlcs - Ill 1-65 Power Semiconductor Devices
Fig. 1.13.10 Switching characteristics of IGBT

The tum-off of the IGBT is initiated by reducing the gate voltage. When gate
voltage falls to the value equal to vest, vcE starts rising. vc51 is the voltage where
IGBT comes out of saturation. Tum-off delay, td(off) is the delay time when gate
voltage i~, reduced and Ve£ starts increasing. When vcE reaches to supply voltage, ic
starts reducing. ic reduces fast till vcs reach.es to vc~th)· This fast decay in ic is
basically due to internal MOSFET. Then Vcs goes to zero and becomes negative. But
ic keeps on flowing for some time. This is internal err
current This current flows
due to stored carriers in the drift region. Hence, tum-off time of IGBT is higher than
IGBT. The tum-off time of IGBT will be,
toff = td(ojf) + trv + tfit + tfi2
Here, trv is voltage rise time
tfi1 is MOSFET current~ time.
tfi2 is BJT current fall time.
al
1.13.5 Merits, Demerits and Applications of IGBT

Merits of IGBT
i. Voltage controlled device. Hence drive circuit is very simple.
ii. On-state losses are reduced.
iii Switching frequencies are higher than thyristors.
iv. No commutation circuits are required.
v. Gate have full control over the operation of IGBT.
vi. IGBTs have approximately flat t.emperature coefficient.
Demerits of IGBT
i. -IGBTs have static charge problems.
ii. IGBTs are costlier than BJTs and MOSFETs.
Applications of IGBTs
i. AC motor drives, i.e. inverters.
ii. OC to DC power supplies, Le choppers.
w. UPS systems.
iv. Harmonic compensators.
1.13.6 Protection Circuits for IGBT

IGBT can be protected against,
i) Gate overvoltage protection ii) Overcurrent protection iii) Snubber circuits.
1.13.6.1 Gate OVervoltage Protection

• Fig. 1.13.11 shows the circuit Drain
diagram of gate overvoltage (Collecto r)
protection. 'This circuit consists

of two zener diode connected in
series back to back. Source
(Emitter)
• Normally the gate overvoltage is
± 20 V. The two zener diodes
conduct when overvoltage
occurs between gate and source.
• The breakdown voltage of the
zener diodes can be adjusted Fig. 1.13.11 Gata overvoltage protection
according to Gate-source
breakdown voltage of IGBT.
1.13.6.2 Overcurrent Protection

• The drain overcurrent of IGBT is continuously monitored. If overcurrent is
detected, then drive of IGBT is disabled. This is normally incorporated in
drive circuit of IGBT. Fig. 1.13.12 shows drive circuit ofIGBT with
overcurrent protection.
+
♦
,
I
Over· : I
I
current : I
protediol I I
ca'QMl: 'II
I I
I
I
I
''\ ~ , ---t
• • --•••--••• I \ ,
I Gate oveMJbge
't'
OYertwrwtl pnMdion
pl'04edicn cil'NI
Fig. 1.13.12 Overcurrent protection
Operation
• In this circuit, the turn on/ off signal is given through optocoupler.
T-
• The overcurrent protection circuit receivers drive signal from comparator and
gives it to gate of IGBT through non-pnp pair of Bffs.
• The collector voltage of IGBT is sensed through diode D oc , Normally this
diode is forward biased, since collector voltage is very small..
• If there is overcurrent, then collector voltage increases and diode D oc is
reverse biased. This condition is sensed by overcurrent protection circuit affd
it simply blocks the drive given to gate of IGBT.
1.13.6.3 Snubber Circuits for IGBT

Prupose : To 1e nsure that IGBT always operates in its safe operating area at the
....
time of tum-on and tum-off.
If IGBT does not operate in its SOA, then it can be damaged. Thus snubber
circuits protect IGBT. There are two types of snubbers : i) Tum-off snubber and
ii) Turn-on snubber.
Tum-off snubber
Fig. 1.13.13 shows the circuit diagram, of tum-off snubber.
Operation
• Tum-off snubber is necessary to limit
load the voltage across collector-emitter
when IGBT turns-off.
• The load current flows through diode
R
G D and capacitor C. This changing of
capacitor limits the voltage vcE at the
time of tum-off.
• The resistance 'R' is used to limit the
discharge current of capacitor when
IGBT turns-on.
Fig. 1.13.13 Tum-off snubber
• Fig. 1.13.14 shows the switching

trajectory 'Of IGBT for various values of
RBSOA
-------------------, C.
C =0 0
• Here Co <C 1 <C2 <C 3 . Thus large
capacitor value limits the ic , Ve£ to
considerably small values during
switching.
Values of R and C
The values of R and C are given as,
Fig. 1.13.14 Switc-hlng trajectory for R= vd,

various valun of C 0.210
Here
Vdc is DC supply voltage.
I O is load current.
C = 2f.c
s y2
de
Here f,c is energy stored in capacitor.

Tum-on Sunbber
Fig. 1.13.15 shows the circuit diagram of tum-on snubber.
Operation
• The tum-on snubber is used to reduce the
switching Losses during tum-on.
• It reduces the voltage across IGBT when
current is rising. o,
• The voltage drop across inductor L reduces
the net voltage across IGBT. D
• The energy stored in inductor is dissipated

R
through resistor R and diode D.
• Large value of inductance reduces IGBT
voltage du.ring ·tum-on but also causes high
voltages during tum-off. Hence its value
must be appropriately selected for tum-on as E
well as tum-off.
Values of R and L
Value of inductance is given as, Fig. 1.13.15 Tium-on snubber
L = &VcE t r
Io
Here fl VcE is reduction in voltage across IGBT.
t, is rise time of current
I O is load current.
Value of resistance is given as,
2.3L
R > --
t off
Here t011 is off state of IGBT or its tum-off time.
1.13.7 Comparison of Power Devices

The power devices can be compared on the basis of switching frequency, gate
drive circuit, power handling capacity etc. Table 1.13.1 shows the comparison of SCR,
BJT, MOSFET and IGBT.
Sr. Parameter SCR BJT MOSFET IGBT

No.
Symbol A C
1. 1•
C 0 0
-~ -~ ·4 ·~
C
. GJ - E E s s
G~
uK E
2. Triggered I.e. Triggered or Linear trigger Linear trigger Linear trigger

latching or linear latching device
3. Type of carriers in Majority carrier Bipolar device Majority carrier Majority carrier
device device device device
4. Control of gate or Gate has no Base hat full Gate has full Gate haa full
I base control once control control control
turned on
5. Qn,.state drop < 2 volb < 2 volb 4-6 volb 3.3 volts
6. $witching 500 Hz 10 kHz upto 100 kHz 20 kHz

frequency
7. Gate drive Current Current Voltage Voltage
8. Snubber Unpolarized Polarized Not essential Not essential
9. Temperature Negative Negative Positive Approximately flat,

coefficient but positive at
high current
10. Voltage and 10 kV/, 4 kA 2 kV/ 1 kA 1 kV/ S0A 1.5 kV/ 400A
current ratings
11 .
12.
Voltage blocldng
capability
Applications
Synvnetric and
asymmetric (both)
AC to DC
Asymmetric
DC to AC
Asymmetric
DC choppers, low
-
..
DC to AC
Asymmetric
converters, AC converters, powers UPS, converters, AC

voltage controllers, Induction motor SMPS, brushless motor drtves, UPS,
electronic circuit drives, UPS, DC motor drives choppers, SMPS
breakers SMPS, Choppers etc.
Table 1.13.1 Comparison of power devices
Review Questions
1. Explain the charactmstics of IGBT. Explmn its opmrtion.
2. Explain tM characteristics of following devices : i) BJT i.i) MOSFET iii) IGBT
3. Compart B]T, MOSFET and IGBT.
□□□
Drive and Protection Circuits
for Power Devices
Objectives
• Basics of triggering circuits for power devices.
• Requirements of triggering circuits.
• Triggering circuits for SCR, &ff, MOSFET and IGBTs.
• lsolat1on in triggering circuits.
• Protedton of power devices from d¼t and over voltages by snubber circuit.
• Protection of power devices against hot spots and ¾-

• Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) for the protection of power devices.
• Semiconductor fuses for protection against ooer currents.
• Concept of thermal resistance and heat sink design.

• Mounting of devices for power cooling.
• Deroting of devices due to heating.
• Cooling techniques such as forced air cooling, liquid cooling and vapour phase cooling.
2.1 Firing Circuits for the SCR

Thyristor can be turned on by following :
(i) Forward breakover voltage
(ii) dv triggering
dt
(iii) Exceeding internal device temperature
(iv) Focusing light beam on the junction
(v) Gate triggering.
(2 - 1)
POW9r Electronlcs -111 2-2 for POW9r Devices
The gate triggering is the most widely used m.e thod of turning on the thyristor. In
this section we will study various types of gate triggering circuits.
2.1.1 Features of Firing Circuits

The triggering circuits are called firing circuits. We have akeady discussed the
requirements of gate trigger circuits. The following features or requirements must be
fulfilled by the firing circuit in addition to those discussed earlier.
(i) The firing circuit should produce the triggering pulses for every thyristor at
appropriate instants.
(ii) The triggering pulses generated by the control circuit need to be amplified and
passed through the isolation circuit. The triggering pulses generated by the
control circuit have very small power. Hence their power is increased by pulse
amplifier. Fig. 2.1.1 shows the scheme. The firing circuit operates at low
voltage levels (5 to 20 volts). And the thyristor operates at high voltage levels
(greater than 250 volts). Hence there must be electrical isolation between firing
circuit and thyristor. This isolation is provided by the pulse transformer or
optocouplers.
Power
supply
G
Control Pulse Pulse
circuit - - amplifier transformer
K
Fig. 2.1.1 Main blocks of firing circuit

2.1.2 R-Flrtng Circuit
Fig. 2.1.2 shows the simple Rfiring circuit.
The resistance Rmin is used to limit
R,,,.,,
~e gate cunent to its maximum value.
If Ig(max) is maximum gate current and
Vm is the peak supply voltage, then AC
Rmin will be, supply ~
vs
Rmin ~
Vm
1g(max)
The resistance Rb is the stabilizing Fig. 2.1.2 R-firing circuit

resistance. The voltage across Rb should
Power Electronics - 111 2-3 for Power Devices
not exceed. minimum gate voltage ( Vg(min)), otherwise thyristor will tum-on directly.
Then the variable resistance R is used to trigger the thyristor T1 . When 'R' is zero, the
triggering angle is minimum. The triggering angle increases as value of 'R' is
increased. Fig. 2.1.3 shows the waveforms of this circuit.
Fig. 2.1.3 Wavefonns of R firing circuit

The anode to cathode voltage and the gate current are in phase. Hence the
triggering angle of T 1 cannot be delayed beyond 900. In the above waveforms, observe
that at points 'A' and 'B' gate voltage is same.
If it is desired to trigger thyristor at point 'B', similar voltage appears at point 'A'.
Hence thyristor will tum-on at point ' A' only. Hence maximum triggering angle will
be 90°. This is because the gate current and anode voltage are in phase.
2.1.3 RC Firing Circuit

Fig. 2.1.4 shows the circuit diagram of RC firing circuit In the negative half cycle,
the capacitor charges through diode D 2 to negative supply voltage. The capacitor
charges to - Vm (i.e. negative peak) of the supply. This is shown in waveforms of
Fig. 21.5. The cap.acitor then discharges (i.e. charges towards positive) through
resistance R during the positive half cycle of the supply. The thyristor triggers when
pynght al
Drive and P1
rotectlon Circuits
Power Electronics -111 2-4 for Power Devices
capacitor charges to value greater than vg(min)· Observe the capacitor voltage and load
voltage waveforms in Fig. 2.1.5. The diode D 1 prevents the negative capacitor voltage
appearing to gate of tl:te thyristor. The triggering angle can be controlled from O to
1800. For zero output (i.e. maximum firing angle), the following relation holds :
1.3
-.... 2/
RC ~ ... (2.11)
.
AC
supply ~
vs
C
Fig. 2.1.4 RC half wave firing circuit
Fig. 2.1.5 Waveforms of half wave RC firing circuit
Here/ is the supply frequency. Since triggering is controlled only in one half cycle
of the supply, this circuit is also called half wave RC firing circuit.
Copy ght ma r al
Power Electronics .. Ill 2.5 fo'r Power Devices
2.1.4 Full Wave RC Firing Circuit

Fig. 2.1.6 shows the full wave
RC-firing circuit. The supply to
the thyristor is given through the R
uncontrolled rectifier. Hence both Load
the half cycles are positive half

cycles to the thyristor. The
C
capacitor starts charging in every
half cycle at the beginning.
Whenever the capacitor voltage Fig. 2.1.6 Full wave RC firing circuit
reaches to the value greater than
Vg(min)' the thyristor turns-on. Fig. 2.1.7 shows the waveforms of this circuit. Once the
thyristor turns-on, the capacitor voltage is clamped to zero, till next half cycle. The
capacitor again starts charging from zero. The firing angle can be varied from O to
180°. The triggering is controlled in both the cycles. The following relation holds for
maximum firing angle,
Fig. 2.1.7 Waveforms of full wave RC firing circuit
C pyr ht al
Pow.r Electronics -111 2-6 fot Power Devices
RC ~ 0.157 ••. (2.1.1)

2-rr. f
Here f is the frequency of the supply.
, . . Example 2.1.1 : Design a suitable RC triggering circuit for a thyristorised network
operating on 220 V, 50 Hz supply. The specifications of the SCR are VGT(min) = 5 V,
IGT(max) = 30 mA.
Solution : Let us consider half wave RC firing circuit is used. This circuit is shown
in Fig. 2.1.4. The given data is
Supply voltage, 11s = 220 V
f = 50 Hz
VGT(min) = 5 V
I GT<max) = 30 mA
The RC time constant of the half wave RC firing circuit is given by equation 2.1.1 as,
RC ~ t.3
2/
~ 1.3
2x50
~ 0.013
The triggering circuit of Fig. 2.1.4 is reproduced below (Fig. 2.1.8) with various
voltage drops.
The capacitor voltage is,
Ve = VGT + V D1 ... (2.1.3)
The SCR will turn-on when,
Vs 2: IGTR + Ve .•. (2.1.4)
When above equation is satisfied,
sufficient gate drive will be given to
the SCR and it will tum-on. Putting Fig. 2.1.8 RC half wave triggering circuit
expression for V, from equation 2.1.3 in
above equation,
v s ~ I cT R + VcT + VD1
R ~ Vs - VGT - V01 ... (2.1.5)
[GT
Here VGT should be minimum and I GT should be maximum to get maximum

value of R Putting values in above equation,
Power Electronics - Ill 2-7 for Power Devices
220 - 5 - 0.7
R ~ Here V01 = 0.7 V
30x10-3
... R ~ 7143.33 .Q
0.013
... C c!!:
R
0.013
~
7143.33
... C ~ 1.82 µ.F
2.1.5 UJT Triggering Circuit

The Unijunction transistor (UJf) triggering circuit is used in most of the
applications. Fig. 2.1.9 shows the circuit diagram of UJT triggering circuit.
Pedestal
1
:c
:
G
To
KSCR
Equivalent \ Pulse
resistance R1 transfonner
Fig. 2.1.9 UJT triggering circuit

Operation
• The supply voltage is rectified and given to the zener regulator. The voltage
of zener diode is Vz . The zener diode clamps the rectified voltage to Vz as
shown in the waveforms of Fig. 2.1.10. Hence voltage Vz is applied to• the
UJT circuit.
• The pedestall control indicates initial voltage level in the capacitor. It can be
adjusted through resistance R. The ramp control indicates charging of
capacitor from pedestal level. The waveforms of Fig. 21.10 shows these
levels.
i) The capacitor charges through resistance R c. When the capacitor voltage
becomes equal to Vp, the peak voltage of the UJT, it turns-on. The capacitor
discharges through emitter (E), base (B 1) and primary of pulse transformer.
The UJT is turned-on when the capacitor discharges. Since current flows
through the primary of pulse transformer, a pulse is generated. This pulse as
shown in Fig. 2.1.10 is the gate triggering pulse.
ii) When the capacitor discharges to a voltage called valley voltage (Vv ), the UJT
turns-off and capacitor again starts charging from pedestal level. This mode of
working of UJT is called relaxation oscillator.
Fig. 2.1.10 Wavefonns of UJT triggering clrcuH

iii) The delay angle ' a ' is the angle when first higgering pulse is generated in the
half cycle. The charging of the capacitor can be varied by resistance R, . Hence
;. delay angle can also be varied. The Uff higger circuit has the firing angle
range from O to 1800.
The zener voltage acts as a supply voltage for UJT relaxation oscillator. This
voltage becomes zero at 0, 1t , 2n, 3 n, .... etc. The capacitor voltage also becomes zero
at these instants. Thus synchronization with zero crossings is, achieved. The lJJT
trigger circuit can be used to trigger SCRs in 1 ♦ converters, 1 ♦ AC regulators etc.
Mathematical analysis
The peak voltage at which UJT turns on is given as,
V p = ri Vas + Vo ... (2.1.6)
Here VP is the peak voltage
V88 is the supply voltage of UJT circuit
Power Electronics - Ill 2 -9 for Power Devices
Vo is forward drop of Uff

11 is intrinsic standoff ratio.
The intrinsic standoff ratio (Tl) depends upon the UJT. The period of oscillation of
the Uff relaxation oscillator is given as
I T = R, C In (r¾) I ... (2.1.7)

Fig. 2.1.li shows the waveforms of free running UJf relaxation oscillator. The
capacitor voltage waveform and UJT output are shown in the above figure. From
Fig. 2.1.10, it is clear that triggering angle will be,
Fig. 2.1.11 Waveforms of free running UJT relaxation oscillator

a. = CiJT
Hence from equation 2.1.7 we can write,
I a = ro R, C In ( ~ ) I ... (2.1.8)
This equation gives firing angle of UJT triggering circuit. Here w = 2 1t f and f is
the frequency of UJT oscillator. The resistance R 2 should be selected as follows :
0.7 ( R 82 +R 81 )
R2 = - -- - - ... (2.1.9)
Tl VBB
Here R 82 and R 81 are interbase resistance of the Uff. R 2 can also be calculated
approximately as,
Copyright ma r al
... (2.1.10)
Note that this expression does not require R BJ and R B2 • Normally pulse
transformer is connected at the base B1 of Ufl'. Pulses are passed through pulse
transformer. 1his provides isolation between SCR circuit and UJT triggering cir.c uit
The resistance of pulse transformer primary can be denoted by R 1 . This resistance
controls width of the triggering pulse. From Fig. 2.1.11, this width is given as,
Width of triggering pulse, 't2 = R1C ... (2.1.11)
More accurately this pulse width will be,
't2 = (R1 + RBt )C ... (2.1.12)
Here we have considered the interbase resistance R 81 also. If leakage current of
UJT is given, then R 1 can be calculated using following equation,
VBB = l1ea1cageCR1 +R2 +RBt +RB2) ... (2.1.13)
Here hmkllge is the leakage current of UJT.

The maximum value of R, is given as,
VBB -VP
Rc(max) = I ... (2.1.14)
p
and the minimum value of R , is given as,

R - Vss -Vv ... (2.1.15)
c(min) - I
V
Here VP is peak voltage

Ip is peak current
Vv is valley voltage
Iv is valley current
2.1.6 Pedestal Circuit with Cosine Modified Ramp

Fig. 2.1.12 shows the pedestal circuit having cosine modified ramp control.
• In the above circuit, the zener voltage is given to pedestal control and base
of UJT.
• But the charging of capacitor C 1 takes place by rectified voltage.
• The pedestal voltage can be varied by resistance R 1 .
Drive and Pro~n Circuits
Power Eleql'onlcs -111 2-11 for Pc,,-r Devlen
00.
o,
Pedestal
l
F1ig. 2.1.12 Pedestal circuit with cosine modified ramp
• The charging of capacitor C1 is cosine modified and its rate can be varied by
resistance R 2.
• The firing angle can be controlled by controlling the pedestal voltage
Advantages of cosine modified ramp control
(i) The control characteristics is linear.
(ii) Control gain is high.
,. . Example 2.1.2 : A Uf[ is used to trigger the thyristor whose minimum gate
triggering voltage is 6.2 V. The U]T ratings are :
Tl =0.66, Jp = 0.5 m A , Iv =3 mA,
RB1 + R 8 2 =5 kQ, lealalge current = 3.2 mA
VP = 14 V and Vv = 1 V.
Oscillator frequency is 2 1c1b; and capacitor C = 0.04 µF. Design the complete circuit.
Solution : From equation 2.1.7,
T = R e C ln ( l ~ fl)
1 1
Here T =- = - - - , since f = 2 kHz and putting other values,
f 2x10 3
1
2x10 3
R e = 11.6 kil
.,; Drive and Protection Circuits
Power Electronics - m 2 -12 for Power Devices
The peak voltage is given as,
VP = Tl VBB +VD
Let V D = 0.8, then putting other values,
14 = 0.66 VBB + 0.8
VBB = 20 V
The value of R 2 is given by equation 2.1.9 as,
0.7 (RB2 + RB1)

R2 = Tl V BB
0.7 (sx10 3 )
=
0.66 x 20
... R2 = 265'2
Value of R 1 can be calculated by equation 2.1.13 as,
VBB = l1eakage (R1 +R2 +RBt +RB2)
20 = 3.2 x 10- 3 (Rt +265+5000)

R1 = 985 Q
The value of R, (ma.x) is given by equation 2.1.14,
Vaa - VP
Rc(max) = Ip
20-14
=
o.s xio- 3
R, (max) = 12 k'2
Similarly the value of R, (min) is given by equation 2.1.15,
R = VaB - Vv _ 20 -1
c(min) Iv - 3x10- 3
R, (min) = 6.33 k'2

Power Electronics .. 111 2-13 for Power Devlces
Fig. 2.1.13 shows the completely designed circuit

,,.,
Vee= 20 V
11.6 kO Re
Fig. 2.1.13 UJT triggering circuit of example 2~1.2
,. . Example 2.1.3 : Design the U]T triggering circuit for SCR. Given - V8 8 = 20 V,
'l = 0.6, IP =10 µA, Vv =2V, Iv = 10 mA. The frequency of oscillation is 100 Hz. The
triggering pulse width should be 50 µs. •
Solution: The frequency f = 100 Hz
... 1 1
T = f = 100
From equation 2.1.7,
T = R,Cln( ~ )
1 11
Putting values in above equation,

1
100
.. R,C = 0.0109135
Let us select C = lµF. Then R, will be,
0.0109135
Re = lxl0~
= 10.91 ldl
VP = TIVBB + Vo
Let VO = 0.8 and putting other values,
VP = 0.6x20+0.8 = 12.8 V
Power Electronics - Ill 2- 14 for Power Devices
The minimum value of R e can be calculated from equation 2.1.15 as,

VaB -Vv
R c(min) =
Iv
= 20 - 2 = 1.8 kn
10 X 10- 3
Value of R 2 can be calculated from equation 2.1.10, as,

104
R2 =
T\ VBB
104
= 0.6x 20 = 833·~ n
Here the pulse width is given, i.e. 50 µ s.

Hence, value of R 1 will be,
-r 2 = R1C from equation 2.1.11
The width 't 2 = 50 µ sec and C = 1 µ F, hence above equation becomes,
50 x 10- 6 = R1 x l x 10- 6
R1 = 50 Q
Thus we obtained the values of components in UJT triggering circuit as,

R1 = 50 n, R2= 833.33 Q
Re = 10.91 kn, C = 1 µF.
>
.. Example 2.1.4 : A capacitor used in the U]T oscillator circuit is charged by a
constant current source. The value of the capacitor is 0.5 µ F and that of the constant
current is 1 mA. The sawtooth voltage of oscillator is found to have a crest value of
8.5 volts and valley level of 2.5 V. Calculate the frequency of the oscillator.
Solution : Given data is,
C = 0.5 µ F
'c = 1 mA constant current charging
VP = 8.5 V, Vv = 2.5 V
The waveform of cap:icitor is sawtooth. Hence discharge period can be neglected.
The voltage across capacitor is given as,
IT
; f
VP = C i , dt + Vv
0
C
As given by above equation, the capacitor charges to VP at the end of period T.

The residual voltage on capacitor is Vv. Putting values in above equation,
T
8.5 :::;;: l
0.5 x10- 6
f1 X 10- 3 dt + 2.5
0
1 x io- 3 T
6 :::;;:
0.5 xio- 6 0
f
dt
T
J dt = 3 xio- 3
0
... [t] T
0
= 3 x io- 3
' .;
.. T = 3 x io- 3
1
Frequency, f =
T
1
= = 333.33 Hz
3x10- 3
>
• Example 2.1.5 : For an SCR, the gate cathode characteristic is given by a straight line
with a gradients of 16 volts/ampere passing through the origin. The maximum turn-on
time is 4 µ sec and the minimum gate current required to obtain this quick turn-on is
500 mA. If the gate source voltage is 15 V,
a) Calculate the resistance to be connected in series with the SCR gate
b) OJmpute the gate power dissipation, given that pulse width is equal to turn-on time
and average gate power dissipation is 0.3 W. Also compute the maximum triggering
frequency that will be possible when pulse firing is used.
Solution : a) To calculate series resistance In gate
+
VGK :: 15 V
....__ _ _ _ _ _-a K
Fig. 2.1.14 Equivalent gate-cathode circuit
The gate-cathode characteristic has the gradient of 16 volts/ Ampere. Hence gate
cathode resistance is 16 n Fig. 2.1.14 shows the equivalent gate-cathode circuit. In this
circuit observe that gate-cathode is replaced by equivalent resistance of 16 .Q.. The
• \I~.) Drive and Protection Circuits
applied gate voltage is 15 V. A current of 500 mA passes through the circuit to trigger
the SCR. By I<VL to above circuit,
15 = (R + RcK) x soox10- 3 =(R + 16) xsoox10- 3
... R = 140
Thus a resistance of 14 Q must be connected in series with the SCR gate.
b) To compute gate powar dissipation and maximum 'pulse frequency
}Jl Fig. 2.1.14, observe that the gate current of 500 mA passes through the gate of
16 n resistance. The firing pulse of width 4 µs is applied to the gate. Hence the gate
power dissipation is,
4J,&S
Pg = tj ;2(t)RGKdt = J (500 X 10- 3 ) 2 X 16 dt
0 0
4J,&S
= 4 f dt = 16 µW
0
The average gate power dissipation is 0.3 W. U we apply the multiple gate firing
pulses, the gate power dissipation will increases. One pulse of 4 µs dissipates 16 µW.
Hence average 0.3 W dissipation can be reached by,
f = 0.3Xl = 18750
16xto-6
Thus the triggering frequency for pulse firing will be 18.75 kHz.
, . . Example 2.1.6 : A U]T is connected across a 20 V volts DC supply. The valley and
peak point voltages are 1 V and 15 V. The period of U]T relaxation oscillator is 20 ms.
Find the value of charging capacitor, if a charging resistor of 100 W. is used.
Solution : The given data is,
VBB = 20 V
Vv = 1,
T = 2o x10-3
R e = 100 kn
The peak voltage of the UJT is given as,
VP= TJVBB +Vo
Let VO = 0.8 and putting values in above equation,
15 = Tl X 20+ 0.8 => 11= 0.71
Power Electronlcs - Ill 2 -17 for Power Devices
From equation 2.1.7, T = R,C In ( l ~ )

11
J I
2ox10-3 = 10xl03 xCln (

1
_1_ 71)
... C = 0.16i f.l F
Example 2.1.7 : Find the I values of charging circuit components if tht line
synchronised U]T circuit can be operated to get delay angles of 200 to 1600. Assume
suitable data if required. :>

20°~a ~60° i.e. 0.349 ~(X ~ 2.793
Let the operating frequency be f = 50 Hz.
... c.o = 2nf = 2n xSO = 100 n
The firing angle is given by equation 2.1.8 as,
a = c.oR, C In( l ~ ,,)

Let T\ = 0.65 and for a 1 = 0.349,
0.349 = 100n x R , 1C1ln( l -1_65)
Rc1C 1 = l.058xl0-3
Similarly with a 2 = 2.793,
2793 = 100n x R,2C2ln( l -1.6S)

... R, 2C2 = 8.468x10-3
Let C = C1 =C2 = 0.5 µ f . Hence,
1.ossx10-3
R, 1 = 0.Sxl0-6
= 2.116 Jdl
8.468xl0-3
R,2 = = 16.936 kn
0.Sxl0~ , .
Thus the resistance R, should be varied from 2116 Jdl to 16.936 kO. Hence a
variable resistance of 20 kQ can be used.
Pow.r Electronics - Ill 2-18 for Power Devices
, . . Example 2.1.8 : An UfT used in a reuwztion oscillator circuit is having = 0.7, 'l
Vv = 1 V and the supply voltage to the circuit is 15 V. Design the suitable values of R
and C given that the frequency of oscillation is 1 kHz. Peak current is 1 mA and valley
current is 8 mA.
VBB = 15 V
Tl = 0.7
Vv = 1, Iv = 8 mA
f = 1000 Hz
Ip = 1 mA
VP = 'lVBB + VD
Let VD = 0.8 and putting other values,
VP = 0.7 x 15 + 0.8 = 11.3 V
The period of oscillation is given by equation 2.1.7 as,
T = RcC ln ( l ~ 'l)
With T = l = ~
1
and putting·T1=0.7,
1 1
= R cC ln ( _ _ )
1000 1 07
... RcC = 8.3058 X 10-4

Let C = 0.3 µ F. Hence,
8.3058 X 10- 4
Re = 0.3x10- 6
= 2.768 lcil
Now let us determine maximum and minimum values of R, . From equation 2.1.7,
Vaa -VP __ 15 - 11.3 __ "7, n
R c:(m.ax) = 3, ,00 w
Ip 1 x10-3
POWltr Electronics - Ill 2 -19 tor Power Devices
And from equation 2.1.15,
= 15-1 = 1750 .Q
8 x10- 3
Thus the calculated value of R, = 2.768 kn lies in the angle of 1750 Q to 3700 n.
,_. Example 2.1.9 : An UfT triggering circuit is connected across a· 20 V zener. The
valley tmd peak point voltages are 1 V and 15 V respectively The intrinsic stand-off
ratio is 0.75. It operates at a frequency of 1200 Hz. Find the charging capacitor if
R = 5.6 k'2.
VBB = 20 V
Vv = 1, VP= 15
Tl = 0.75
f = 1200 Hz Hence T = -f1 = -1

-
1200
R, = 5.6 kQ
The period of oscillation of UJT relaxation oscillator is given by equation 2.1.7 as
T= R, C In( 1 ~ Tl)
12
~ = 5.6xl0 3 xCxln (
1
_1_ 75)
... C ;:;; 0.107 µF
2.1 .7 SCR / TRIAC Triggering using Diac

The diac is the two terminal and four layer device. It is mainly used for triggering
triacs. Fig. 2.1.15 {a) shows the symbols of diac. The symbol shown in Fig. 2.1.15 (b)
has arrows in both the directions. This means it conducts in either directions. The
terminals are not named. It can be used in any direction. It is low power triggering
device. There is no control terminal on the diac.
Power Electronics • Ill 2-20 for Power Devices
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 .15 Twp different symbols used for dlac
2.1. 7.1 V•I Characteristics of Dlac

Fig. 2.1.16 shows the V-1 characteristics of diac. The current through the diac is
plotted with respect to voltage across it. The diac remains off till voltage is less than
± Vijo· When voltage exceeds V80 , diac turns 'on' and conducts heavily. Observe that
the characteristic is exactly similar for positive as well as negative values of voltage
and current. Once the diac turns on, the voltage across it drops to negligible value.
----- ------------
-Veo
-~. ---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-..,~'--- - - - - . - - - - - - - - V
.... Vso
--------- ----
---- t
Diac turns on
at this voltage
Fig. 2.1.16 V-1 characteristic of diac

2.1.7.2 DIAC-TRIAC Phase Control
LOAD - - - - - -- - Fig. 2.1.17 shows the basic triac
triggering circuit using diac. In this
R
diagram, when capacitor 'C' charges
above the breakover voltage (V8 o ) of
C diac, it starts conducting. Hence
capacitor voltage is applied to triac
Fig. 2.1.17 Basic triac triggering using diac
gate and it turns-on. The charging of the capacitor can be controlled by the variable
~ o r 'R'. Which indirectly controls the firing delay of triac.
Review Questions
1. Explain RC firing circuit for the SCR. Draw the nectsSary waveforms.
2. With the necessary circuit diagram and waveforms explain the operation of UJT triggering circuit.
3. How diac am be used to trigger triac ?
Unsolved Examples
1. A UJT trigger circuit is used to fire a PNPN deuice.
It is supplied from a source across the SCR
to be triggerf!d through a 10 V untr. The valley and~ point voltages are found to be 1 V and
7 V rtspedivtly. Calculate the intrinsic stand-off ratio of UJT and frequency of relaxation oscillator
if R = lkO. and C = 1 µ F. {Ans. : Tl = 0.6~ f = 1033 Hz]
2. An SCR is to be triggered using a relaxation oscillator, which has an UIT with '1 = 0.7, IP
= 2 µA ,VP = 16.5 volts. Normal leakage current with emitter open is 3 mA, Vv = 1 volts, Iv = 6
mA, R9i 8l = 5.5 kn. Triggering frequency is 100 Hz. With C = 0.1 µ F design the UJT
relaxation osa1lator. [Ans. : R, = 83 ~ R 1 = 921.35 0. R 2 = 245.31 Q]
2.2 Drive Circuits for BJT

Following points are to be remembered when designing the base drive circuit for
transistor.
1. BJT is a current controlled device.
2. Power BJT is used as on/off switch in power converters.
3. Power BJT operates in saturation and cutoff when used as a switch.
4. Sufficient base current is required to drive BJT in saturation.
5. Amount of carrier injected in base region determine storage time of BJT.
6. Storage time determines turn-on and turn-off times of BJT.
7. There should be mechanism to control the amount of saturation so as to
control storage tim.e.
There are most important points about BJTs.
2.2.1 Base Drive Control During Tum-on

Fig. 2.2.1 shows the base drive circuit for tum-on of a transistor. Due to this circuit
the 't0 n ' time is reduced.
Fig. 2.2.1 Drive circuit to make base current high at beginning of ion
As shown in this circuit, when base drive V8 is applied, the capacitor C1 acts as a
short. Hence R2 is virtually by passes. Therefore an initial value of base current is only
limited by R1 and it is given as,
_ Vs - V BE
I B (nonl-1 -
,,.-, R1
This heavy base current drives transistor into saturation for quick tum-on. Once
the transistor is turned on, there is no need of such large base CUl'rent. This is taken
care-off by R2C1 circuit. The capacitor C1 starts charging and base current starts falling.
This is shown in Fig. 2.2.2. Observe that there is peaking of base current at the
beginning of tum-on. Then the current reduces to,
_ V B -VBE
IB -
R1 +R2
Fig. 2.2.2 Base current peaking at the beginning of tum-on

•
To turn-off _the transistor, base voltage is made zero. Therefor,e capacitor voltage
appears as negative voltage across base-emitter. Hence suddenly base current is
reversed as shown in Fig. 2.2.2. This current slowly decays to zero after the stored
charge in base region is removed. The capacitor C1 then discharges through R2• This
discharge time constant is,
't 2 = R2C1
Copyr ghted ma r al
The charging time constant of the capacitor is,

R1R2C1
't1 = Rt+ R2
The Ton period of the transistor must be at least five times of t 1 . Similarly the T0 ff
period must be five times of 't 2 . The switching frequency of the BJT will then be,
h - i
s - T on +Toff
We know that,
> S'tt
Ton(min) and Toff(min) > S't2
This gives the maximum switching frequency of,
1
fs,ma, =
Ton(min) + Toff(min)
1 1
2.2.2 Base Drive Control During Tum-off

For quick tum-off, the stored charge in the base region must be removed fast. This
can be done by applying negative base drive for tum-off. Due to - Vs, the
base-emitter voltag;e becomes negative during tum-off. The voltage on capacitor C1
also adds to this negative voltage. Therefore the negative pea.king of base current
(see Fig. 2.2.3) at the beginning of turn-off is increased. This removes the stored charge
fast, and the transistor is turned-off quickly.
C1
o,
Fig. 2.2.3 Base drive circuit for positive and negative peaking of base current
It is possible to design the different tum-on and tum-off circuits for base current
peaking. ·Fig. 2.2.3 shows one of such circuit. In this circuit, R 2C1 is used for positive
peaking of base current as discussed earlier. The diode D 2 acts as short when Vs is
positive. Capacitor C2 charges to the polarity as shown in above figure when V8 is
positive. Normally R3 is much higher than R2, hence base current flows through R2 .
The base voltage Vs is made negative to tum-off the transistor. Therefore the voltage
of C2 imposes additional negative input to the base. The negative base current flows
through C2, R1 and V 8 . Thus R3C2 becomes effective at the time of turn-off. No current
flows through R 2C1 dwing tum-off since diode D 1 is reverse biased. Once the base
current is zero, then C2 discharges through R3• Similarly C1 discharges through R2•
Thus it is possible to design separate peaking characteristics for tum-on and tum-off.
2.2.3 Proportional Base Control

The collector current changes as the load changes. ff the load is reduced, then
collector current reduces. Then the base current should also be reduced to avoid
excess carries m the base region. Hence proportional base control can be used.
Fig. 2.2.4 shows the circuit diagram of proportional base drive.
R C +
~
rL
Fig. 2.2.4 Proportional base drive control
A short duration pulse is applied to turn-on the transistor. The transistor turns-on
and collector current starts flowing. The collector current passes through the coil
which is magnetically coupled to base coil. Hence collector current induces the current
in the base coil also. This current acts as base drive to the BJT. The RC time constant
determines the duration of the pulse to be applied externally to drive BJT into
saturation. The turns ratio must be,
N2 _ 1c_f:Ua_J3
N1 - Ia ---r;;-
The base current then varies according to variations in the collector current. The
transistor can be turned off by applying negative pulse through RC circuit. This makes
base current negative and BJT tu.ms-off.
2.2.4 Anti-satu1ration Control

We know that excess base current increases storage time of the BJT. Hence the
turn-off time inaeases. Such excess or heavy base drive is called hard saturation.
Therefore transistor must be operated in soft saturation. This means base must be
given the carriers which are sufficient to drive the transistor in just saturation (quasi
saturation).
Power Electronlcs - Ill 2-25 for Power Devices
Fig. 2.2.5 shows, the circuit diagram to achieve quasi saturation. In this circuit the
base drive is applied at terminals a-b. We can write following equation for loop
consisting of a - D 1 - B - E- b,
+
+
Base
drive
Vee
bo-----------------
Flg. 2.2.5 Base drive with anti-saturation diode
Similarly for loop a - Das - C - Ewe can write,

Va,-c = VDas + VcE
Hence equating the two equations,
VD1 + VBE = VDas + VcE
Normally v Das= v01. Hence above equation becomes,
VcE = VBE
1his shows that the collector-emitter voltage will be equal to base-emitter voltage.
When BJT turns on, the base-emitter voltage is nearly 0.7 and collector-emitter
saturation voltage is 0.3. Because of anti-saturation diode ( v Das ) , the collector-emitter
voltage is 'l'aised to v 8 Et i.e. 0.7 V. Hence the BJT is no longer in saturation. It is just
above saturation. This effect takes place because of anti-saturation diode v Das . Since
BJT is above saturation, there are no excess carriers in base and its storage time is
reduced. This reduces 1t 0 ff' and hen.ce switching time. The collector-emitter voltage can
be further increased by putting additional diode in series of D 1.
Disadvantage of antl-eaturatlon diode
The collector~tter voltage is increased. This increases the on-state losses in BJT.
Drive and ProtJction Circuits
2.2.5 Typical Driver Circuit for Power BJT

Fig. 2.2.6 shows the typical driver circuit for power BJT that takes into
consideration all the earlier requirements.
+
Power BJT
Fig. 2.2.6 Typical driver circuit for Power BJT

• The drive from control circuit is given to driver circuit through optocoupler.
• The signal is amplified, buffered by the comparator and then given to ov8
current protection circuit. The collector voltage of main transistor is sensed
through diode Doc. If the collector current increases, then collector voltage
will rise. 'T itis rise is sensed by over current protection circuit to disable the
drive of BJT.
• The output from over current protection circuit is given to pair of pnp-npn
transistors T1 and T2 . These transistors provide the required base curent to
power BJT to drive it in saturation.
• Note that the collector voltage of power Bff is monitored through diode
DAS· This provide anti-saturation control. It is called backer's clamp. It
ensures that Bff always operates in quasi-saturation.
• Transistor T 1 provides large positive voltage and current to drive Bff in
saturation of quasi-saturation. and transistor T2 provides large negative
voltage and current for faster tum-off of BJT.
• The base-emitter wires of power BJT are twisted to minimize stray
inductance.
Review Questions
1. Give dijferm,t circuit configurations far base drive of B]T.
2. Draw the drive circuit far B]T. What is tmti-saturation control ?
2.3 Drive Circuit for MOSFET

The gate drive circuit for MOSFET should satisfy the following requirements :
(i) The gate-source input capacitance should be charged quickly.
(ii) MOSFET turns on when gate-source input capacitance is charged to sufficient
level.
(iii) To turn-off MOSFET quickly, the negative gate current should be sufficiently
high to discharge gate-source input capacitance.
Fig. 2.3.1 shows the gate drive as per above requirements. The gate drive is
applied across the terminals a-b. Initially the resistance R1 is bypassed by C1 and full
drive voltage is applied to the gate. This charges the gate-source capacitance quickly.
As the capacitor C1 charges, the gate current reduces. Once the MOSFET is turned on
required gate current is very small. When MOSFET is to be turned off, the voltage vH
is made zero. This applies capacitor voltage across gate-source in negative direction.
Therefore charge on the gate-source capacitance is removed quickly. C1 then
discharges through R1. The resistance R2 provides additional discharge path for
gate-source capacitance.
c,
b _ _ _ _ ___.__ _____......__ _ ___,
Fig. 2.3.1 Gate drive circuit
Review Questions
1. Explain the typical gate drive circuit for MOSFET.
2. Dnlw the gr,te drive circuit for MOSFF.T.
2.4 Driver Circuit for IGBT and MOSFET

Fig. 2.4.1 shows the driver circuit for IGBT which uses IR 2125 IC.
• Here IR 2125 is the high voltage, fast switching MOS gate driver with single
floating gate driver channel This IC can be used to drive N-channel power
MOSFET or IGBT. .
Power Electronics - Ill 2 - 28 for Power Devices
1 Vee Vs 8
I
t
I
,
-- I
I
IN
2 JN
R
2
Out
7 or -®
' \
;
I
1
3 Err Cs 6
2
-
5 Rs
4 Vss Vs 5
-- Load
Fig. 2.4.1 Driver circuit for IGBT
• Over current flowing through the IGBT is detected through Rs and Cs

terminal of the IC.
• The error pin of the IC indicates fault conditions.
2.5 Isolation of Gate and Base Drives
2.5.1 Necessity of Isolation
We know that driver circuits
operate at very low power levels:
Normally the signal levels are 3 to C
12 volts. Sometimes digital circuits t - - -
t
- - - - -,
and miaoprocessors are also used I

I
in the triggering circuits. The gate I
, Trigger
t
,v8 = 5 v
._
E
and base drives are connected to circuit ,
power devices which operate at
I I
high power levels. Fig. 2.5.1 shows
this situation. Observe that collector
L---- ---"
Fig. 2.5.1 Control / power levels
of BJT can have voltages of 200 V. But base is connected to trigger circuit that have
voltages of 5 V. If BJT is damaged and collector-base gets shorted, then high voltage
will get connected to mgger circuit'. This will damage the mgger circuit also. This
means mgger circuit is damage due to device damage. Therefore there must be some
electric isolation between control and power circuit. There is one more reason for
isolation. Consider that the mgger circuit is deriving the two devices as shown in
Fig. 2.5.2. Here observe that T 1 is given the drive between a-b. And T 2 is given the
drive between c-d. The mgger circuit must isolate the two drives. If there is no electric
isolation, the points b ' and 'd' may be shorted due to common ground of the trigger
circuit. Isolation can be obtained with the help of pulse transformers and optocouplers.
d o----------
Fig. 2.5.2 Isolation of grounds

2.5.2 Isolation using Pulse Tranafonner
Pulse transformer has one primary and one or more secondary windings. It is
normally used for pulsed mode of triggering Fig. 2.5.3 shows the isolation using pulse
transformer.
I
I
I
I
JUUt I
I
Pulsed drive I
I
o----' I .___ ___..._ _ _ _ _ _ _____.
Pulse
transfonner
Fig. 2..5.3 Electric Isolation using pulse transformer , ,.
In the above circuit, observe that triggering circuit is electrically isolated from BJT.
Hence if there is any electric damage to BJT, there will be no effect on triggering
circuit.
Advantages
i) Pulse transformer does not need external power for its operation.
ii) It is very simple to use.
Disadvantages
i) Pulse transformer saturates at low frequencies hence it can be used only for
high frequencies.
ii) Due to ma,gnetic coupling, the signal is distorted.
2.5.3 Isolation using Optocouplers

Optocoupler consists of a pair of infrared LED and phototransistor Fig. 2.5.4 shows
the symbol of optocoupler. When the signal is applied to the infrared LED, it turns on.
It's light falls on phototransistor. Therefore phototransistor also starts conducting.
There is no electric connection between LED and phototransistor.
r- -- -- ----- - ----- --,

I
I
Input Output
side side
L-----------------
Fig. 2.5.4 Optocoupler
Fig. 2.5.4 shows the triggering circuit that uses optocoupler. In this circuit the
mggering pulses are given to the input {LED) of optocoupler. When 'Vg' is positive,
LED turns-on. It's light falls on phototransistor. Hence it turns on Therefore base of T 1
is connected to zero volts through phototransistor. Due to this, T 1 turn&-on. Therefore
the voltage Vee is applied to gate of the MOSFET. Hence MOSFET turns on. When
Vg = 0, the LED ~ f f, therefore phototransistor also tum-off. Therefore base drive
of T1 goes to Vee and it tum-off. When T1 turns off, MOSFET gate voltage becomes
z.ero. Therefore MOSFET turns-off. Thus gate drive circuit using optocoupler works.
Power Electronics - Ill 2 -31 for Power Devices
+ 0-----'11/VV'\r-~
F1lg. 2.5.5 MOSFET triggering circuit using optocoupler

Advantages
1) Very good response at low frequencies.
2) Compact and cheaper optocoupler devices are available.
Disadvantages
1) Optocoupler need, external biasing voltage for their operation.
2) High frequency response is poor.
Applications
Inverters, SMPS, Choppers, AC motor drives use optocouplers.
Review Question
1. WhAt is tht necessity of isouition ? How it is implemented ?
2.6 Protection Circuits

Due to unpredicted changes in the load and supply voltages, fault conditions are
arised. Under these conditions, the voltage or current ratings of the power devices are
exceeded. Hence there is a possibility of damage to the power device. Such damage
can be avoided by using protection circuits. Following are the possible faults and
required protection circuits :
i) High rate of change of voltage across the power device is called d¾f This
normally turns-on the thyristor and damages BJTs. The value of d¾t can be
effectively reduced with the help of snubbers (RC circuit) and Metal oxide
varistors (MOV).
ii) High rate of change of current in the device is called d½r The spread of
current inside the device requires some time. If sufficient time is not given for
current spread, then localized hot spot is created in side the device. The device
is damaged due to this fault. The d½
t problem normally occurs in thyristors.
This problem can be avoided by putting the current limiting: inductor in series
with the device. The inductor limits rapid changes in the current.
iii) Overcurrent normally occurs due to variations in the load. Overcurrent causes
excessive heating of the device and it leads to damage. Fuses are normally
t used to limit overcurrents.
2.7 Protection Against dv /4t and Overvoltages

2. 7.1 Snubber Circuits (Tum-off Snubber)
The transient overvoltages can switch on the thyristor. In some cases the thyristor
can be damaged due to these transient voltages. These transient voltages are very
common when the converter is having inductive loads. The thyristors can be protected
against transient voltages by a RC network as shown in Fig. 2.7.1. lbis RC network is
connected. in parallel across the thyristor. It is called snubber circuit. The resistance has
the value of few hundred ohms.
Whenever there is a large spike
or voltage transient across the
thyristor, it is absorbed by the
RC circuit. The RC circuit
(snubber) acts as a lowpass filter
7 ( urrPnt 11rn.-,::)
:1 RC j1(.;tJI
R J 'l'J :•a:15 ":' ; l!-
1,~ryr·no :.1y
for this voltage transient. The
resistance has normally low value ' ,C ~.l~.obor
·so that the transient is absorbed C

by the capacitor quickly. Thus
the thyristor is protected against
voltage transients. The RC Fig. 2.7.1 A snubber (RC) network Is used for
snubber circuit is very commonly transient voltage protection
used for protection of thyristors
against transient voltages (high frequency voltage spikes).
Drive and !Protection Circuits
Power Electronics - Ill 2-33 for Power
.... Devices
dv
dt also generates large voltage
R ,D transients. These rapid voltage
I
variations can also, be suppressed by
snubber circuit. The capacitor acts as
f
C a short for these dv variations. The
dt
snubber can be made more effective
dv by connecting a diode across the
Fig. 2.7.2 Snubber is used for dt protection resistance as shown in Fig. 2.7.2
In case of voltage transient, the
current flows through diode and capacitor. The capacitor acts as a short for the
voltage transient. Thus it is suppressed. When thyristor turns-on, the capacitor
discharges through resistance R. The R, C and diode snubber is more commonly used
because it is very effective for !: and other voltage transients.
Design of snubber
The value of capacitor is given as,
2
C = _!_ l( 0.564 Vm lJ ... (2.7.1)

2L dv
dt
Here Vm is the peak value of supply voltage
dv . .a.L.
-
• .bl dv
is ule pemuss1 e -d .
dt t
Lis the source inductance.
And resistance is given as,
R=2cri ... (2.7.2)
Here a is the damping factor. It's value is normally taken as 0.65.

,. . Example 2.7.1 : Calculate the required parameters for snubber circuit to provide dv
dt
protection to a SCR used in single phase bridge converter. The SCR has a maximum ddv
~ t
capal:rility of 60 V I µ sec. 'fhe. input line to line voltage has a peak value of 425 volts
and the source inductance is 0.2 mH.
Solution : Givan :
dv
= 60V /~ c
dt
L = 0.2 mH
V111 = 425 V
From equation 2.7.1
2
2
C = _!_(l 0.564 Vm lj = 1
3
( 0.564 x 425 xl0- 6 )
2L dv 2 x 0.2xl0- 60
dt
= 0.04 µF
In the above equation observe that we have multiplied numerator by 10-6 inside
60
the brackets. It comes from 60 V I µs, i.e. to be substituted in equation for C.
l x lO- 6
Let the damping factor be CJ = 0.65. From equation 2.7.2
L 02x 10-J
R = 2 CJ C = 2 x 0.65
0.04 xl0- 6
R = 92 .Q
,_. Example 2.7.2 : Fen: the circuit shown in s

Fig. 2.7.3, the thyristor is operated at
2 kHz. The required !~ is 100 V/]'S. The
discharge current is to be limited to
100 A. Detennine +
V 1 = 200 V _
i) Values of R5 and C5 R=SO
ii) Snubber loss

L
iii) Power rating of R5
Load and stray inductances are negligible.
(Nov.-2007, 10 Marks) Fig. 2.7.3 Circuit of example 2.7.2
Solution : Given :
Load resistance, R = 5'2

Frequency, f = 2 kHz
\1s = 200 V
C
Power Electronics ,. Ill 2 - 35 for Power Devices
dv
= 100 V/µs
dt
Iro = 100 A
L = 0
i) To obtain values of R5 and C5
Rs limits the discharge current through T 1. From
Fig. 2.7.3, T1 - Rs -Cs forms a loop when T1 turns-on.
Rg
Prior to tum-on of T1, C5 charges to 200 V. Fig. 2.7.4
shows this situation.
From this figure we can write,
ves = Rs Im
Rs = ves = Vs = 200 = 2 Q Fig. 2.7.4 Path of lro
I ro Iro 100
The charging current of Cs can be expressed by I<VL to \'s - Rs - C5 - R - L loop as,
Vs = R5 ic (t) + ~ Jic (t)dt + vc (t = O} +Ric (t}

s
On solving above equation,
Here 't = (Rs +R}C5 and vc(t=O) = 0.
Hence the voltage across the SCR can be expressed as,

VT1 (t) = Vs -Ric (t)
R¼ _!.,
= Vs - Rs +Re 't
At t = 0, vr1 (0) = V: - R\'s Rs Vs

s Rs +R R 5 +R
and at t = 't, vr,l('t} = V _ RVs e- l = V: _ 0.3678RV5

s Rs +R s Rs +R
= ~ sVs + 0.6321 R\'s

Rs +R
dv
Now - can be expressed as,
dt
RsV:c; + 0.6321 RVs RsVs
dv = Vr/t) -vr1(0) _ Rs +R R5 +R
dt -r - ------- {R_s_+_R_)_
C_s-------
0.632 RV5
=
(Rs+ R) 2Cs
0.632RVs .:: 0.632 x5x 200 .:: 0.1289 µF
dv (R +R)2 1~(2+5)2
dt s lx 1
iii) To obtain snubber loss

The power stored in C5 is dissipated in R5 • Hence it is snubber loss
1 2
Ps = 2 CsVs fs
= ~ x 0.1289xlo-6 x 2002 x 2 xl0 3

= 5.2W
Ill) To obtain power rating of Rs

The power stored in Cs is disspated in Rs. It is 5.2 W. Hence power rating of R5
will be 5.2 W.
2.7.2 Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV~)

High d½t and transient over voltages can also be suppressed with the help of
Metal Oxide Varistors {MOV). MOVs are also called varistors or nonlinear voltage
dependent resistor. MOVs consists of metal oxide particles, which are separated by an
oxide film or insulation. When the applied voltage is less than specific value, then
MOV offers high impedence. When the applied voltage is more than specific value,
the oxide film becomes conductive and current starts flowing. Thus the voltage spike
is suppressed by the MOV. Fig. 2.7.5 shows the characteristics and symbol of MOV.
I
0
-~==....._=;:;;,,,"'--v
A
I
I
I
I
(a) Symbol of MOV (b) V-1 characteristics of MOV

Fig. 2.7.5
Drive and P'rotection Circuits
Power Electronics - Ill . 2-37 for Power Devices
In the Pig. 2.7.5 observe that voltage increases above point 'A', the MOV starts
condu~g heavily.
The current and voltage of MOV are related as,
I = KV«
Here K is the device constant and 'a' lies in the range of 30 to 40. ..
Normally MOVs are connected across the supply lines over which the voltage
transients are to be suppressed.
2.7.3 Improving dv/ dt Rating with the Help of Cathode Short

The Fig. 2.7.6 shows the modification in the structure of SCR to improve dv / dt
capability.
Cathode Gate
Anode
Fig. 2.7 .6 Shorted emitter structure
• The cathode metal)jzation is overlapped over the gate region, i.e. p region. It
is called cathode short.
• The SCR turns on by dv/dt mainly due to lateral flow of current in the p-type
region. This lateral current is intercepted in large amount mainly by the
cathode shorts. It does not flow across the gate -cathode junction but flows
directly to cathode.
• This intercept of lateral current improves dv/dt capability of the SCR
Review Questions
1. Explain the protection of power devices by snubber circuit.
2. Explain the :use of Metal Oxidt Varistors (MDV) for protection against ove-rvoltages and voltage
transients?
Unsolved Example
1. Calculate the requirtd parameters for a snubber circuit to provide reliable ~~ protection to a SCR
used in the single phase fully controlled bridge. The SCR has a maximum ~; aipability of 40 V/µs.
The input line to line ooltage has a peak value of 325V and the source inductance is 0.1 mH.
=
[Ana. : R 41 0 and C 0.1 µF]=
2.8 d¼t Protection with the Help of Inductor (Tum-on Snubber)

We know that at the time of tum-on, anode current increases rapidly. This rapid
variation of anode current doesnot spread across the junction area of the thyristor.
Tius ere.ates the local hot-spots in the junction and increases the jW'lction temperature.
If the junction temperature exceeds permissible value, then the thyristor is dama~.
The rapid variations of the thyristor current are also called di. Every thyristor has
dt
maximum permissible value of di.
dt
The •hyristor can be protected. from excessive di by using an inductor in series as

dt
shown in Fig. 2.8.1. The inductance opposes for rapid current variations ( ~:)
Whenever there is rapid current variation, the inductor smooths it and protects the
thyristor from damage.
L
di
Fig. 2.8.1 An Inductance in series with the thyristor provides protection against cit
The value of inductance can be calculated as,
L ~ Vs ... (2.8.1)
di
dt
Here :! is the maximum value and L is the series inductan.c e including stray
inductance.
>.. Example 2.8.1 : Design the snubber circuit elements Rs and Cs connected across the
SCR given that dv (max) = 180 V I µ s and di (max) =
45 A I µ s. An inductance
dt dt
L = 0.1 H and a resistance R<< R5 are in series with the SCR with a 300 V DC
applied to the circuit.
Solution : The value of di is given. Hence let us determine the required value of
dt
series inductance. From equation 2.8.1, it is given as,
L ~ ~:
dt
di
Here V5 = 300 V and dt = 45 A/µ s. putting these values in above equation,
300
L ~
45 I 10-6
~ 300 10-6
45 X
~ 6.667x10-0 H
This inductance includes stray inductance also. There is an inductance of 0.1 H
(given) in series with the SCR Since this is more than 6.667 x 10-- 6 H, there is nc need
to connect extra inductance. Thus :! pr~t:ection is obtained through existing 0.1 H
inductance. The capacitance of the snubber is given by equation 28.1. as,

2
C= _1
2L
[0.564dv Vml
dt
Here Vm = 300 V, dv = 180 V/µ s and L = 0.1 H. Hence above
dt
equation becomes,
= 2x10.1 [0.564x300]
2
C
180 / 10-6
2
= 1 [0.564 X 300 X l0-6]
2 x 0.1 180
= 4.418 x 10- 12 For 4.418 pf

The resistance ot the snubber is given by equation 2.8.2 as,
R = 2al
Here o = 0.65 (damping factor) and p u tting values of Land C calculated earlier,
R = 2 x 0.65 O.l
4.418 xl0- 12
= 195.58 kn
It is mentioned in the example that series resistance is very very small than
snubber resistance. Hence it can be neglected. Fig. 2.8.2 shows the snubber circuit.
R = 195.58 kO
C = 4.418 pF
Fig. 2.8.2 Snubber circuit of example 2.8.1
,_. Example 2.8.2 : The capacitance of the reverse biased junction J2 in a thyristor is
25 pF and can be assumed to be independent of the off-state voltage. The limiting value
of the charging to turn-en the thyristor is 16 mA. Determine the critical value of~;.
Solution : The current through the junction / 2 capacitance is given as,
dQ
l = dt
d
= dt (C i2 Vh)
Here C ; 2 is capacitance of / 2 and

Vh is voltage across / 2
dCh dVh
l = V · --+C12
· -- ... (2.8.2)
12 dt dt
dC ·
The capacitance is independent of the off-state voltage. Hence __fl_ = 0. Hence
dt
above equatkn will be,
I =
Here V;i is the voltage across J2, This voltage is nearly equal to applied voltage V.
Hence,
dv
i = Chdt ... (2.8.3)
dv l
dt
= Ch
Here i = 16 mA is the limiting value of charging current and
= 25 pf. Therefore above equation becomes,
16x l0- 3
=
2Sx10-12
= 6.4 x108 V /sec= 640 V / µ s

. 'cal value of dt'
. the cnti
This is dv
,. . Example 2.8.3 : Calculate the required parameters for snubber circuit to provide !:
PTOtection to a SCR used in a single phase bridge converter. The SCR has a maximum
dv capability of 60 V I µ s. The input line to line voltage has a peak 'Dalue of 425·volts
dt
and the source inductance is 0.2 mH.
Solution : Given :
-dv
dt =
60 V/µ s
vm = 425 V
L = 0.2mH
We have to calculate the values of Rand C for the snubber. From equation 2.8.i,
capacitor is given ais,
Drive and P1
rotection Circuits
2
. 1
C = 0.564Vm]
2L dv
dt
Putting the values in above equation,
2
C = 1 [0.564 x 4.25] = 0.04 µ F
2 x 0.2 x l(,3 60x l06
And the value of resistance is given by equation 2.8.2 as,
R = 2oi
Value of a is normally taken as 0.6.5. Putting for Land C,
R = 2 x 0.6.5 O.Zx l0-3 = 92 Q

0.04 x 10-6
Thus we obtained the values of snubber components as,

R = 92 Q and C = 0.04 µ F
, . Example 2.8.4 : The junction capacitance of the thyristor shown in. Fig. 2.8.3 is 15 pF
and is assumed to be independent of the off-state voltage. The value of charging cu"ent
to tum-on the device is 5 mA and the critical value of dv = 200 V/ µs. Determine the
dt
value of C5 so that the thyristor will not be turned on due to dv.
dt
R
+
Solution : Here the junction capacitance of the thyristor and external capacitance (C5 )
both will absorb the effect of dv. These two capacitors will be in parallel. Hence
dt
charging current can be given as (using equation 2.8.3),
The charging current should not exceed 5 m.A. Hence above equation becomes,
5 mA ~ (C +C1·)dv
s dt
SmA
or Cs +Cj 2:
dv
-
dt
Sxl0- 3
2:
2oox106
2: 25 pF
Thus the total capacitance should be more than 25 pF. Out of this, C; = 15 pF. i.e.,
C5 + 15pF 2: 25 pf
Cs 2: lOpF
Thus external capacitance of at least 10 pF is required to avoid false triggering due
dv
t0 cit'
, . . Example 2.8.5 : DtSign the TJalues of di inductor and RC snubber components for an
dt
SCR working in a 230 V system. Given !!
rating is 90 A / µ s and !; rating is
200V/ µs. Effective series resistanc.e is 1.5 Q Tau damping factor is as 0.6.
Maximum voltage, \'s = 230 V
di
dt = 90 A/µs
dv
dt ... 200 A / µ s
Series resistance R5 = 1.5 '2
Damping factor <J = 0.6

The circuit diagram will look like the one shown below
L
+
Let us calculate value of inductance for :~ protection. From equation 2.8.1 it is

given as,
Vs
di
dt
230
~
90x106
= 2.556x lo-6 H \
L = 2.556x1o-6 H = 2.556 µH
Since there is no stray inductance given, this value of inductance h'lUSt be
£ di .
connected ,or dt protection.
Now the value of capacitance C can be calculated from equation 2.8.1 as,
C; ;L[o.s;vm r
Putting value in above equation,
2
C = 1 [0.564x230]
2 X 2.556 X 10- 6 20() X 106
= 0.08229 µF
In Fig. 2.8.4 observe that the resistance R5 and snubber resistance R are in series.
These two resistors affect the charging rate of snubber capacitor. Hence, equation 2.8.2.
must be written as,
Power Electronics - Ill 2 - 45 for Power Devices
(R5 +R) = 2a /g
,-------
(l.5 + R) = 2 X 0.6 2.556 X to-6
0.08229x lo-6
... R = 5.18 Q
Thus the snubber components are,
R = 5.18 '2, C = 0.08229 µ F and L = 2.556 µ H
,. . Example 2.8.6 : A SCR circuit operates from 300 V DC supply, has series inductance
of 4 µH. A resistance of 4 n and capacitance of 0.2 µF is connected across the SCR.
dv di .
Calculate the safe dt and dt ratings of SCR.
Solution : Here the given data is,
Vm = 300 V
L = 4µH
R = 4'2
C = 0.2 µF
The value of series inductance for :: protection is given by equation 2.8.1 as,
L > Vs
- di
dt
Here V5 =Vm =300 and L = 4 µ H . Hence ~ve equation becomes,
4 µH ~ 3::
dt
di 300
= -4-x-10--6 = 75 A/ µ s
dt
The value of snubber capacitor is given by equation 2.7.1 as,
C= ;L[o·s;Vm r
~
0.2 X 1{)"0 = 2 X 4 10-6 [ 0.564 30()ii r
dv
dt = 133.76 V/ µ s
,_. Example 2.8.7 : An SCR can be triggered with a !~ of 220 V I µ s. If the charging
current flowing through the junction is 5 mA, calculate the equivalent capacitance of
depletion layer.
Solution : Equation 2.8.3 gives the charging current as,
. C dv
l = j2 dt
Here i is the charging current and C ji is the equivalent capacitance of depletion

layer. Putting values in above equation,
I
sx10-3 = Cj 2 x 220xl0 6
... Cj2 = 22 pF
di dv
,. . Example 2.8.8 : A SCR has a dt = 120 A Iµ s and a dt of 300 V Iµ s. It operates on
a 250 V DC source with a load resistance of 10 n. Find the suitable values far the
·components of the snubber circuit. ·
di
= 120 A/µ s
dt
dv
= 300 V / µ s
dt
Vm = 250 V
Ri = l 0 Q
The value of inductance for :~ protection is given by equation 2.8.1 as,
L ~
vm
di
dt
...
250
L ~
12ox 106
L ~ 2.08µH
Power Electronics .. 111 2-47 for Power Devices
The snubber circuit capacitor is given by equation 2.7.1 as,

2
C = 1 0.564Vm
2L dv
dt
2
C = 1 [0.564 X 250]
2x 2.08 x 10- 6 300x 106
= 0.053 µf
Here note that the load resistance is Rt =10 Q . This resistance appears in series
with the snubber resistance. Hence the snubber resistance given by equation 2.7.2 can
be given as,
R+Rt = 2cr./f
Let the damping factor CJ = 0.65. Putting other values in above equation,
R+lO = i x0.6S 2.08 x lo-6

0.053 x l0--6
... R = -1.856 Q
The negative snubber resistance indicates that the load resistance is more than
sufficient for snubber action. There is no need
to connect additional snubber resistance.
Review Question
1. How the devica an pro~cted against d½t ?
2.9 Overcurrent Protection

2.9.1 Fuse
Fuse The overcurrents flow in the thyristor
- circuits due to short circuits. The short

circuits can take place because of short
circuitted load, misalignment of firing
pulses, failure of the thyristors due to
overvoltages etc. The short circuit currents
can be protected automatically because of
Fig. 2.9.1 Fast acting fuse Is used to load or supply transformers appear in the
protect thyristor against overcurrent
Power Electronics - Ill 2-48 ·f or Power Devices
circuit. However the thyristors must be protected against overcurrents in the circuit.
Normally fast acting fuse are used for the protection of thyristor against overcurrents.
These fuse melt at comparatively lower currents than current rating of the thyristor.
Thus fuse melts and disconnects the circuit and the thyristor is protected. This is
shown in Fig. 2.9.1 . The fuse should be selected such that it should not melt or
disconnect the circuit at normal load currents.
2.9.2 Semiconductor Fuses

Fig. 2.9.2 shows the internal Quartz sand Notch
Ceramic tube---,
structure of the semiconductor
fuse. The fusing element is made
of silver with one or more notches
as shown in the Fig. 2.9.2. The
cross section of the fuse at the
notch is less. When heavy current
flows through the fuse, there is MounUng Fusfng1element
lug
high current density at the notch.
Because of high current density, Fig. 2.9.2 Cross section of semiconductor fuse
temperature rises at the notch and
arc is developed. This arc reduces tlu: current flow. Therefore high voltage is formed
across the notch. This further increases the temperature. Therefore the fuse element is
vapourized and arc length is increased. Due to increased arc length, the current
further reduces. At some stage the current is zero and the fuse becomes open. There is
no arc and the complete voltage appears across the fuse. Note that the fuse has to
withstand the voltage in open condition. The fusing element is embedded in quartz
sand. This helps to conduct heat and serves as a quenching medium for the arc at the
time of fusing.
Current
current versus time
characteristic for fuse. At
the peak let through
value of the current,
arcing starts at the
notches in the fuse. This
time is called melting
time tm. After tm, the
arcing starts at notches
and current begins to
reduce. The time 'ta' is Fig. 2.9.3 Fuse current with respect to time
the total arcing time. At
the end of ta, fuse current is zero and it is completely open. The sum of tm and t0 is
called clearing time (tc) of the fuse. At the peak let through current, the 12 t value of
the fuse must be less than J 2t value of the device being protected. Therefore fuse
protects the device before reaching to prospective fault current value.
Normally semiconductor fuses are used in series with each d evice being protected.
Fig. 2.9.4 shows the placement of semiconductor fuses for single phase converter.
·'' 0L
A
D
,
•• I
__________
.... .__
Fig. 2.9.4 Placement of semiconductor fuses for 1q, converter
Review Question
1. Explain the u,orking of semiconductor fuse. How it protects the device ?
2.10 Cooling of Semiconductor Devices

Power is dissipated across the device due to switching and on-state conduction.
This power heats the device. Hence its jwtction temperature increases. It is necessary
to keep the junction temperature of the device within the specified limit, otherwise the
device is damaged. The heat dissipated across the junction can be taken away with the
help of heat sinks. The heat sink provides greater area for heat conduction . The
cooling of the heat sink can take place by natural convection, forced air, liquid or
vapour phase cooling. ·
2.10.1 Concept of Thennal Resistance

The heat transfer from the device can be expressed by following equation,
p = AT ... (2.10.1)
Re
Here Pis the power disssipated in device

AT is the temperature difference between junction and ambient
R 8 is the thermal resistance to heat flow.
Here note that power/heat is dissipated at the junction of the device. This heat is
carried to the case through the encapsulation. The resistance offered to the flow of
heat is called thermal resistance.
2.10.2 Thermal Model of a Power Device

Now let us construct thermal model of the power device which is mounted on the
heat sink. Fig. 2.10.1 shows such model.
Fig. 2.10.1 Thermal model of a power device
In the above model, 'P' is the dissipated power at the junction. This power is
conveyed in the form of heat to the ambient.
Tj is the junction temperature
T, is the case temperature
T5 is the sink temperature
Ta is the ambient temperature
Ra , is the junction to case thermal resistance.
1
R 8cs is the case to sink thermal resistance.
R9sa is $e sink to ambient thermal resistance.
Here total Re will be,
Ra = Raj, + Recs + R9sa
and AT = TJ· - Ta
Hence equation 2.10.1 can be written as,
T · -T
P = J a ... (2.10.2)
Rojc +Recs +R9sa
Power Electronics • Ill 2 -51 for Power Devices
The thermal resistance normally depends upon the area of the device or sink. It is
related to area by following equation,
1
Re = kA ... (2.10.3)
Here 'A' is the area of the heat sink and 'le is the heat transfer coefficient.
For high frequency switching, reverse recovery losses are also added to the
conduction loss. The reverse recovery loss in watts/pulse is given as,
I= VQ
•
Here 'V' is the reverse voltage applied to the device after turn-off 'Q' is the
reverse recovery charge.
Then the reverse recovery average power loss will be given as,
Prr=lf=VQF ... (2.10.4)
Here 'f is the pulse frequency of the device.
,_ . Example 2.110.1 : Determine the junction temperature for the thyristor which is
dissipating the average power of 120 watts and Raj, = 0.15 °C/W, R 8C$ = 0.075 °C/W
and Rasa = 0.45 °C/W.
Solution :
Here P = 120 W
RaJC. = 0.15 'C/W
Raes = 0.075 C:C/W
Raso = 0.45 'C/W.
Assume ambient temperature as Ta = 35 °C consider equation 2.10.2,
T·-T
J a
p =
ReJC- +R 8CS +R,L
"5tl
Tj = P(Rejc +Recs +Rasa)+Ta

Tj = 120(0.15 + 0.075 + 0.45) + 35
= 116°C
Thus the junction temperature of the device will be 116 °C.
.,,.... ...
,,_. Example 2.10.2 : A power transistor develops a power loss of 3.42 watts and is
mount~d on a square heat sink. Transistor is linearly derated from 20 °C to 200 °C at
40°C/watt. Calculate the sink temperature.
Solution :
Power dissipation, p = 3.42 W
T1 = 200 °C
Tz = 20 °C
Re = 40 "C./Watt
p = T1 -Tsink
Re
200-Tsink
3.42 = 40
Tsink = 63.2 °C
,. . Example 2.1 0.3 : The maximum junction temperatur'! of the thyristor is 150 °C.
Thermal resistance for the thyristor-sink combination is 0.015 °C./W and 0.08 "C./W.
Determine the total average power loss in the thyristor-sink combination if the heat sink
temperature is 60 °C. If the heat sink temperature is reduced to 50 °C by forced air
cooling, find the percentage increase in t.he device rating.
Solution :
Here Ra js = 0.015 + 0.08 = 0.095 °C/W
p = T j -Ts = 150-60 = 947.36 W

Rejs 0.095
With forced air cooling T5 = 50 °C. Hence power dissipation will be,
P = l~~~;o = 1052.63 W
Thyristor rating is proportional to square root of the average power loss.

Hence,
01c • • th . t tin ✓1052.63 - ✓947.36
mcrease m yns or ra g= ✓
947 36
o .
=5.4 %
Thus thyristor rating increases approximatly by 54 % due to forced air cooling.
1-+ Example 2.10.4 : A power device is used in a circuit and has the fallowing data
Total steady state thennal impedance of 0.3 "C/W
Transient thermal impedance of 0.05 "C/W for 100 ms
T;(~ax) = 125 °C and Ta = 40 °C
What power loss the device can withstand following a steady state power loss of 200 W?
Solution : To calculate junction temperature for steady state operation
T; -Ta
p =
Ra;a
Here Ra;a = 0.3 "C./W Ta = 40 °C and P = 200 W, then above equation will be,
T J· -40
200 =
0.3
T·J = 100 °C
Thus in steady state the junction temperature will be 100 °C.
To calculate power loss for transient operation
In steady state, the junction temperature is 100 °C. The maximum. junction
temperature that the device can withstand is 125 °C. The transient thermal impedance
is 0.3 "C./W. The the power dissipation will be,
p = T;cmax) -T; = 125-100 = SOO W

Ra(transient) 0.05
Thus the transient power dissipation can be increased to 500 W for 100 ms.
,_. Example 2.10.5 : Fig. 2.10.2 shows the switch waveform of the device.
The duty cycle is 0.5 and switching frequency is 1 kHz. A power of 1000 W is
dissipated when the device is ON. No power is dissipated when the device is off. The
thermal impedance from junction to case is 0.035 "C/W when the device is on, and it is
0.025 "C,JW when the device is off. Plot the difference temperature between junction and
case.
0.5 1 1.5 2 t (ms)

Fig. 2.10.2 Switching waveform of the device
Solution :
= {0.035 °C / W when device is on
Here Rajc
0.025 °C I W when device is off
p = {1000 Wwhen device is on

0 when the device is off
We know that, p = ll.T

Re
t::,.T
At 0.5 msec, 1000 =
0.035
ll.T = 35°C
For 0.5 ~ t ~ 1 msec there is no power dissipation from the device but available
heat due to preceding 1000 W is reduced. Hence we can write,
At 1 msec, -lOOOx 0.025+ 35 °C = ll.T
ll.T = 10 °C
Similarly at l.5 msec,
l0OO x 0.035+ 10 °C = ll.T
ll.T = 45 °C
At 2 msec, -1000 X 0.025 + 45 °( = flT
ll.T = 20 °C
Thus the difference temperature goes on increasing. Fig. 2.10.3 shows the plot of
difference temperature.
Fig. 2.10.3 Plot of junction to case difference temperature
Copyr ght ma r al
Review Question
1. ~ t is the concept of thermal resistance ? Erplain its model.
Unsolved Example
1. The power device has the steady state thermal resistance of 0.625 °C/W. The case temperature is
100 °C. The device auries a DC current of 25 A and voltage drop of 2 V. Determirie its junction
temperature. [Ans. : T = 131.25 °C)
1
2.11 Types of Cooling

We have seen that the heat is transmitted from device to the heat sink. Heat sink
dissipates more heat due to its increased area. Normally heat sinks have fins to
increase area. The heat can be dissipated into ambience from the surface of the heat
sink by following ways :
i) Natural convection
ii) Forced air cooling
iii) Liquid cooling
iv) Vapour phase cooling
Let us now study these techniques in detail.
2.11.1 Natural Convection

The heat sink surfaces have some treatment to support heat transfer by radiation
and natural convection. Copper fins are plated or painted. Aluminium fins are
normally painted or anodiz.ed. Presently most of the heat sinks used are black
anodized. The surface of heat sink under the device is free of paint or anodization.
This gives minimum contact thermal resistance. The heat can move &om heat sink to
ambience naturally due to temperature difference. The equation of heat transfer is
given as,
Q = hA (T1 - T2 )
Here Q is the heat rate
his the convection heat transfer coefficient
A is the area available for convection
T1 - T2 is the temperature difference.
Natural convection is used when there is not much heat dissipation from the
device. Normally the devices are mounted in the open air. The heat exchange takes
place due to natural flow of the air. Natural convection is more effective when area of
the heat sink is more.
2.11.2 Forced Air Cooling

The circulation of air over the fins of heat sink can be increased with the help of
fans or compressors. The hot air is taken away from the heat sink fins with the help
of cooling fan. Therefore heat convection is fast and cooling of power device is more
effective. The heat rate is similar to that of natural convection. But the heat transfer
coefficient now depends upon,
h = 11.2 i x lo-4 W I in 2 °C
Here v is free steam linear cooling air velocity across fin surface.
l is length of the fin parallel to air flow.
Above equation shows that heating is more effective if air flow is more. Presently
almost all the equipments right from computers to power supplies use forced air
cooling. The exhaust fans are mounted on the equipments, then remove hot air. Forced
air cooling is always better than natural convection.
2.11.3 Liquid Cooling

The power devices can also be cooled with the help of liquids. Normally oil or
a
water is used as coolent in liquid cooling. Liquid cooling can be of two types :
i) Oil-immersed natural cooling and (ii) Forced liquid cooling.
1. Oil-immersed natural cooling : In the oil-immersed natural cooling the heat
sink assembly is immersed in oil tank. The heat is transferred from the device
to the heat sink fins and then to the oil. The heat is the transferred from the
oil to tank surface and then to the atmosphere. The tanks also have fins on
their surface. Hence the heat transfer from tank to atmosphere is also
increased.
1. Forced liquid cooling : The liquid flows at some velocity around the heat
sinks assembly. The liquid normally flows in a closed loop system. After
passing over the heated device and heat sink, the liquid gets hot. Then it is
passed through the narrow fins of the tank. These fins are open to the air.
Therefore liquid gets cooled through the fins. Then again it is passed over the
device. Forced liquid cooling is more effective. Water is not used as a liquid
coolent, since it has corrosion problem. Other liquids like ethylene glycol-water
60% by weight, ethylene glycol 100 % and mineral oil like mobiltherm 600 are
normally used for forced liquid cooling.
Section B· B
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.11.1 Liquid cooling
Fig. 2.11.1 shows the forced liquid cooling heat exchanger.

Fig. 2.11.1 (a) shows the section of Fig. 2.11.1 (b) when it is cut along B-B.
Fig. 2.11.1 (b) shows the vertical cut view of the device and the shaded area shows the
passage for liquid. Observe that the liquid surrounds the complete device. It enters
from one side and leaves the other side.
Relationahlp between llquld flow rate and thennal resistance •
'-.....The thermal resistance of heat sink is inversely proportional to rate of liquid flow.
Fig. 211.2 shows the relationship.
0.1
Re
~
0.04 0.1 1.0 10.0 Liquid flow

gal /min
Fig. 2.11.2 Thermal resistan. . Vs liquid flow

The thermal resistance of the liquid cooled heat sink is much less compared to
thermal resistance of copper heat sink.
2.11.4 Vapour Phase Cooling
Vapour phase cooling is normally used for high power devices. The heat produced
by the device evaporates the liquid. This vapour then flows to the condenser. The
condenser again converts the vapour to liquid and sents it to the device. Fig. 2.11.3
shows an arrangement for vapour-phase cooling.
--► Vapour
Condensed
liquid --►
Fig. 2.11.3 Vapour phase cooling
The hermetically sealed copper tubing is used to transport liquid to and vapour
from the device. Freon 113 is used as the coolant because it boils at 47 °C. It is
chemically inert and nontoxic. It has good dielectric constant.
Advantage• of vapour pha•e coollng
i) Heat is exchanged through flow of vapour. Hence overall thermal resistance is
reduced.
ii) Heat is uniformly spread or dispersed over large area condensor. Therefore
thermal resistance is reduced.
iii) The thermal ~tance can be made lower than 0.075 °C/W.
iv) The condenser and device can be placed at distance from each other. Hence
equipment cabinet can be more compact.
Disadvantages
i) Additional condenser unit is required to condense the vapour to liquid.
ii) Overall cost of the cooling system is more.
Review Question
1. Explain various cooling methods for por«r deuias. Comport liquid cooling and vapour phase
cooling.
2.12 Series and Parallel Operation of Thyristors
2.12.1 Necessity of Series and Parallel Connection

Series connection of the devices is often required to increase the overall voltage
rating. For example the thyristor is to be operated at 1000 volts. But we have
thyristors of rating 600 volts. Then the circuit can be implemented by connecting two
thyristors in series.
Similarly parallel connection is used to increase current ratings. For example,
CWTellt in the circuit is 80 A. But we have a thyristor of rating 50 A. Then the
problem can be solved by connecting two thyristors in parallel as shown in Fig. 2.12.1.
Titls makes the current sharing among two thyristors and each one carries
8
2
°
= 40 A.
Thus series and parallel connections are most widely used to cater the need of higher
voltage and currents.
80A
T1 T2
0 [>F° 0
l>F° 0
40A 40 A
f - 600V . I. 600V •I T1
1200 V
•I
(a) Serles connection (b) Parallel connection

Fig. 2.12.1 Serles and parallel operations
2.12.2 Serles Connection of Thyristors
2.12.2.1 Problems Encountered in Series Connection

When the thyristors are connected in series, they have small differences in their
ratings. For example Fig. 2.12.2 shows the V-1 characteristics of two thyristors of same
ratings. Observe that there are minor differences between the characteristics. Forward
break-over voltages, internal resistance, leakage current etc are not exactly same. The
thyristor with highest internal resistance will have minimum leakage current Hence
high voltage will appear across it in off state. This creates voltage imbalance in the
series connection. Hence equalization is necessary in the series conn.e ction.
•l
"
....
• I
Difference in
/ forward break over
//voltage
==============--
--:.,:..-:_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-- - - # - - - - - - - - - - VAK
0
Fig. 2.12.2 Two thyristors of same rating have slightly different characteristics
2.12.2.2 Equalizing Components
Let us consider that 'n' number of thyristors are connected in series. An equalizing
resistance 'R' is connected across each thyristor as shown in Fig. 2.12.3. Let us ass~
that T1 has maximum internal resistance in off state. Hence its leakage current I o 1 is
minimum. Let the internal resistance of other devices is same. Hence their leakage
current is also same, i.e. I Di current 11 flows through R. Since other thyristors have
same intemal resistance, current through their parallel resistors will be same, i.e. 12•
From above circuit we can write,
r •
Iot + 11 = 102, +12
12 = 11 - IDt -102,
= 11-ll.lo ... (2.12.1)
.___---'\AN~---~----'\AN'----...___________......___ __,\J\.l\h------1
R 12 R 12 R
Fig. 2.12.3 Static equalization clrcuH
Drive and Protaction Circuits
Power Electronlcs -111 2-61 for ~OMr Devices
Here fl. ID
is the difference in leakage currents of two thyristors. Voltage aaoss T1
is VDi = 11, R and voltage across T2, T3' . .. Tn is same, i.e. 12 R. Therefore we can
write,
Vs = 11 R+I2R(n-l) = Vot +(n-1)1 2 R
Putting for ½. from equation 2.12.1,
Vs = VDi +(n-1)(1 1 -6I 0 )R
= V01 +n11 R-n6I 0 R-11 R+A.10 R
= V01 +nVDi -V01 -(n-l)A.1 0 R

= nVDi -(n-l)M 0 R
VD) = v, +(n-:)ll.J0 R I ... (2.12.2)
Maximum value of V0 1 will occur when M O is maximum. Value of R can be

obtained from above equation as,
nV0i-Ys
R = ... (2.12.3)
(n-1)61 D
2.12.2.3 Dynamic Equalization ClrcuH

We studied the equaJiz..ation when all thyristors are in forward blocking state.
There can be some difference in the tum-on and tum-off times of the thyristors. When
bigger is given to all the thyristors, they start turning-on. Higher voltage will appear
aaoss the thyristor which turns-on late. Hence its maximum voltage rating may be
exceeded. This problem can be overcome by dynamic equalizing circuit Fig. 2.12.4
shows the dynamic equalizing circuit. It is R-C circuit across each thyristor. Static
etittaliution resistors are also shown in this circuit. An R-C circuit is placed across
each thyristor. C 1 provides the equalization during tum-on and tum-off. Resistance R1
is used to limit discharge current of C 1.
c, R1
.....
R R R
Fig. 2.12.4 Complete equallzatJon c:lrcutt
Value of C 1
We know that the relationship between charge on the capacitor, voltage on the
capacitor and value of the capacitor is,
Q
V = C
If V is AV, then,
AQ
AV = c
. . V. +(n-l)AJ 0 R
Consider equation 2.12.2, V ot = 5 n
If AQ indicates the difference in charge stored in C 1 and C 2 , then AV will indicate

the voltage difference across T 1 and T 2 . Hence we have AV = A I O R. Therefore above
equation becomes,
Vs +(n-l ) AV
=
n
. V AQ . .. (2.12.4)
Smce A = Ci,
This equation gives the voltage imbalance across T 1 . Value of C 1 can be obtained
as,
.. . (2.12.5)
Derating factor of the string

The derating factor (D) indicates the amount by which string is derated. It is given
by
% D = [1- Vs ]xlOO .. . (2.12.6)

nV~
String efficiency (Tl)

String efficiency indicates the amount by which the string is u tilized. It is given as,
% Tl = (1-D)xl00 . .. (2.12.7)
= Vs xlOO ... (2.12.8)

riV01
Drive and Protectiofl Circuits
Power Electronics - Ill 2 - 63 ·f or Power Devices
,_. Example 2.12.1 : How many SCRs are required in a series string to withstand a DC
voltage of 3500 volts in steady state, if the SCRS have steady state voltage rating of
1000 V and steady state derating factor of 30 % ? Assuming maximum difference in
leakage current of SCRs to be 10 mA, calculate the value of voltage sharing resistances
to be used. Draw the circuit showing the SCRs and the voltage sharing resistances.
[August-2004, 6 Marks)
Solution : Given data
Vs = 3500 V
Vol = 1000 V
%D = 30
Alo = lOmA
i) To obtain number of SCRs
By equation 2.12.6 we have,
% D (1-
= Vs ] x 100
nV01
... 30 = [1 - 3SOQ ]
n x1000
X 100
n = 5
ii) To obtain voltage sharing resistance
By equation 2.12.3 such resistance is given as,
R = nVo1 -Vs _ Sxl000-3500

(n-l)alo - 4x1ox10- 3
= 37.5 kn
The circuit will be similar to Fig. 2.12.3 having 5 SCRs in series and each resistance of
37.Skn.
,_. Example 2.1 2.2 : A 3 cl> converter is used for HVDC transmission system and ;s
operated from 3 4> 25 kV supply. Thyristor each of 1600 V/16 A are available. The
forward leakage cu"ent difference of the device is 35 mA. The string efficiency can be
assumed to be 85 % and ~ Q max = 25 µC.
a) Determine the number of devices to be connected in series.
b) Equalizing cm_nponents
r
,~
Power Electronics -111
2-64 for Power Devices
Solution :- Given data

,f,
V1me = 25 kV
... V, = PIV = ~ x V line
= ~x25 kV= 35.35 kV.
VDt = 1600 V
A ~ = 25µC
Alo = 35 mA
String efficiency, Tl= 0.85
a)To obtain number of devices
Form equation 2.12.8,
11 = Vs
nVDt
Vs _ 35. 35xl0 3
... n
=
flVDt - 0.85x1600
= 26
b) To obtain equallzlng components
Value of R is given by equation 2.12.3 as,
R = nV01 -Vs
(n-1)61 0
26x1600-35.35x10 3
=
(26-1) 35 xio-3
= 7.142 kQ
Value of C1 is given by equation 2.12.5 as,
' (n-l)AQ (26-1)25xl0-6
Ct = nVDt -Vs = 26x1600-35.35x10 3
= 0.1 µF
2.12.3 Parallel Connection of Thyristors

We know that parallel connection of thyristo~ is used to cater higher current
demands.
2.12.3.1 Problems Occurred In Parallel Connection

The devices used in parallel connection do not have exactly similar characteristics.
The thyristor carrying higher current will have more power dissipation. This will
increase its temperature and reduce the internal resistance. Therefore the current
further increases. This process continues till thyristor damages.
2.12.3.2 Equalizing Arrangements

Heat sharing can be done by using common
heat sinks for all the devices. This will maintain
all the devices at same temperature.
Static Cu"nit Sharing
Fig. 2.12.5 shows the static current sharing
arrangement. Two resistors connected in series
with the thyristors.
R1 and R2 try to equalize the currents
through T1 and T2 • But power dissipation in R1
and R 2 is very high.
Fig. 2.12.5 Static current sharing
Dynamic Cunent Sharing

Fig. 2.12.6 shows an arrangement for
dynamic current sharing. The inductors are
placed in series with thyristors. These inductors
are magnetically coupled. But they are
connected in opposite direction. Hence if
current in T1 tries to increase, then a voltage of
opposite polarity will be induced in L2 . This
increases the current in T 2 . Thus current
balance is maintained.
Fig. 2.12.6 Dynamic current sharing
□□□
(2 - 66)
Single and Three Phase
AC/DC Converters
Objectives
• Principle of con.trolled redi/ication.
• Single phase and 3 phase conuerters.
• Half wave and full waue converters.
• Bridge converters --r--+ semiconuerter
• L...__. full bridge conuerter
• Resistiue, inductive and motor (RLE) loads on converters.
• Continuous and discontinuous output current operation and its effects.
• Inverting operation (power flow from load to source) in case of full conuerters.
• Effects of feedback diode and freewheeling operation.
• Harmonic analysis of converters.
• Effed of source inductance.
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Principle of AC/DC Conversion (Controlled Rectifier)

• Controlled rectifiers are
+
basically AC to OC converters. AC Controlled
supply Load
The power transferred to the rectifier
load is controlled by controlling
triggering angle of the devices. ex
Fig. 3.1.1 shows this operation.
Control
circuit
Fig. 3.1.1 Principle of operation of

a controlled rectifier
(3 • 1)
Power Electronics -111 3-2 AC/DC Converters
• The triggering angle 'a' of the devices is controlledc,y the control circuit.
• The input to the controlled rectifier is normally AC mains. The output of the
controlled rectifier is adjustable DC voltage. Hence the power transferred
across the load is regulated.
Applications :
The controlled rectifiers are used in battery chargers, OC drives, . DC power
supplies etc. The controlled rectifiers can be single phase or three phase depending
upon the load power requirement.
3.1.2 Concept of Commutation

• Definition : Commutation is the collective operation, which turns of the
conducting SCR.
• Commutation requires external conditions to be imposed in such a way that
either current through SCR is reduced below holding current or voltage
across it is reversed.
• There are two types of commutation techniques.
Commutation
Natural Forced
Current commutation Voltage rommutalion
Fig. 3.1.2
• Forced commutation : It requires external components to store energy and it
is used to apply reverse voltage across the SCR or reduce anode current
below holding current of the SCR to turn it off.
• Current commutation : The SCR is turned off by reducing its anode current
below holding current.
• Voltage commutation : The SCR is turned off by applying large reverse
voltage across it.
• Principle of line commutation
The natural commutation does not need any external components. It uses supply
(mains) voltage for turning off the SCR. Hence it is also called as line commutation.
'
Power Electronics - Ill 3.3 AC/DC Converters
• Explanation
Fig. 3.1.3 shows the circuit using natural commutation. It is basically half wave
rectifier. The mains AC supply is
applied to the input. The SCR is
triggered in the positive half cycle at a .
Since the SCR is forward biased, it
Mains AC
supply rv R
starts conducting and load current i 0
starts flowing. The waveforms of
currents and voltages are shown in
Fig. 3.1.4. Since the load is resistive,
Fig. 3.1.3 A hatf wave rectifier uses natural
. Vo
commutation to tum off SCR 1
0
=R-
Hence the shape of the output current is same as output voltage. Observe that the
output current is b e~sically SCR current. At '1t' the supply voltage is zero. Hence
current through SCR becomes zero. Therefore the SCR turns off. The supply voltage is
then negative. This voltage appears across the SCRs and it does not conduct. Thus
natural commutation takes place without any external components. Here note that
natural commutation takes place only when the supply voltage is AC. Thus the
controlled rectifiers use natural commutation.
Fig. 3.1 A Wavefonns of half wave controlled rectifier to Illustrate natural

commutation
Copyright ma r al
Review Questions
1. Explain the principle of n11tural commutation. How it is used in controlled rectifiers ?
2. Explain the basic principle of phase controlled operation.
3.2 Single Phase Half Wave and Full Converter

3.2.1 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with Resistive Load
The principle of phase controlled operation can be explained with the help of half
wave controlled rectifier shown in Fig. 3.2.1. The secondary of the transformer is
connected to resistive load through thyristor or SCR T1. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the mains supply. In the positive cycle of the supply, T1 is
forward biased. T 1 is niggered at an angle a. This is also called as triggering or firing
delay angle. T 1 conducts and secondary
(i.e. supply) voltage is applied to the load. + .
Current iO starts flowing through the load. r, 'o
The output current and voltage waveforms R
11
are shown in Fig. 3.2.2.
Since the load is resistive, output Fig. 3.2.1 Half wave controlled rectifier
current is given as, with R-load.
- Vo
io - 1f
Hence the shape of output current waveform is same as output voltage waveform.
At 1t supply voltage drops to zero. Hence current i O £lowing through T 1 becomes zero
and it turns off. In the negative half cycle of the supply T1 is reverse biased and it
does not conduct. There is only one pulse of v O during one cycle of the supply. Hence
ripple frequency of the output voltage is,
/ripple = 50 Hz i.e. supply frequency
The average value of output voltage is given as,
1 T
v o(av) = T J Vo (cot) d cot
0
The period of one pulse of v O (cot) can be considered as T = 2 1t • And
v O (cot) = Vm sin oo t from a to 1t. For rest of the period v O (cot) = 0. Hence above
equation can be written as,
1 7t •
Vo (av) = 2
1t J Vm sm wtdwt
a
= Vm [ - cos cot]1t
2n a
Power Electronics - m 3-5 AC/DC Converters
Fig. 3.2.2 Phase control principle as applied to half wave controlled rectifier
... vo (av) = ~; (1 + cos a) ... (3.2.1)
The power transferred to the load will be,

vi
_ o(av)
Po(av) - R
Thus the output average voltage and power delivered by the controlled rectifier
can be controlled by phase control (i.e. a). The phase control in converters means to
control the delay (or triggering) angle a.
Power Electronics - Ill 3-6 AC/DC Converters
3.2.2 Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

Now let us study the operation of
is single phase half wave controlled rectifier
+
io for inductive {RL) load. Normally motors
T1
are inductive load. L is the armature or
R field coil inductance and R is the
vs rv Vo
resistance of these coils. Fig. 3.2.3 shows
L the circuit diagram of half wave
controlled rectifier with RL load.
The SCR will be forward biased in the
Fig. 3.2.3 Half wave controlled rectifier positive half cycle of the supply. Hence
with RL load
SCR is applied with the firing pulses in
the positive half cycle. The waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.2.4. Fig. 3.2.4(a) shows the
supply voltage and Fig. 3.2.4(b) shows the firing pulses to the SCR.
Fig. 3.2.4 Waveforms of half wave controlled ractffler for RL load
Copyrighted rn r al
When the SCR is triggered, the supply voltage appears across load. We normally
neglect small voltage drop in SCR. Hence v O = v5 when SCR is conducting. This is
shown in Fig. 3.2.4(c). Observe that output voltage is same as supply voltage after a.
Because of the RL load, output current starts increasing slowly from zero. The shape
of i 0 depends upon values of Rand L. At 7t, the supply voltage becomes zero and i 0
is maximum. Due to negative supply voltage after n, SCR tries to tum-off. But energy
stored in the load inductance generates the v~ltage L di O • 1his induced voltage
dt
forward biases the SCR and maintains it in conduction. This is shown in Fig. 3.2.S.
The basic property of inductance is that it opposes change in current. At n, the
current i O is maximum. As SCR tries to tum-off due to negative supply voltage, the
output current i O tries to go to zero. Such change in i O is opposed by load inductance.
Hence the energy stored in an inductance tries
to maintain i0 • To maintain the flow of i 0 ,
inductance generates the voltage Ld~; with
polarity as shown in Fig. 3.2.5. This voltage is
higher than negative supply voltage. Hence T 1
Vs~
is forward biased and it remains in conduction. +
The output current and supply current flow in
the same loop. Hence i O = is all the time. The
waveform of i 0 is shown in Fig. 3.2.4(,j) and i5
is shown in Fig. 3.2.4(e). After 1t, i 0 (i.e. i5 ) Fig. 3.2.5 SCR conducts due to
flows against the supply. Hence energy is Inductance voltage after 1t
consumed in the supply. i 0 flows due to load inductance energy. In other words, the
inductance energy is partially fed to the mains and to the load it self. Therefore
energy stored in inductance goes on reducing. Hence i O also goes on reducing as
~own in Fig. 3.2.4(d). At~ the energy stored in the inductance is finished. Hence i0
goes to zero. Therefore T 1 turns-off. In Fig. 3.2.4(c) observe that v 0 is negative from 7t
to 13. Because T1 conducts from 7t to J1 Hence whenever T1 conducts v 0 = Vs -
The SCR is triggered again at 21t +a. Hence output voltage remains zero from ti to
2n +a. Output current as well as supply current are also zero from ~ to 21t + a. At
2n +a, T 1 is triggered again and the cycle repeats. Here i 0 goes to zero at p. Hence
this 'is called discontinuous conduction.
,_., Example 3.2.1 : Derive an expression for average value of output volt.age for 1 t half
war,e controlled rectifier with RL load.
Solution : For discontinuous conduction, the output voltage waveform is shown in
Fig. 3.2.4(c). The output voltage waveform repeats at the period of T = 21t . The
average value is given as,
Power Electronics - Ill 3-8 ACIDC Converters
IT
= T Jv 0 (cot)drot ... (3.2.2)
0
In Fig. 3.2.4 observe that,
v 5 = Vm sin mt from a top
v 0 (rot) =
{0 from O to a and P to 2 7t

1 p
Vo(av) =
2
7t JVm sinrot drot
a
V
... =
2
; (coscx - cos~) ... (3.2.3)
This is an expression for average value of output voltage.
3.2.3 Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode

Now let us consider the half wave
controlled rectifier with freewheeling diode
+
across the RL load. This circuit diagram is
shown in Fig. 3.2.6.
R
The SCR is triggered at firing angle of
a in positive half cycle of supply. Hence
L
v O = v5 • The waveform of v O is shown in
Fig. 3.2.7(c). Observe that from a to 7t , v0
Fig. 3.2.6 Freewheeling diode in half is same as supply voltage Vs • The
wave controlled rectifier freewheeling diode (D FW) is reverse biased,
hence it does not conduct. The output
CWTent f 0 increases from zero as shown in Fig. 3.2.7(d). This is shown in equivalent
circuit-I in Fig. 3.2.7. See Fig. 3.2.7 on next page.
After n, the supply voltage becomes
negative. Hence SCR tries to tum-off.
I
, ,,..-----
.
o
1
.... ...
\ Therefore i O mes to go to zero. Observe
I
I
t I
I
that i O is maximum at 7t • But the load
I I
I I inductance does not allow i O to go to zero.
I
f iFW
i
llo I
:
The energy stored in inductance generates
\, I
the voltage L di O with polarity as shown in
_____ .,✓
dt
Fig. 3.2.8.
Fig. 3.2.8 Freewheeling action In half
wave controlled rectifier
--... ,-, 1.0

'I ; \
I
I
'
I
R \
I
R
I I I
I I I
___ .,II L L
I
'----------
\
..
, ,'
I
Equivalent circuit - I EquJvalent circuit • n
Fig. 3.2.7 Wavefonns of half wave converter with freewheeling diode

The induced inductance voltage forward biases freewheeling diode as well as SCR.
But freewheeling diode (DFW) is more forward biased. Hence it starts conducting.
Therefore T1 turns-off. The output current now flows through the freewheeling diode.
In above figure observe that i O = i FW when freewheeling diode conducts. He!e i FW is
freewheeling current. Fig. 3.2.7(d) and (e) shown that i0 = i FW when freewheeling
diode conducts. The freewheeling current flows only due to energy stored in the load
inductance. The output current flows in the load itself. Thus inductance energy is
supplied back to the load itself. This process is called freewheeling. If load energy is
fed back to the supply (mains), then it is called feedback. The energy of inductance goes
on decreasing after 7t • Hence i 0 also goes on reducing. At~ the inductance energy is
finished. Hence i 0 becomes zero at ft Thus freewheeling diode conducts from 7t to t3.
The output is shorted due to freewheeling diode. Hence v O = 0 whenever freewheeling
diode conducts. This is shown in Fig. 3.2.7(c) also. During freewheeling T1 is off.
Hence no supply current flows. Therefore is = 0 during freewheeling period. T1
conducts from ex to 1t . Hence i0 = is from ex to 1t as shown in Fig. 3.2.7.
, . Example 3.2.2 : Derive an expression for average value of output voltage for 1 41 half
wave controlled rectifier for RL load and freewheeling diode.
Solution : Fig. 3.2.7(c) shows the output voltage waveform. From this we can write 1
Vs = Vm sin rot from ex ton

Vo =
{ 0 from O to ex and 1t to 2 1t
The period of v O is 2 7t . The average value is given as,

1 n
Vo(av) =
1 T
T Jv 0 (rot) drot = 1t
2
f Vm sm. rot drot
0 (X
= Vm [-cos oot]
21t
V.
V o(av) = : (1 + cos ex] ... (3.2.4)
2
Here note that average output voltage is same as that of resistive load given by
equation 3.2.1. 'This is because output voltage waveforms are same in both the cases.
>
• Example 3.2.3 :
to 10 '2 load from
A single phase half wave controlled rectifier is used to supply power
230 V, 50 Hz supply at a firing angle of 30". Calculate - i) Average
output volta~e ii) Effective output voltage iii) Average load current.
R = 10 !l, V5 = 230 V
1t
ex= 30°= -
6
i) To obtain average output voltage Vo(av)
The load is resistive. For this load V o(av) is given by equation 3.2.1 as
Power Electronics -111 3 -11 AC/DC Converters
V:
= ; {l + cosa)
2
= 2301t.fi. ( 1 +cos 1t)

2 6
= 96.6 V
ii) To obtain effective output voltage Vo(nns)
The rms value is given as,

1
Vo(rms) =
l
[!
T
T
v;(rot) drot
]2
From the output voltage waveform of Fig. 3.2.2 we can write,
1
Va(nns) = [ 2~ ! 2
VJ sin rot drotr
cos2rot drot] r
1
1
= Vm [l- a+ sin2a]2 ... (3.2.5)
2 1t 21t
This is an expression for effective rms value of half wave controlled rectifier.
230-.fi.
Vo(rms) =
2
= 160.27 V
Single and Thrae Phase
iii) To obtain average load cunent Io(av)

The Io(av) can be calculated as,
Vo(av)
Io(av) =
R
= 96.6
10
=9 .66 A
, . . Example 3.2.4 : A single phase half wave converter is operated from a 120 V, 50 Hz
supply and the load resistance R = 10 n If the average output voltage is 25 % of the
maximum possible average output voltage calculate -
i) Delay angle a ii) The rms and average output currents
iii) The nns and average thyristor currents iv) The input power factor.
Supply voltage Vs = 120; hence V m = ..fi. x 120 = 169.7 V, Load resistance R = 10 n
Average output voltage Vo<w> = 25 % of Vo<w> maximum
i) To obtain delay angle ex
The average output voltage of half wave converter is given by equation 3.2.1 as,
V o(av) = ~; (1 + cosa)
Vo<ao> will be maximum at ex = 0. Hence above equation will be,
V: V.
V = _!!!..(1 + cos O' = ---1!!.
o('10)m11X 27t ' 7t
= 1697 = 54 V
7t
It is given that the average output voltage is 25 % of its maximum v_

alue. i.e.,
V o(av) = 25 % of Vo(ar,)mu
= 0.25 x 54 = 13.5 V
Consider again equation 3.2.1,

~. V:
Vo(av) = ; (1 + cosex)
2
1697
13.5 = 2n (1 + cos a)
Solving above equation for a,

a = 2.09 radians= 1200 ,
Single and Three-.phase
Power Electronlcs - Ill 3 -13 AC/DC Converters
ii) To obtain rms and average output currents

Average value of output current is given as,
Vo(av)
R
= 1:05 = 1.35 A
The rms value of output voltage is given by equation 3.2.5 for half wave converter.
i.e.,
1
= Vm [l - a.+ sin 2a]2
2 1t 21t
1
= 1697
2
[t -209 +
1t
sin(2 X 209)]
21t
2
,..
= 37.718 V
Hence rms output current will be,
Vo(rms)
Io<muJ = R
= 37~18 = 3 _77 A
ill) RMS and average thyristor currents

The waveforms of half wave converter are given in Fig. 3.2.2. There is only one
thyristor and output current flows through this thyristor. Hence thyristor current is
same as output current. Therefore rms and average values of thyristor current will be
same as these of output current. i.e.,
!T(IITJ) = Io<w> = 1.35 A

and Ir<rms> = Io<rms> = 3.77 A
iv) To obtain input power factor
Since the load is resistive, the rms value of load current will be same as rms value
of supply current. Note that the same current flows in supply and load. i.e.,
ls(rms) = lo(rms) = 3.77 A
The total supply power will be,

Total supply power = Vs<rms> Is(rmsJ
= 120 x 3.77 = 452.4 VA
Power Eltctronics -111 3-14 AC/DC Converters
The active load power will be,

v~av)
Active load power = R
(13.5) 2
= 10 = 18.225
... Power factor

= Active load power
Total supply power
= 18.225 .
452. 4 =0.04 (lagging)
, - . Example 3.2.5 : for a single phase half wave converter having resistive load of 'R'
and the delay angle of ~ , determine
i) Rectification efficiency ii) Form factor
iii) Ripple factor
iv) PIV rating of thyristor
Solution : Given data,
1t
a =
2
V:
Vo(av) = 2
;(1+cosa)
= ~;(1+cos~)=0.159Vm
= Vo(av) _ 0.159Vm
I o(av) R - R
= 0.353 Vm
= Vo(rms) _ 0.353Vm
R - R
Power Electronlcs - Ill 3-15 AC/DC Converters
i) To obtain rectification efficiency

Pde _ V o(nv) • I o(nv)
11 =
Pac - Vo(nns) Io(rms)
= 0 .159Vm x O.l~Vm
= 0.2028 or 20.28 %
0.353Vm x 0. 3S;Vm
ii) To obtain form factor

FF = V~m1s) = 0 .353Vm = _
2 22
Vo(nv) 0.159Vm
Ill) To obtain ripple factor

RF = ✓FF2 -1 = ✓(2.22) 2 - 1 = 1.982
iv) To obtain PIV rating
.
Peak value of supply voltage appears across SCR in negative half cycle. Hence
PN = Vm.
3.2.4 Single Phase Full Wave Converter with Resistive Load

The full wave converter rectifies both, positive as well as negative half cycles of
the supply. Fig. 3.2.9 shows the circuit diagram of the full wave midpoint converter.
A T1
Vo ...
v$
N R lo
T2
Fig. 3.2.9 Circuit diagram of full wave midpoint converter

Operation : In the positive half cycle point A is positive and T 1 is forward biased.
Hence it is triggered at a . The supply voltage appears across load as shown in the
waveforms of Fig. 3.2.10. At '1t ' the SCR T1 turns-off and r 2 gets forward biased since
point 'B' is more positive. At 7t +a, SCR T2 is triggered and it starts conducting. The
supply voltage is applied across the load (inverted) as shown ~ waveforms.
Power Electronics - Ill 3 -16 AC/DC Converters
Supply ..1--
voltage __,.....--,..----+------l---'11r---+----+---,ijf----+-------+---...--cot
vs
Output --
voltage - _______ _.__ __ ,_
Vo /
wt
I
-+--
I
Fig. 3.2.1 O Waveforms of full wave midpoint converter

The ripple frequency is /ripple = 100 Hz, since there are two pulses in one cycle of
supply. Average output voltage can be obtained as,
1T
Vo(av) = T fv (rot)drot
0
0
In Fig. 3.2.10 observe that, output voltage waveform repeats at T = 1t . Hence,
Vo(av) = _!.. 1tf vm sin rot drot

7t
= Vm
7t
(1 + cos a)
a
3.2.5 Single Phase Full Wave Converter with Inductive Load Circuit
Diagram
Pig. 3.2.11 shows the circuit

diagram of single phase full
wave converter with inductive
+ load. The load current is
modified because of inductive
load.
B
T2
Fig. 3.2.11 1 t full wave converter with RL load
Operation and Wavefonns

• T1 is triggered. at a .
Therefore supply voltage
appears across load. The
output current increases
from some minimum -i Output
voltage~....-41--+--'._.....-+--~-+---+--'!i---ti--__,.-+-
value. Depending upon ' Vo
the values of R and L,
current will rise. The
current will be maximum 1
at 1t • This operation is Output
shown in Fig. 3.2.13 (a). -I current
I io
• The supply voltage
reverses at 1t, but load _J__~ -~
inductance generates the Supply--t---~=-.......:.--- t - --t--,..-::1;i- c-i!-'-'--t--+j
voltage Ldid; such that T 1 1 cu~ent 1--+--+--.--+----+--1-----,1--...._+-~M--

•s
t J
is forward biased. Thus -!-

- - - - - - - - -1----1- -+------
(e)
even though supply
1
SCRT 1
voltage is negative, T 1 current- t-~--+---+---t~-.---+-...,.._-+--..-t -,
remains ON due to ir
1
forward bias imposed by .J._.__ __..__.____. l ..L... __ l
'
voltage generated in load

Fig. 3.2.12 Waveforms for RL load
inductance. The
equivalent circuit for this
operation is shown in
Fig. 3.2.13 (b). Since +
energy stored in load is +
used, the output current
goes on reducing &om 1t
to 1t +a.
• At n+a, T2 is triggered (a) For <l to 7t (b) For 1t to 7t + a
and similar operation Fig. 3.2.13 Equivalent circuits for conduction of T1

takes place.
The average value of output voltage is given as,
1 T 1 1t+O'.
Vo(au) = T fv 0 (rot) drot = 7t f Vm sin (rot) drot
0 a
2V.
= ~ cosa
7t
Sln1gle and Three Phase
Power Electronics - Ill 3 -1 8 AC/DC Converters
And rms value of output voltage is given by,

1
V o(rms) = [1T !vt (rot) drot]2

T
= [1" [v,; sin

n+a
2
rot drotr 1
= [ !
V,72 •+n1-cc;2rot drot r 1
= [vir
V.
-- J2m -- V.s
Thus the rms value of output is same as that of supply voltage.
Unsolved Example
1. Explain the operation D/ 1~ half wave converter with the help of circuit diagram and waveforms.
. 3.3 Single Phase Semlconverters (Half Bridge Converter)

The semiconverter is also called as half bridge converter.
3.3.1 Circuit Diagram

Fig. 3.3.1 shows the +
circuit diagram of single io
phase semiconverter. Observe is
that the semiconverter has 230 V, 50 Hz 1
Vo R
AC supply
two SCRs T1 and T 2 . There
are two diodes D 1 and D2-
The input is 23Q V1 50 Hz D2 o, j
AC supply. The output V0 of
the semiconverter is DC. The
Fig. 3.3.1 Circuit diagram of 1 ~ semlconverter
load 'R' is connected across
the output.
Power Electronlcs -111 3 -19 AC/DC Converters
3.3.2 Working with Resistive Load

Let us consider the working of lcj) semiconverter having resistive load. In the
positive half cycle of the supply, SCR T 1 and diode D2 are forward biased. SCR T1 is
triggered at firing angle a. Current flows through the load. The equivalent circuit is
shown below.
D1 __
I\.. )
I
Fig. 3.3.2 Conduction of T1 and D1 In positive half cycle of the supply. Dotted llne
shows path of current flow
From the above figure, it is clear that, when T1 - D 1 conducts,
V0 = Vs {i.e. supply voltage) ... {3.3.1)
and ... {3.3.2)
Fig. 3.3.3 shows the waveforms of this circuit. The waveform of v O is same as
supply voltage v5 , when T1 -D1 conducts. Since the load is resistive, the output
current waveform is same as voltage waveform. This is because,
. Vo
I
o
= -R
Thus amplitude of v O is only reduced by the factor ' R' to give i O • But the shape of
the current waveform does not change. In the Fig. 3.3.2 observe that i T t is the SCR T 1
current, and is is the supply current. Basically i 0 , i n and is is the same current.
Hence,
10 = i5 =ir1 (when T1 - D1 conducts)
These currents are in the same direction and flow in the same loop. The
waveforms of these currents are also shown in Fig. 3.3.3. See Fig. 3.3.3 on next page.
5CR T1 and diode D 1 conduct till 1t. at 1t supply voltage is zero. Hence current
through SCR T 1 drops to zero. Hence T 1 turns-off. After 7t, the supply voltage is
negative and T1 is reverse biased. Hence the output voltage v 0 is also zero.
Fig. 3.3.3 Waveforms of semlconverter with R-load

At 1t + a, SCR T2 is triggered. It starts conducting, since it is forward biased
because of negative cycle of the supply. The current i 0 flows through load, T2 and D 2 .
Such equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3.4.
Power Electronics - Ill 3 -21 ACIDC Converters
,· ... -~ ...........
+
D
·...... ~ ·• . ...................: ...,
Fig. 3.3.4 Conduction of T2 -D2 In negative half cycle of the supply.

Dotted line shows path of current flow
From the above equivalent circuit observe that positive of v 5 is connected to
positive of v 0 • Hence v 0 remains positive even if supply polarity (i.e. negative cycle) is
reversed. Hence we can write,
Vo = -Vs ... (3.3.3)
Vo - Vs
and 'o =- R
- - -
R
... (3.3.4)
In Fig. 3.3.4 observe that current through T2 flows in the same direction as i 0 •
Hence ir2 =i0 • Simillarly i0 and i 5 is the same current, but their directions are opposite
as shown in Fig. 3.3.4. Hence,
. .
1s = - o
1
The waveforms of all the currents and voltages are shown in Fig. 3.3.3. At 2n, the
supply voltage is zero. Hence T2 turns off. After 2 7t T2 is reverse biased. Then T1 is
triggered again at 27t +a and the complete cycle repeats.
,. . Example 3.3.1 : For the 1♦ semiconverter having resistive load of 'R' determine thP.
following :
i) Average output voltage V0 (av)
ii) RMS output voltage Vo(rms)
Solution : I) Average output voltage :

The average output voltage is given as,
1 T
v o(av) = T f Vo ( rot) d rot
0
Observe the waveform of output voltage in Fig. 3.3.3. It has a period n. Hence
above equation can be written as,
1 1t
Vo (av) = 1t J Vm sin rot drot
a
In the above equation v 0 (rot)= Vm sin rot from a to 7t. Solving the above
integration we get,
r------------,
v o(av) = ~l (1 + COS a) ... (3.3.5)
ii) RMS output voltage :

RMS output voltage is given as,
V(,ms) = [~
0 ! vJ (rot) drof 2
1
Va(rms) ;= [ !!v.~ sin rot drof

2
{¥ I[1-cos?rot)]amf
1
... Va(rm,) = { ~ [II-ex +½sin 2 ex r1
... (33.6)
This is the required derivation for rms value of output voltage.
3.3.3 Working with Inductive (R-L) Load

Normally the semiconverters are used to drive the DC motors. These motors are
basically inductive (R-L) load. Hence it is necessary to consider the working of
semiconverter with R-L load also. With the inductive load, the three modes are
possible :
i) Continuous load current
ii) Discontinuous load current
iii) Continuous and ripple free current for large inductive load.
3.3.3.1 Continuous Current Mode

In this mode, the current flows continuously in the load because of inductive
effect. The waveforms of load current and load voltage are shown in Fig. 3.3.5. In
these waveforms observe th.at SCR T 1 and diode D 1 conducts from a to 1t. Since the
load is inductive current keeps on increasing (saturating) and it is maximum at n . At
•
Fig. 3.3.5 Waveforms of 1+ semlconverter for continuous load current

1t,eventhough the supply voltage is zero, current ~oesnot go to zero. This is because
load inductance opposes this sudden change of current. The load inductance generates
a large voltage so as to maintain load current. This current flows through T1 and D2 .
The equivalent circuit of this operation is shown in Fig. 3.3.6. The SCR T 1 conducts
even after n, since it is forward biased due to voltage induced in the load inductance
Fig. 3.3.6 Freewheeling action takes place through T1- D2
i.e. L :!- Diode D 2 is also forward biased due to this voltage. Hence current does not
flow through supply i.e. i 5 when freewheeling action takes place. Thus the energy
stored in the load inductance is fedback to load itself in freewheeling action.
SCR T2 is triggered at 1t +a and the output current starts increasing. Since the
current i 0 is continuous, it is called continuous current mode of semiconverter. The
similar operation takes place when T2 and D2 conducts in negative half cycle of the
supply. Fig. 3.3.5 shows supply current (is), freewheeling current and other
waveforms for inductive load. Note that the output voltage waveform remains same.
If there is freewheeling diode in semiconverter, then freewheeling current flows
through this diode.
Average value of output voltage with Inductive load
Compare the output voltage waveforms of Fig. 3.3.3 (resistive load) and Fig. 3.3.5
(inductive load). The voltage waveforms are same. Hence average and RMS values of
output voltage are also same. i.e. for inductive load,
From equation 3.3.5 I V0 ( av) = ~ (1 + coo a) I .. (3.3.7)
From equation 3.3.6 ½

Vo(nns) = { ~; [ " - a + sin 2 a ]}2 ... (3.3.8)
3.3.3.2 Discontinuous Current Mode

In this mode, the current through the load becomes zero for some duration. Hence
it is called discontinuous current mode. Fig. 3.3.7 shows the waveforms of
discontinuous current mode of semtconverter. (See Fig. 3.3.7 on next page.).
As ·shown in above waveforms, T1 - D 1 conducts from a to
and the load current
1t
i0 goes on increasing. At n supply voltage is zero. But because of inductance, i 0

does not go to zero. The load inductance induces a large voltage Ld~: to maintain
~ !I !l'ltti 1~:,;.. "''':t. ,:tit=, ~-l · .tl,f.'· .,. !. . ·- ·~ r,t! " ' " ·.¢ "·'; ~:~ · ·· i :cr, ,h! f:'-_ if l: I;(' •:-~ il
.....'i'j
.• , • . . ·•• , :!::' Ill ·'• 't . " if: - t " I..:'!, n: ._. '- / ;i;. ~l' •·· I:..
~ Iii !'# m''it-~- ,,.-- li:t; 1ilL i'."" ;,. !li,· ;, ~ • ,;1 .:111 }1 · r r;;,tt,.i ..- ;j:iii!f: "' . . ~it.. 1, 0 ~, ,f
t! ;;,; J,r'lJ:t :j'!.; t~"i fl~ J ff '- J¥ · I "! 1 tf 'l fl ::t ~ 0 1'ffi[tll1 (g: 1' ~ a,:'.E.' .;;~• f
• t !Ii ·rm i ; ~ w· 1
· ' '" 1-,. :, ~~ &,h'h"- ~<;i;i :, ~ , 1:t; v .f
1-.; n: ~ Output • • t'. t ~ • .~ ~ -~ 11 \. ;~~'.'" , ~ \ t :.: ,:;;: 11'.1•1.: 1,_ 1:
,... !t· voltiQ• •·· , ~fi! '.rt , - ' =m or S ., • , , ~- • IF :f' - .m i..,·
I ~ wa~ ~t u ~,¥ili_11rc •~Cl :~i."; 2lf ; fiw. ~;:1 1.j tr:·; :~~0 1.,-:~± a-
r:!¥ ..;lh;: t!!±,~l!:,ui ~ 1,,1,ll,i.'Jt', " ,... , 1 11,· ,.J. .if"'· _,; , . 3f•~•,-• 1• ·
=!:ili,- ••• ,~ ;:-:: m ~ .n C ! -~ • ·t, .f I;; If f!ij W' • •4 ,.ii,, .c:; < ,f.i
~ 11 f 'fl 1'1f ::; IJZ , '< ••,;; •~ [ ;, :i,~j_ '"'~1.- ,/f.;, .Jt; " 'i •· I~
="' -""' ;tt '!J: ~ ~ - - ,, ctl:t ~ "'· •. "' = '
Fig. 3.3.7 Discontinuous mode of single phase semiconverter

current in the same direction. Hence i O continuous to flow and it goes to zero at ~
Since next SCR T2 is triggered at ff + a (See Fig. 3.3.7}, output current is discontinuous.
Freewheeling takes place from ff to J3_ The freewheeling current flows through T1 and
D 2 . Similar operation repeats in next half cycle.
'
Observe that the voltage waveform remains same in discontinuous mode also.
Hence V0 ( av) and V 0 ( RMS) are same as that of resistive load.
3.3.3.3 Continuous and Ripplefree Current for Large Inductive Load

As the load inductance increases, the ripple in i0 reduces. When the load
inductance is very large, the ripple in i 0 will be negligible. And i 0 can be treated as
continuous and ripplefree. Fig. 3.3.8 shows the waveforms of 1♦ semiconverter for
large inductive load. The load current is continuous and ripple free. Observe that the
output voltage waveform is same as resistive load. But the cw-rent waveforms are
different
The output current is constant OC of amplitude I c(.av)· The SCRs conduct for
1t radians. Hence SCR current is square wave. The supply current has the amplitudes
of ±I<(av) · The supply current is :r.ero whenever freewheeling action takes place.
Copyright ma al
Slngle and Three Phase
Fig. 3.3.8 Waveforms of 1 ♦ semiconvertar for highly Inductive load
,_., Example 3.3.2 : Derive an expression Jqr output current for RLE load driven by 1♦
semiconverler. Assume continuous conduction.
Solution : Fig. 3.3.9 shows the circuit diagram of 1 ♦ semiconverter for RLE load.
(Fig. 3.3.9 see on next page).
Normally., the RLE load is motor load. L is the inductance of the motor and R is
the resistance of the inductance. Eis an induced emf in the motor. The waveforms of
this circuit will be similar to those shown in Fig. 3.3.5. From a to 1t, T 1- D1 conducts
Cop rght al
Power Electronics • Ill 3-27 AC/DC Converters
Fig. 3.3.9 A 1♦ semlconverter driving RLE load

and supply voltage v 5 is applied to the load. Hence an equivalent circuit will be as
shown below :
For
a ton
Fig. 3.3.10 Equlvalent circuit when T1- D1 or T2 - D2 conduct

By KVL in above circuit we get,
Vm sinmt = Ri 0 1(mt)+L dio~~rot) +E
This equation can be solved using laplace transform. The solution is,
R
. ( )
101 rot =
. (cot-8) +1. {O) e-t-L - R
Vm sm E ... {3.3.9)
2 01
Here Z = ,JR2(CJ>L)2
8= tan- ~L) 1(
i 0 1(0) is initial current at rot= a .

From 7t to 7t + ia freewheeling takes place. T1D2 conduct in this duration. The
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3.11.
Copyr ghtod ma r al
Po'W'8r Electronics - Ill 3-28 AC/DC Converters
For
1t to
n+a
Fig. 3.3.11 Freewheeling action In T1D2 or T2 D1

By KVL to this circuit we can write,
. ( t) L di o2 (rot) E - 0
R '02 co + dt + -
This equation can be solved using laplace transform. The solution is,
R
-t- E R
-t-
i02(rot) = i 02 (0)e L - R (1-e L) ... (3.3.10)
Here i 02 (0) is the initial current at rot = 1t • In the waveforms of Fig. 3.3.10 and
Fig. 3.3.11 observe that,
=
io2(0) io1(0>t =1t)} ... (3.3.11)
and i 01(0) = i 0 2(c.ot =a)
Putting the above two conditions in equation 3.3.9 and 3.3.10 we can get the initial
values. Then _ two currents i 01 ( rot) and i 02 ( rot) are separately expressed for /
semiconverter.
)• Example 3.3.3 : For a 1<1> half bridge converter having highly inductive lOlld, derive the
following :
i. Fourier ~ for supply current
ii. Fundamental component of supply current
iii. RMS value of supply current.
Solution : I. To determine fourler series
The general expression for Fourier series is given as,
00
i5 (mt) = l s(av) +L Cn sin(nmt + t,.)

n=l
and
Copyr ghted ma r al
Powar Electronics - Ill 3-29 AC/DC Converters
2T
Here an = T J i (rot)cosnrot drot
5
2 21t
f
= 1t i5 (rot)cosnmt drot
2
0
From the supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8 we can write,
an = fn[i a
Ic(av) cosnrot dwt+
2
f
n+a
(-Io(_av))cosnootdrot]
=
1
";v>[1
a
cos nrot drot -
2
f
n+a
cos nwt drot]
I<(av)
= ---sinna{l-cosmt}
mt
"l
... an =
-
21
mt
c(av) sin na. for n =1,3,5, ........ l ... {3.3.12)
{
0 for n = 2, 4, 6, ....... J
The above equation shows that a11 is zero for even harmonics of supply current.
b11 is given as,
T
bn = ~ Ji 5 (rot)sin nrot drot
0
Putting values of T = 21t and i5 (rot) from supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8,
.
b11 =
2
7t
[1tJ Io(_av)sinnrotdrot+ inJ (-Ic(av))sinnC1>tdrot]
2
a n+a
=
1
~v> [1
a
sin nrot dmt - f
n+a
sin nmt dwt]
I ct.av)
= --(l+cosna)(l-cosmt}
nn
... for n =1,3,5, ....... . ... (3.3.13)

forn =2,4,6, ..... ..
The above equation shows that bn is zero for even harmonics of supply current.
Hence
4 I0 (av) na
= ---cos - for n = 1, 3, 5, ..... . .. (3.3.14)
n1t 2
This equation -rves peak value of nth harmonic of supply curr,ent. And +n can be
calculated as,
-21~ )
--"'-av_ sin ncx
= tan-1 ---'-'-n1t;.;...__ __
2l((av) (1 + cos na)

mt
= -tan-1{tan ";}
na
= ... (3.3.15)
2
Observe the supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8. It has symmetric positive and
negative half cycles. Hence its average value is zero. This can also be verified
mathematically as follows.
lT
15 (av) = T f i ((J)t) d(J)t
5
0
Here T = 21t and putting values of i5 ((J)t) from Fig. 3.3.8,
[5 (av) = 2~ [J I
a
((av) drot +
2
j
11:+a
-I((av) doot]
2
= Ii;> [1 doot - j doot]
a n+a
= I ((av) {[(J)t]1t - [(J)t]21t }

21t a n+a
I ((av)
= n In +cx-2n - (n +ex)}
2
= 0
Power Electronlcs - Ill 3 -31 AC/DC Converters
Thus the average value of symmetric waveform is zero.

Thus the fourier series can be written as,
-
~
~
4Io(av)
-
mt 2
na . (
- - cos- sm noot- -
2
na) ... (3.3.16)
n = 1, 3,5,.-·
ii) Fundamental component of supply current
The fundamental component of supply current is given as,

Ct
1st = ..fi.
. 41o(av) a .
From equation 3.3.14, c1 = 1t cos with n = 1.
2
Hence above equation becomes,
4 IG(av) a 1
15 1 == - - - cos - x -
n 2 ..fi.
2..fi. I o(av)
= - - - - cos -
a
... (3.3.17)
1t 2
iii) To obtain rms value of supply current
I
1
Is(nns) = [ i if (rol) drotr

With T = 21t and putting for i5 ( 0>t) from supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8,
1
Is(nns) = { 2~ [!I~av)drol +J}-1 Cl(av))

2
drolff
... (3.3.18)
The above equation shows that rms value of supply current depends on a .
Example 3.3.4 : For a 1♦ half controlled converter having highly inductive load, derive
the following :
i) Displacement factor (DF) ii) Supply power factor (PF)
iii) Harmonic factor (HF) iv) Cu"ent distortion factor (CDF)
Solution : i) Displacement factor

The displacement factor is given as,
DF = cosci, 1
na a
From equation 3.3.15, ♦n =-
2 ; Hence ♦1 =- 2.
... OF = cos(-~)
... DP = cos% I ... (3.3.19)
II) Supply power factor (PF)

The supply power factor is given as,
l
PF = st cos 411
l s(mis)
Putting the values of 151 (equation 3.3.17}, l s(rms} (equation 3.3.19) from previous
example and t 1 above we get,
2..fi. l«_(lT)) a
cos-2 a
PF = 1t cos-
(n-=a 2
lo(av>'J1t
a
... PF= cos 2 -
2 ... (3.3.20)
Ill) Hannonlc factor

The harmonic factor (HF) is given as,
12
HF = s(mtS) _ 1
1:1
1
i
2
1o(av) (1t -a)
7t
= - - - - --1
81~(11)> 2 a
7t 2 cos 2
HF= n(n-a) _
1
... ... (3.3.21)
~
2
' 8cos
This is an expression for harmonic factor of supply current.
Iv) Current distortion factor (CDF)

The current distortion factor (CDF) is given as,
CDP = Isl
I s(nns)
2..fi. I o(av) ex
--n--cos
::: 2
Io(av) ~
2..fi. cos~
= ... (3.3.22)
.Jn(n -ex)
,,_. Example 3.3.5 : For a 1 cl> half controlled bridge having continuous and ripple free
current, obtain, i) Active power and ii) Reactive Power.
Solution : I) Active power
Active power is given as,
Pactive = Vs l s1 cos 41>1
2
= V: • ..fi. Io(av) cos a co{- a,. since ~1 ::: -~
s 1t 2 21 2
✓2½ I«av) 2 a
= 1t 2cos
2
Vmlo(av)
= ---(l+cosa) .. .(3.3.23)
1t
II) Reactive power

Reactive power is given as,
Preactive = Vs Is1 sin cl>1
::: V: . 2.J2 I o(av) cos

5
1t
a a)
2
sin(-
2
.J'i.Vs l o(av) . a a
= - - - - - 2sm - cos-
7t 2 2
V ml o(av) .
= - - - -sma . .. (3.3.24)
1t
The negative sign indicates that power is reactive.

Comments
i) Active power is consumed by the load.
ii) Reactive power is not consumed by the load. Hence its sign is negative.
iii) Reactive power fluctuates between load and source.
iv) Total powie r includes active as well as reactive power.
, . . Example 3.3.6 : Single phase semiconverter is operated frum 120 V, 60 Hz supply.
The load cu.rrent with an average value of I a is continuous with negligible ripple
content. Turns ratio of transformer is unity. The delay angle a=;. Calculate-
a) Harmonic factor of input current. b) The displacement factor
c) Input power factor
Vs = 120 V
I o(av) = Ia
1t
a =
3
a) Harmonic factor is given by equation 3.3.21 as,
HF = 1t(1t - a) - 1
8cos 2 ~

1
HF =
21(21-i) - 1 2
8cos (
2
"f)
= 0.3108 or 31.08 %
b) The displacement factor is given by equation 3.3.19 as,
a
OF = cos-
2
= cos( nf3)
= 0.866
c) The input power factor is given by equation 3.3.20 as,
(l
PF = cos 2 -
2
= 0.827 lagging
3.3.4 Asymmetrical Half Bridge Converter
3.3.4.1 Operation with Resistive Load

Fig. 3.3.12 shows the circuit diagram of asymmetrical half bridge converter.
Observe that both the SCRs appear on the same link.
Load
I
Vo
I
Fig. 3.3.12 Single phase controlled ntetlfler
When T1 is triggered, current flows through T1 and D 1 . T2 is triggered in the

negative half cycle. Then current flows through T2 and D2,
Fig. 3.3.13 (See on next page) shows the waveforms of half bridge converter given
in Fig. 3.3.12. These wavefo~ are shown for resistive load and a= ~ - Observe that
the output current waveform is similar to output voltage. Since T1 and 0 1 conduct
simultaneously their current waveform is same. Similarly, the current waveform of
T2 and 0 2 is same.
Fig. 3.3.13 Waveforms of half bridge converter of Fig. 3.3.12
Since the above output voltage is same as that of single phase semiconverter, the
rms and average values of output voltage will be,
V.
Vo(av) = 2!.(1 + cos a)
1t
Power Electronics :- Ill 3-37 AC/DC Converters
3.3.4.2 Operation of Asymmetrical Half Bridge Converter with Level Load

With the similar circuit diagram of Fig. 3.3.12 but for highly inductive load, the
operation of asymmetrical converter will be as follows.
Mode - I (a s c.o t s 1t )
SCR T1 is triggered in this mode. Hence load current flows through T1D1. The
waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.3.14. (See Fig. 3.3.14-on next page.)
Mode - II (n s c.ot s n +a)
In this mode, the supply voltage becomes zero at 1t. Hence T 1 is no more forward
biased. But due to highly inductive load, the constant current is maintained to flow.
This load current flows through D 1 -D 2 . The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3.14.
Thus the freewheeling action takes place through D1 - D 2 and supply current as well
as output voltage are zero.
Mode - 111.(n +as c.ot S 2n)
SCR T 2 is triggered at 1t + a . Since T2 is more forward biased due to supply
voltage, it starts conducting. The load current now flows through T 2 - D 2 • The
equivalent circuits - ill in Fig. 3.3.14 shows the current flow.
Mode - IV (2n scot S 2n +a)
At 2n, the supply voltage becomes zero. Therefore T2 turns--off. But due to heavy
inductive load, the current continuous to flow. This current now flows through
D 1 -D2 since they are more forward biased compared to T2 -D2 .
At 21t +a, SCR T1 is triggered again and mode-I starts. Thus the cycle repeats.
Observe that the waveform of output voltage is same as that of semiconverter.
Hence the rms and average values of its output voltage are,
V:
Vo(av) = : (1 + cos a)
and V~=l =-{i[1t-a+½sm1nf

r I output 1 I l I , ; :• 11 I 1. '. t, 1 ► • _. !1 • t JI
• ·• f Cumlflt ,c,(av) h q J{r 1 1--rf •, l I • · I ! ; ,~• · I ,, 11t 1 ;ii~!
l .. T . ·l t.r j ±;1 l ' ri. ' . II I l 1· l 'i ' ' ' i r It : • t I ' : 11-1
o,
Equivalent Circuit • I Equivalent Cirwit • II Equivalent Circuit - II Equtvalent C.-cuil · r-,/
Ag. 3.3.14 Waveforms of asymmetrical half controlled bridge convrert&r for level load
Power Electronics -111 3 -39 AC/DC Converters
3.3A.3 Comparison of Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Configurations

Table 3.3.1 shows the comparison between symmetrical and asymmetrical
configurations of half controlled bridge.
Sr. No. Syrnn:--trtcal configuration A■ymmetrical configuration
1. One SCR is connected on each link. Both the SCRs are connected on single link.
2. SCRs can be driven with common cathode. SCRs must have Isolated cathodes.
3. Freewheeling ·takes place through on diode Freewheeling takes place through both the
and on SCR. SCRs.
4. Average curli8nts of SCR and diodes are Average currents of diodes are higher than
same. SCR.
5. SCR and diodes conduct for equal durations. SCRs conduct for shorter duration compared
to diodes.
Table 3.3.1 Comparison of symmetrical and asymmetrical configuration
Review Questions
1. Explain the working of 1 ♦ semiconvertu with the help of waveforms for resistive load and
inductive loads.
2. How freewheeling is present inherently in the semiconverters ?
Unsolved Example
1. Derive ,m expression for rms and average values of output volt.age for 1 ♦ semiamverter.
3.4 Slngle · Phase Full Converters

Fig. 3.4.1 shows the block
+
diagram of 1♦ full bridge
converter. It contains four
SCRs T1, T2, T3 and T4. The
conduction of all these SCRs
is controlled. Hence this is
1.
230 V, 50 Hz
AC supply
l
Vo
io
Lo"ad
called full converter. The

input to this converter is 1♦
AC supply. The ,o utput is
controllable DC. The full
l
Fig. 3.4.1 Circuit diagram of 'If full converter
bridge converter is mainly
used for speed control of DC
motors.
3.4.1 Working with Resistive Load
..,-,t 1
Is
Vg I R
--~--•----+-..
T
Fig. 3.4.2 Conduction of T1 and T2 In positive half cycle of the supply.

Dotted line shows path of current flow
1,
Let us consider the working of bridge (Full) converter with resistive load. In the
positive half cycle of the supply SCRs T 1 and T2 are triggered at firing angle a. Hence
current starts flowing through the load. The equivalent circuit for this operation is
shown in Fig. 3.4.2. ·
It is clear from Fig. 3.4.2 that, when T 1 and T2 conducts,
VO = V5 (i.e. supply voltage) ... (3.4.1)
and, ... (3.4.2)
Fig. 3.4.3 shows the waveforms of this circuit. Observe that load voltage is same as
supply voltage from a to 1t. Since the load is resistive, waveforms of ~ 0 and i O are
same. The supply current is and i 0 are in the same direction hence is =i0 • Ti and T2
tum off when supply voltage becomes zero at n. In the negative half cycle T 3 and T4
are triggered at 1t +a.
Fig. 3.4.4 shows the equivalent circuit when T3 and T4 conduct.
In the adjacent figure observe that supply current i5 and load current i O flow
through the same loop. But directions of i5 and i0 are opposite h ~
The supply current waveform is also shown in Fig. 3.4.3. T 3 and T4 tum off when
supply voltage becomes zero at 2n . At 2n +a, T1 and T 2 are triggered again and the
cycle repeats. 1
Fig. 3.4.3 Waveforms of full bridge converter for resistive load

....................
I
. + ~
I
•...
i --
- .·····--· ...:
' '
Vo R
l' :'
+ ~. . . . . . . . . .
. . .J . . . . . . . . . . .
•· t
~
''
j
.
'' ... . . . ~ • • • • • • • • • • • • - 4......... .
.
''
Fig. 3.4.4 Conduction of T3 - r,

In negative half cycle of the supply.
Dottad line shows current path
>• Example 3.4.1 : For the 1, fully controlled lmdge converter having load of 'R'
determine the following :
i) Average output voltage Vo(av) ii) RMS output voltage Vo(rms)
If supply voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz and firing angle is 60°, determine average output
voltage.
Solution : Compare the waveforms of lq, semiconverter given in Fig. 3.3.3 and that
of 1♦ full converter given in Fig. 3.4.3. The waveforms are exactly same. Thus the
operation of semiconverter and full converter is exactly same for resistive load. Hence
their average and RMS output voltages are also same. Hence from equation 33.5, the
average output voltage of full converter is,
Vo(av) = ; (1 + cosa) ... (3.4.3)
The supply voltage is 230 V. Hence,

Vs= 230V · Vm=230.J2
and ex = 60°
Putting values in equation 3.4.3,
Vo(av) =
23o.J2
7t (1 + cos 60°) = 155.3 V
From equation 3.3.6, RMS output voltage of full converter is,

2
V o(rms) = Vm [ 7t -a+ sm
211 2
1. 2a]2 1
... (3.4.4)
>• Example 3.4.2 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.4.5, find the current through 100 .n
load, if the SCRs are triggered at 300 delay. Supply voltage is 200 V, 50 Hz.
3.4.2 Working with Inductive Load

The inductive load means resistance and inductance in the load . Such loads are
DC motors. Because of the inductive (R-L) load, the load current shape is changed.
Hence operation of the full bridge converter can be discussed into three modes :
i) Continuous load current.
ii) Continuous and ripple free current for large inductive load.
iii) Discontinuous load current.
3.4.2.1 Continuous Load Current (2006)
In the continuous load current, the load or output current iO fl.ows continuously.
The waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.4.7.
Fig. 3.4.7 Wavefonns of 1' full converter for Inductive load

having continuous load current
•
Cop ght ma al
As shown in the waveforms of Fig. 3.4.7, T1 and T2 conduct from a to 7t . The

nature of the load current depends upon values of R and L in the inductive load.
Because of the inductance, i 0 keeps on increasing and becomes maximum at 7t . At 7t ,
the supply voltage reverses but SCRs T1 and T2 does not twn off. This is because, the
load inductance does not allow the current i O to go to zero instantly. The load
inductance generates a large voltage L dio.
dt
r-----, This voltage forward biases T 1 and T2
:r, l, -f •1 1
if as shown in Fig. 3.4.8. In this figure
- ~J
I
I , R
observe that the load current flows against
the supply voltage. The energy stored in
Vs " ' 4 ! ; Vo
+ l
I_ -
◄T2 1-L L dio
+
dt
the load inductance is supplied partially to
the mains supply and to the load itself.
Hence this is also called as feedback
operation. The output voltage is negative
Fig. 3.4.8 Conduction of T1 and T2 from from 7t to 1t + o: since supply voltage is
7t to 7t + a due ·t o fnductance voltage negative. But the load current keeps on
reducing.
At 7t + a, SCRs T 3 and T 4 are triggered. The load current starts increasing. The
load current remains continuous in the load. The similar operation repeats. The ripple
in the load current reduces as the load inductance is increased.
3.4.2.2 Discontinuous Load Current [2006)
Fig. 3.4.9 sho,w s the circuit diagram of 1~ full converter for discontjnuous load
current with RLE load. Two cases are possible as explained next.
Case - I : J3 >n
The extinction angle JJ is greater than 1t.
+
Fig. 3.4.10 (b) shows the waveform of
output current. Fig. 3..4.10 (c) shows the
output voltage wavefo rm. Here observe
that SCRs T1-T2 conduct from a to~-
L Hence output voltage is same as supply
voltage from ex to ~- This is shown by
equivalent circuit - I in Fig. 3.4.10.
The load current becomes zero at t3 and
it remains zero till 7t +a:. Thus from f3 to
Fig. 3.4.9 1~ full converter with RLE 1t +ex there is no conduction and all the
load SCRs are off.
Powel' Electronics • Ill 3-46 AC/DC Converters
This is shown by equivalent circuit - II in Fig. 3.4.10. Hence battery voltage 'E'
appears across the output terminals. Thus,
v O = E for ~ to 7t +a.
At 7t +a, T 3 -T4 are triggered. Since T 3 -T4 are forward biased due to supply
voltage, they start conducting. Again supply voltage appears across the output
terminals. This is shown in equivalent circuit - min Fig. 3.4.10.
Fig. 3.4.10 (d) shows the supply current.
Casa • II : ~ < 7t
The extinction angle is less than 1t. Fig. 3.4.10 (e), (f) and (g) shows the waveforms
of this case. Observe that battery voltage 'E' appears across the load terminals when
SCRs are not conducting.
Refer Fig. 3.4.10 on next page.
3.4.2.3 Continuous and Ripplefree Current for Large Inductive Load
Fig. 3.4.11 Waveforms of 1~ full converter for continuous and

ripplefrae load current in case of large inductive load
Now let us consider the case when there is large inductance in the load. Because
of the large inductance, the ripple in the load current is very small and it can be
neglected. Hence load current will be totally DC as shown in Fig. 3.4.11.
C p ght al
Power Electronics -111 3- 47 AC/DC Converters
-4-- -- T - f- - -I l - l - - ----- ,- -- ---t- ....... r-

I
I (•)
/ ~ l- Vi ~ -
_ _j
"
Supply -
,-- voltage
_ -~
t
- -.
--- v. __..__
I
-- ' -
/ I I
- r-
I I
--+-
I
,
j
l
, • I• I I J
I
l
(b) i
.,,,- v-i\ .,,,- I
I-
Output
cooent
lo
"x /
a
i\pK
/ / \ I
' .
I I
~ - +- -
11+(1
i I
-
I
,,r H Vo .. E when ... SCRs are off 1 I
I
?t:. ---- ~ 7- - ti ~ / ~ 11--

Oulput I / ..,_ (c) Ill
- YObge - I - A
G.
,_ Vo 1- ~-
'\ a \.
\r ~
V / "t·
~I) l
-·-- - '- --- ---

'
' - · ,--r-
I
~
~
l
.-+a-
J
-·
'
I
'---
I
>-~-i-- - - _..._
' i-
.
~
-
I I
-
-/ ~i\ /l -
(d)
,. I
- / ~~ I
- '· - ,-
Supply - ,_
current 1
t
p 11
....~~
kl
Cl
Ir ,T2
~-
3T4
I
- I-
'
,T2
1 i
I
- I' - -- -- i---. - t-- --.- - ~ - _j_

-t
I
:
I
I ~
I I
1- Output
I
I i - 7 -t ··; (•) - -··
~
I
/
' /
' /
a.irrent
i,, (I p 11 I
11+a I
-, - I .. r,, , ► i,. T 1 T 2 ► I
I '
--'- - __J_ ~
l
-+ 1---J
. 1- - ' I
f-
I
I
...' - ,._ - -◄ w
v_
Oulput
YOltei,e -lL- •'\ / 1/· -tE- '\ / '
~
~ ~ 1/
I
-~~ (f)
L
I >i
I- Vo
\:: lY ~ I / ;( \
1-
-1=
""
L I -
I I
1-
H- -
I
,._ - l !"
--
,--,-.-
-r - t- I
- I - ~
t J -
I
' ' (t)
>-
- NSupply -
cumint
~ - ~/ l I
I - ✓~ -
.l -· - I- .... - --
'· . Cl ~I - ........... J -- . I
t
- -_____1 e::~--- -
I i
.
I
( l-J-1 l ( )
I
J --.......1.. - J. <
,---- -,-----. -- - - - r;----

f,. 0
~,----------,4-' 1 I
R ~ I
L ~·1'-·--i L L
E -l l _J E -ll E
Equlvllfflt clrcult--1
Fig. 3.4.10 Operation of 1+ full converter with discontinuous conduction

In the waveforms shown in Fig. 3.4.11, there is no effect on output voltage

waveform for large inductive load. The supply current waveform (is ) is square wave
for large inductive load.
n•• Example 3.4.3 : For the lei> full converter having inductive load and continuous load
current, obtain the following :
i) Average output voltage Vo(av)
ii) RMS output voltage V0 (rms)
Solution : i) Average output voltage for inductive load
1 T
Vo (av) :;: T f V0 ((l)t) dwt
0
Observe the waveforms of lcp full converter for inductive load given in Fig. 3.4.7
and Fig. 3.4.11. The output voltage waveform has a period from a to 7t +a ; i.e. 1t.
And v O (w t) = Vm sin (I) t during this period. Hence above equation becomes,
1 1t+CX
Vo (av) = 1t f
Vm sin wt dwt
a
:;: ~ [ - cos ro t]:+a
... Vo (au) = ~ cosa I ... (3.4.5)
This is the expression for average load voltage of lei> full converter for inductive
load.
Plot of Vo( av) versus firing angle (a)
Following table lists the values of Vo(av) with firing angle (a).
Cl 2Vm
Vo(av) • - 7t- COS a
0 2Vm = 0.637 Vm
7t
300 0.55 Vm
600 0.318 vm
900 0
. 120° - 0.318 Vm
1500 - 0.55 vm
180° - 0.637 Vm
Table 3.4.1 Vo(av) with respect to a

Observe that VO (av) is positive for a < 900. Hence it is called rectification. For
a > 0, VO (av) is negative. Hence it is called inverting mode of oper:ation. In inverting
mode, output energy is fed back to the source.
Fig. 3.4.12 Variation of VO (av) with respect to a

II) RMS value of output voltage for inductive load
1
V•(=/ = [~Iv] ("'t) d"'f
V. 2 1t+a1 - cos 2<.t> t

= [ : J 2
]!
drot
1
... Vo(rms) -- ✓
m_
V.
2
v.
- s ... (3.4.6) ·
Thus the rms value of load voltage is same as rms value of the AC supply voltage.
Copyright ma nal
, . . Example 3.4.4 : Draw the circuit arrangement of a single phase full converter feeding
a general load comprising of R, L and E. Sketch the AC supply voltage o!p voltage and
the load current waveforms. Assuming continuous load current operation, derive an
expression for DC output voltage.
A single phase full converter feeding an RLE load is fed by 230 V, 50 Hz mains.
If R = 0.5 ~ L = 8 mH and E = 50 volts, assuming that conductum is conHnucus and
firing angle is 40°, find average value of load current.
Solution : Circuit diagram and waveforms
Fig. 3.4.13 shows the circuit diagram of full converter supplying RLE load.
L = 8mH
E =50
Fig. 3.4.13 1♦
full converter feeding RLE load
The RLE load is normally motor load. tR' is the resistance and 'L' is an inductance
of armature ~ding of the motor. 'E' is the induced emf of the motor. When the load
current is continuous, then waveforms of this circuit will be similar to that of RL load.
Hence with small ripple in output cmrent, the waveforms of this circuit will be similar
to those shown in Pig. 3.4.7. Note that 'E' is not reflected in the waveforms as long as
output current (io) is continuous.
If output current (\)) is constant and ripplefree, th.en the waveforms will be similar
to those shown in Fig. 3.4.11.
RMS and average output voltage
The output voltage waveform remains same with RL load and RLE load when \,
is continuous. Therefore therms and average values of output voltage will be same as
those derived in previous example for RL load. i.e.,
2V.
v o(av) = ___.!!!_ cos a
1t
Vo(rms) = Vm =V
J2 s
10 (0)
Vm . 1+e-coLnR
= --sm(a-8) - - - - -
Z
[
nR
1- e - mL
E
R
l
Putting this value in equation 3.4.7 and solving for i 0 (0) we get,
.
.... (3.4.8)
The given data is,

V5 = 230 .. Vm = Ji x230 = 325.27 V
f = 50 Hz :. oo = 21tf = 21t xso = 314.159
R = 0.5 Q
L=8mH
E = 50 V
a= 40°
... ooL = 314.154 X 8 X 10-3 = 3.513
7tR X 0.5 = 0 625
= 1t2.513 .
ooL
nR
... e-COL
= e- 0-625 =0.5352
8 = tan- 1( ~L) = tan-1 ( 2 t! 3
) = 1.3744
a. = 40° = 0.698 radians
and z = ✓R 2 +(ooL) 2
= ✓co.s) + (2.513) 2 = 2.5622
2
Putting values in equation 3.4.8 we get i0 (0) as,
. (O 698 _ 1 3744)[1 + 0.5352] _ 50

io(Oil = _ 325.27 5111
" 2.5622 • • 1 - 0.5352 0.5
= 162.48 A
This is the minimum value of output current. H this value becomes negative, then
it indicates discontinuous operation.
Putting values in equation 3.4.7 we get equation for io(oot). i.e.,
. ( t)
10 00
325.27 . ( 00t l 3744) 50
= 2.5622 Sm - · - 0.5
+ {162.48 + ~ - ~~;6~ sin(0.698-1.3744)} ,2';;:/0.6&8--0Jt)

= 126.95 sin (oot - 1.3744) - 100 + 392.89 e-O.l989cot ... (3.4.9)
This is the equation for output current from a to 1t +a. 1bis waveform has period
of 1t and it repeats at 1t +a. Hence average value of i O will be given as,
tt+a_
lo(av) =
1
7t J 10 (rot) drot
a
l ,c+0.698
= 1t J [126.95sin(rot-1.3744) - 100 + 392.89e-O.l989cot ]drot
0.698
126 95 3.839 1003.839 392 89 3.839
= ~ J
sin(wt -l.3744)drot - n drot+ 1t. J e-0.19890>tdrot J
0.698 0.698 0.6:98
= 21'7.28 A
This is the average value of output current
>.. Example 3.4.5 : If a freewheeling diode

is added across the highly inductive load in
14' full converter, derive an expression for average load voltage.
Solution : We know that freewheeling action does not take place in lei> full converter
inherently. In the positive half cycle, T1 and T2 conduct from a to 1t as usual. But from
7t to 7t +a freewheeling diode starts conducting. This is shown in Fig. 3.4.15. The
freewheeling diode is more forward biased compared to T1 and T2 . Hence
freewheeling diode conducts. The freewheeling diode is connected across the output
v 0 • Hence v O = 0 during freewheeling. The energy stored in the load inductance is
circulated back in the load itself. Fig. 3.4.16 shows the waveforms of this operation.
The output voltage becomes zero in the freewheeling periods. Compare the load
voltage waveform of Fig. 3.4.15 with that of 141 full _c onverter with resistive load
(Fig. 3.4.3). They are same. Hence the average load voltage can be obtained from
equation 3.4.3. i.e.,
Vo(av) = ; (1 + cosa) ... (3.4.10)
,_.,__,
I
I
l1
I
I io
! I
I R
DFW I Vo !
I -
!i
I
IFW
I L dio
Fig. 3.4.15 FreewheeUng diode conducts from

'
ff
___..
I
I
-, f
+
dt
to ff + a due to Inductive load

Single a'nd Three Phase
The average load current I o(av) or I a is given as,

Vo(av)
1o(av) = R
Putting the values of R =10 .Q and Vo(av) = 146.42 volts,

146.42
Io(av) = 10
= 14.64 A
The supply currie nt waveform will be a square wave as shown in Fig. 3.4.11. The
amplitude of the square wave will be Io(av) i.e. 14.64 A.
,. . Example 3.4.7 : For a 1~ full converter having highly inductive load derive ·the
folluwing:
i) Fourier series for supply current
ii) Fundamental component of supply current
iii) RMS value of supply current
Solution : I) To determine Fourier series
The general expression for Fourier series is given as,
i5 ( (IJ) t) = I5 (av) + L- cn sin ( n ro t + 9n)

n=l
where Cn = -Ja2n +b2n

and ~n = tan-1 ( :: )
2 T
Here, an = T f i (rot) cos nrotdrot
5
0
27t
= /n f i (rot) cos n cot d ro t
5
0
From the supply current waveform of Fig. 3.4.11 we can write,

2
an = 2~ [ffrr.(av) cosnmt d mt+ 7''( -l•(av)) COStt(J) t d (J) 1]
a n+a
=
I 0 ( ) [n+a
1tav fcos n ro t d mt - 2n+a
fcos n ID
]
t d ro t
a 1t+a
Power Electronics - Ill 3 - 56 AC/DC Converters
2 Io(av)
= - - - sin n a [ cos n 1t -
nn
1]
-4 Io(av)
---'--- sin n a for n = 1,3,5, ...... .
... (3.4.11)
= n 1t
{
0 for n=0,2,4,., .....
T
Similarly, bn = ; Ji 5 (wt) sin nwt dwt
0
2n
2
=
2
1t Ji 5 (rot) sin nwt drot
0
From supply current of Fig. 3.4.11,
bn = ! ["1'\(ao) sin nw Id wt+ "f''( -/•(av) sin nw dwt)]

2
a
2
n+a
I
=
I 0( )
1tav
[c+tt
J sin n rot d rot - 2n+tt
J sin n rot d wt]
a n+a
21o(av)
= n 1t cos na (1- cos n 1t]
=
r 0
1
o(av) cos n a
n1t
for
for
n =1,3, 5, ... ...
n =0,2,4,6, ......
... (3.4.12)
Hence Cn = .Ja2n +b2n
r r
1
= {(4 In~w) [ sin 2 n a +cos 2 n a]
4 Io(av)
= for n =l, 3, 5, ...... ... (3.4.13)
n 7t
And ♦n = tan-1 :n
n
= -n a from equation 3.4.11 and equation 3.4.12
Thus ... (3.4.14)

The average value of supply current is zero. i.e. Js(av) = 0. 1his is clear from
Fig. 3.4.11.
Therefore Fourier series is,
- 4 1o(av)
i5 ( O> t) = ~ -- sin (nrot-n a) ... (3.4.15)
~ nn
n= 1, 3,5,~.
II) Fundamental component of the supply current

The fundamental component of the supply current is given as,
C1
1st = ✓2
41 o(av)
From equation 3.4.13, C 1 - - - with n =1. Hence above equation will be,
1t
4 I o(av) 1 2...fi. I o(av)

Isl = ------'-'
11.
x - = ------
...fi. 1t
... (3.4.16)
r
iii) To obtain nns value of supply current
The rms vm::(:~v~[;,!I; (rot) d ro

2
From supply current waveform of Fig. 3.4.11,

1
Is(=) = {i.t[T1:c../0>l+:IJ-1.(..>)' drotr

... I Is(nns) = Io(~) I ... (3.4.17)
>• Example 3.4.8 :

folltJWing :
For a 1♦ full converter having highly inductive load, derive the
i) Displacement factor (DF)

ii) Supply power factor (PF)
iii) Harmonic factor (HF)
iv) Current distortion factor (CDF)
Solution : i) Displacement factor
The displacement factor (OF) is given as,
DF = cos +J. ... (3.4.18)
From eqy_ation 3.4.14 ♦n = -n a ; Hence ♦1 = - a.
, . . Example 3.4.9 : For a 1 q, fully controlled bridge having continuous and ripplefree
current obtain, i) Active power and ii) Reactive power.
Solution : I) Active power
Active power is given as,
Pactive = Vs l s1 cos«1>1
2./i Iii.av)
= Vs ·----cos(-a), since , 1 =-a
1t
Ji. Vs 1..tav)
= 2 · - - - " ' - cos(a)
7t
2Vm1~nv)
= - - - - COSCl ... (3.4.23)
1t
II) Reactive power

Reactive power is given as,
P,eactive = Vs l s1 sin 4>1
2.fi. I av)
= V.s · 7t
~ sin(-a)
.fi. Vs l~av) .
= -2· - - - - sma
1t
2Vm l ~av) .
= - ----sm cx. . •. (3.4.24)
1t
The negative sign indicates that the power is reactive.

Comment
Compare the reactive powers of full converter and half converter. They are as
follows :
V,n I o(av) •
P,eactive(HCB) = ---smcx
7t
2 V,n I o(av) .
P,eadive (FCB) = - - - - -smcx.
1t
From above two equations we have, ·

P,eactive(FCB) = 2 x P,eactive (HCB)
• Thus half controlled bridge draws SO % reactive power compared to that of
full controlled bridge.
Fig. 3.4.18 Inversion in 1q, full converters

.,
Supply
Fig. 3.4.19 Inverting operation in 1t full converter
Triggering •"flle Moct. of operation Powar flow Output voltage
a< 900 Rectification Source to load Vo( av} positive
a= 900 None None vo(av) ;: 0
a> 900 Inversion l oad to source Vo(av) negative
Table 3.4.2 Operating modes of 1' full converter

, . . Example 3.4.11 : A single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier has an AC voltage of
230 nns applied to it. If it is to act as an inverter with a DC source of 150 V, estin:,,ate
the trigger angle delay.
Solution : In Fig. 3.4.18 we have seen that the DC voltage source is connected at the
output of converter. The converter then acts as an inverter. Since the conduction is
continuous the output average voltage will be,
2Vm
V o(av) = - - cosa ... (3.4.25) .
1t
Here the voltage drop across the load is not given. Hence we can assume zero
voltage drop in the load. Hence the DC source voltage becomes as average output
voltage. i.e.,
Vo(av) = - 150 V
Here 150 V is the DC source voltage and it is negative as shown in Fig. 3.4.18.
Supply voltage is,
V5 = 230 V Hence Vm = ..fi. x 230 V
Putting values in equation 3.4.21,
2 X ..fi. X 2'30
- 150 = - - - -coscx
7t
... coscx = - 0.724383
... ex = 136.41°
3.4.4 Comparison of Half Controlled and Full Controlled Rectifiers

Now let us oompare the hall controlled and fully controlled bridge rectifiers.
Table 3.4.3 shows this comparison.
Sr. Half controlled converter Fully controlled converter
.No.
1. This consists of half number of Thia consists of all the SCRs as
SCRa and half number of diodes. controlled devices.
2. This operates In only one This can operate in two quadrants.
quadrant.
3. Output voltage is always positive. Output voltage can be negative in case
of Inductive loads.
4. Inherent freewheeling action is Extemal freewheeling diode is to be
present. connected for freeWheellna.
5. Power factor is better. Power factor is poor than half
converter.
6. Inversion is not possible. Inversion is possible.
7. Used for battery chargers, lighting Used for DC motor drives.
and heater control.
Table 3.4.3 Comparison of half and fully controlled bridges
(i.e. 1200). In the waveforms of Fig. 3.5.3, SCRs are triggered at firing angle of ex = 300.
For each phase a = 0 is actually : i.e. 300 from zero crossing of that phase. As shown
in the output voltage waveform, SCR T1 conducts from (: +a) to 1t .
Fig. 3.5.3 Waveforms of 3 ~ half wave c,onverter for a. = 300 for resistive load
Fig. 3.S.4 shows an equivalent circuit when SCR T1 conducts. T2 and T 3 are
2
reverse biased because of T 1 conduction. The Y phase has zero crossing at ; . For
T2 ,
2
a =0 is at ; + : = 5:. And T2 is triggered at
5
: + a. In the waveforms of
2
Fig. 3.5.3, observe that each SCR conducts for the maximum duration of ; (i.e. 1200).
The output current is given as,
i o = vRO for resistive load
N
Fig. 3.5.4 Conduction of T1 In 3 ♦ half wave converter. Dotted line
shows current path.
Hence the shape of the output current is same as output voltage. .
2
The period of each pulse in the output voltage waveform is ; (i.e. 1200). The
supply has the frequency of 50 Hz. There are three pulses of output voltage during
one cycle of supply voltage. Hence ripple frequency of output voltage is three times of
supply frequency. i.e.,
/ripple = 3 xso = 150 Hz
Sometimes this converter is also called as 3-pulse converter.
· , . . Example 3.5.1 : Derive an equation for average output voltage nf 3 ♦ half wave
converter.
OR
With the help of circuit diagram and relevant wavefonn, describe the operation of 3 ♦
half wave 1converter and hence derive expressions for i) Vde ii) Vdm and iii) V rms
(Assume load being resistive.)
Solution : I) To obtain average value of output voltage, Vo(av) or Vde
Let the volta:g e of the R-phase be represented as,
VR = Vm sin wt
Here Vm is the peak value of R-phase voltage.
In Fig. 3.5.3, observe that T 1 conducts from (: +a) to (5;: +a} It is the one
2
period of the load ripple. Thus T = ; . Average valae of load voltage is given as,
1 T
V0 (cro) = T f V0 (rot) d rot ... (3.5.1)
0
2
Here T = ; and supply voltage VR =Vm sin co t appears across output from
:: +a) to ( 5;: +a) . Hence above equation becomes,

S1t+a
1 6 .
-()
27t
f ff
Vm sin rot drot
3 6 +a
3 V: Sn+a
_ [- cos rot] 6
= - ._ m
2n ~+a
6
3 J3 V:
= m cos a ... (3.5.2)
2n
Note that the above equation is valid only for a S 30°.
Now let us consider the case when a = 600 (a> 30'>). The last waveform in
Fig. 3.5.3 is drawn for a =60°.
SCR T 1 conducts from (: + a) to 7t. The output voltage remains zero from 1t to
(5;: +a} At (5;: +a) SCR T 2 is triggered. At 'n' T 1 turns off since supply voltage VR
becomes negative. Putting the values in equation 3.5.1 we get,

1 1C •
Vo(av) = Zn J Vm sin rotdrot

- 1t
3 ~a
... (3.5.3)
Note that this equation is valid only for a > 3Cf, i.e. ·discontinuous operation for
resistive load.
ii) To obtain peak value of output voltage (Vdm)
Peak value of output will be obtained when a = 0. i.e.,
vdm = vo(av)l et=o
=
3J3vm
27t cos
0
- 3-./3vm
- 2n
iii) To obtain rms value of output voltage Vo(nns)
RMS value is given as,
1
.sn 2
1 6 +a
2
1t JV,; sin 2 cot dcot
- 7t
3 6+a
1
57t+a 2
=
3VJ 6
J 1-cos2cot dcot
21t ft
2
6+a
1llis is the required expression for rms value of output. Above equation is valid
for continuous operation, ie., a S 300.
, . . Example 3.5.2 : The 3 q» half wave converter is operated from a 3♦ wye connected
220 V, 60 Hz supply and load resistance R = 10 n If the average output voltage is
25 % of the maximum possible average output voltage, calculate
a) Delay angle
b) RMS and average output currents.
Solution : a) To obtain delay angle (a)
The output average voltage for a s 30 is given by equation 3.5.2 as,

3-./3vm
V o(av) = i1t cos a
Hence maximum value of average output voltage will be,

= 'J../3Vm
Vo(av)max 21t
Here Vm is the peak value of phase voltage.

The line voltage is given as 220 V. Hence,
·_ Vune _ 220
V ph - .J3 - ...fj
And peak value of phase voltage will be,

Vm = ..fi.Vph
= ..fi. x 2_; = 179.63 V

Hence maximum average output voltage will be,
'J../3Vm
V~av)ma.x = 21t
= 'J../3 X 179·63 = 148.55 V

21t
Average output required is 25 % of the maximum.
... Vo(av) = 0.25 x Vo(av)max
= 0.25 x 14855 = 37.138 V
Now let us ealculate the output voltage for a = 30 using equation 3.5.2 i.e.,
Va(av) = 3J3 ;~79.63 cos (30°)

= 128.65 V
Here observe that 25 % output is less than output for a = 30°. Hence delay angle
must be greater than 30°. For resistive load, output current is discontiinuous for a~ 30.
Hence w~ have to use equation 3.5.3 for discontinuous operation. i.e.,
Vc(w) =
3~ [1+cos(: +a)]
37.138 = 3x;:·6.,[1+cos(: +a)]

... a = 94.54° or 1.65 radians.
Thus the d~y angle is more than 30°, is required to get 25 % of maximum output
Single and Three Ptaase
Power Electronlcs • Ill 3-72 AC/DC Converters
The rms value of this converter for a > 30° is given by equation 3.5.4 as,
1
V,crn~) = {
3:f [5:-a+; sm(; +2a)]}2
1
83 2
= {Jx(~:· > [5:-118156+½sm(; +2x118156)]}2
= 94.7447 V
RMS output current will be,
I = Vo(rms) = 94 .7447 = 947 A

o(rms) R 10 .
iii) Average and nns thyristor currents

There are three SCRs. They conduct equally. Hence average SCR current will be,
I T(av) =
I o(av) = 7.0225 = 2 34 A
3 3 . .
And therms SCR current will be,

I o(.rms) 9.47
1T(rms) :;;; ../3 :;;; ../3 :;;; 5.467 A.
Iv) Rectification efficiency
Rectification efficiency is given as,
DC power in load _ V o(av) Io(av)
11 =
rmspowerinload - Vo(rms)Io(rms)
70.225 X 7.0225
=
947447 X 9.47
= 0.5496 or 54.96 %
v) TUF
The rms input line current is same as the thyristor rms current, i.e. 5.467 A.
Therefore VA of one phase will be,
VA of one phase :;;; Vph x l ph
= ~ X 5.467 = 656.525
... VA of 3 cj> = 3 x 656 = 1969.577
Fig. 3.5.6 Waveforms of 3+ half wave converter for highly Inductive load
Power Electronics - Ill 3. 79 AC/DC Converters
BY
RY
RB
YB
Fig. 3.6.2 Phasor diagram showing the relationship
between phase and line voltages of 3' supply
Whena<W
T1 is triggered at ex =3<f (see Fig. 3.6.3 (c)). SCR T 1 and diode D 6 conducts. Hence
line voltage RY is applied to the load from (:+ex) to ~ - At ~' diode D 2 is more
forward biased and hence it starts conducting.

Hence line voltage RB is applied to the load. T 1 D 2 keeps on conducting till next
SCR T 3 is triggered at ( 5; +ex} The load voltage waveform for a. = 30° is shown in
Fig. 3.6.3 (c). The devices conducting are also shown in respective intervals.
Observe that one period of the ripple in output voltage waveform is,
T = ( 51t +
6
a) -(\..6n + a) = 3
2
1t ... (3.6.1)
Thus there are three cycles of output ripple in one cycle of the supply. Hence
ripple frequency is three times of the supply frequency. i.e.,
/ripple = 3 X 50 = 150 Hz
In the Fig. 3.6.3 (c), observe that each SCR conducts for the maximum duration of
2
12(1' ( i.e. ;}
The current waveform for resistive load will be similar to voltage waveform since,
. Vo
lo = R
Fig. 3.6.3 Waveforms of ~· semlconverter for resistive load

, . . Example 3.6.1 : Derive an expression for the average outp,ut voltage of 3cj,
semiconverter having resistive load for a ~ 60°.
Solution : We know that the average output voltage is given as,
1 T
Vo( av) = T f v o( Cl) t) dro t
0
Observe the waveform of V0 given in Fig. 3.6.3 (c). Th~ period T can be conside.red
from (: +a) to ( +a) which is
5
:
2
; . Hence above equaticn becomes,
S1t
-+a
1 6
2n n
f v O (rot) dro t
( ) 6+a
3
1t Sn +a
=
3
21t
1t
JV RY ( Cl) t) dro t +
6
f
1t
VRB ( Cl) t) doo t ... (3.6.2)
-+a
6 2
The equations for VRY and VRB can be written from Fig. 3.6.3 (b) as follows,
VRY (rot) = ..fj Vm sin (rot+:)

... (3.6.3)
VRB (0>t) = ✓3 Vm sin ( 0>t-:)
Here Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage. Putting above expressions in
equation 3.6.2,
1t Sn
- -6 +a
Vo(au) =2 !) .J3 Vm sin ( ffit+:) dOl t + [ .J3 v., sin ( Olf- :) dOlt
6+a 2
=
3
1/m a !) sin ( (J)f + :)dOll+ s; r sin ( Olt-:) dOltl
=
3
.J;_ftvm {[-cos (Olt+ :)]!+a +[- cos (Olf- :)]ta}
6 2 I
3../3 V.
= 7t m
2
(1 + cos a) ... (3.6.4)
This is the expression for average output voltage for a S 60.

When a = 60
_Fig. 3.6.3 (d) shows the output voltage waveform for a = 6CJ'. Observe that the
voltage waveform is just continuous. When T1 is triggered at a= 1€lr, the line voltage
RB is applied across the load. T 1 and D 2 conducts from (: +a) to ( s: +a} Similarly
5
next SCR T 3 is triggered at ( : +a) and T 3 D 4 conduct. The current waveform will be
similar to voltage waveform for resistive load. The average output voltage is given by
equation 3.6.4, since voltage waveform is continuous.
When a > 60
Fig. 3.6.3 (e) shows the output voltage waveform for a =90°. SCR T 1 is triggered at
(:+a} T 1 and D 2 conducts and line voltage RB is applied across the load. In the
7
waveform observe that, output voltage becomes zero at : . In Fig. 3.6.3 (b) observe
7
that line voltage RB becom es zero at :. Hence SCR T 1 is turned off. Since T 3 is not
triggered, the output voltage becomes zero. At (5: +a) T3 is biggered and T 3 D4
conducts. Line voltage YR is applied across the load. Thus for a> 60, the output
voltage is djscontinuous. Since the load is resistive, the current is also discontinuous.
The current waveform will be similar to voltage waveform.
>* Example 3.6.2 : Derive an expression for average c,utput voltage c,J ~ semicooverter
having resistive load Jc,r a > 60°.
Solution : Fig. 3.6.3 (e) shows the waveform of output voltage for a = 9(11
(i.e. a > 60j. Observe that the period of ripple cycle is
5 2
T = ( : +a) - (: +a)= ;
7
When T1 -D2 conducts voltage VRB is applied acr~ the load &om (: +a) to :.
Hence
7t 71t
v O = VRB from + ex to
6 6
Fig. 3.6.5 Waveforms of 3q semlconverter for highly Inductive load

= 0, but the output current i0 [Fig. 3.6.5 (e)] is not 7.ero. The output current
V RB
waveform is continuous and ripplefree. The load inductance generates a very large
voltage L dio to maintain i 0 continuous. This situation is shown in Fig. 3.6.6.
dt
I
,, --------------- - ,------,
I + I
I jFW I
I
I
I
i0
I
R
1 !
I
I
!
I
I
R
I I
D I I
FW I V0 1
I I
I I -
1 , L dj0
_______..... f
I
f + dt
, ______
I
I - ,,I
Fig. 3.6.6 Freewheeling action In 3+ semlconverter.

Dottad fines shows freewheeling cumtnt paths
The freewheeling diode DFW is forward biased by the load inductance voltage
Ld~:. The freewheeling current iFW is basically i 0• Thus the energy stored in the load
inductance is fed back to the load itself. Fig. 3.6.S (g) shows the waveform of
1
freewheeling current. SCR T 1 turns off at : as soon as &eewheeling diode starts
ronducting. This is because &eewheeling diode is more forward biased compared to
1
T1 and D1 after : . If extra freewheeling diode DFW is not connected, ther,
freewheeling current flows through T1 and D 4 • This is shown by 'thin dotted line' in
Fig. 3.6.6. Thus freewheeling action is inherent in 3t semiconverter.
If we neglect the drop of freewheeling diode, then output voltage during
freewheeling period is z.ero. As shown in Fig. 3.6.S (f), no supply cunent flows during
freewheeling period. Comp~ the output voltage waveform of Fig. 3.6.3 (e) (resistive
load) and Fig. 3.6.5 (d) (inductive load). Both the waveforms are same.
,. . Example 3.8..4 : Derive an aprtSSion for average output voltage of 3+ semiconverter

having highly inductivt load.
Solution : We have seen that the output voltage waveforms of 3+ semiconverter are
same for resistive as well as inductive loads. Hence their average values are also same.
Hence from equation 3.6.5 we have,
... (3.6.6}
This is the expression for average output voltage for resistive as well as inductive
loads and O~a ~ff.
Review Question
1. &plain ~ worldng of 3+ semic.onvmer with the help of uxroeforms.
Unsolved Examples
1. A 3♦ semiconr,ierler is operated from 3♦ 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The load is 10 ohms in series with
barge mroothing inductor. De.tennine output voltage and current if triggering angle is 60".
(Ans. : vo{1111) = 403.S V I lo(av) = 40.3S A)
2. DerhJe an expression for llf1ffllgt wlue of output voltage for 3+ semiconverter.
3.7 Three Phase Full Converters

Three phase half converters operate only in first quadrant of v O - i 0 • The output
voltage v O is always positive for resistive as well as inductive loads. The output
current iO is also always positive. Hence 3 ♦ semiconverter operates in first quadrant
only. Three phase full converters can operate in two quadrants. The output voltage of
3 ♦ full converter can be positive as well as negative. It uses six SCRs as shown in
Fig. 3.7.1.
Ro--.,__-1
Yo---..1 '------t
load
Bo---..1 '--__,I ---1
Fig. 3.7.1 3♦ full converter

3.7.1 Operation with Resistive Load
Let us consider the operation of 3 ♦ full converter having resistive load. Fig. 3.7.2
shows the waveforms of 3 ♦ full converter having resistive load. Fig. 3.7.2 (a) shows
the supply phase voltages R, Y and B. Fig. 3.7.2 (b) shows the supply line voltages.
These supply voltage waveforms are drawn according to the phasor diagram shown in
•
Powar Electronics -111 3-89 AC/DC Converters
Fig. 3 •.7.2 Wavefonns of~ full converter having resistive load

Power Electronics •- Ill 3 - 91 ACID~ ~converters
,. . Example 3.7.1 : For the 3 cf) full converter having resistive load find the following :
i) Ripple frequency /ripple .
ii) Output average voltage V0 ( av) .
Solution : i) To determine ripple frequency :
In the load voltage waveforms of Fig. 3.7.2 observe-,hat line voltage VRY is
applied across the load from (~ + a) to ( ~ + a} i.e. ~. Similarly other line voltages
are also applied across the loadfor the period of ; . The load voltage has the ripple
period of ; . In one cycle of supply, six such ripple cycles are present in output
waveform. Hence ripple frequency must be six times of the supply frequency. i.e.,
/ripple = 6 xSO = 300 Hz
Thus ripple frequency of 3cf) full converter is higher than 3C? semiconverter. This is
true for all the firing angles.
Ii) To determine output average voltage

We know that average value is given as,
1 T
Vo(av) = T f v 0 (wt) dwt ... (3.7.1)
0
Case -1 cx~W
Consider the case when a S 600 i.e. for continuous output voltage waveform.
Fig. 3.7.2 (d) shows the output voltage waveform for a =3Cf. Consider the pericd
(: +a) to (; + a) when voltage VRY is applied across the load . This period is,
From Fig. 3.7.2 (b) we can write an equation for line voltage VRY as,
VRY = .f3 Vm sin (wt+:)

Vm is peak value of the phase voltage. ....
Putting the above values in equation 3.7.1,
Slnglla and Three Phase
1
ft / 3
=
3../3
. ft m
V. [
- cos
(
(I)
1t)]i+a
t + 6 ~+a
6
... ... (3.7.2)
Case II : a > 60°

Now consider the case when a > 6ft'. For this firing angle, the output voltage
waveform is discontinuous. Fig. 3.7.2 (f) shows the output voltage waveform for
a = 900. Putting the integration limits and VRY in equation 3.7.1 for this case.
5ft
Vo(av) = 11
~
3
T
!:+a
"3Vmsin(wt+~) dwt
6
=
3
~ Vm [-cos (wt+:)]!6+a
... (3.7.3)
This is the equation for average output voltage for a > 600.
,_. Example 3.7 .2 : For a 3 , fully controlled SCR bridge converter operating from
400 V, 3 phase AC supply, calculate the average DC output voltage for a firing angle
of 45°.
Vune = 400 V (rms)
Cl = 45°
Hence rms value of phase voltage is,
400
Vph = ../?,
Single and,fhree Phase
Power Electronics -111 3 .93 AC/DC Converters
Hence peak value of phase voltage is,
Vm = .J2Vph = .J2. ~ V
Here firing angle is 45°. Hence the conduction will be continuous for resistive as
well as inductive load. Therefore the average DC output is given by equation 3.7.2 i.e.,
'3J3vm
Vo(av) = - - - cos a
7t
Putting values in above equation ,

11
3/3x./2.- 400
3_ cos 45°
_ _ _ _./3_
7t
= 382 volts
3.7.2 Operation with Highly Inductive Load

Let us consider the operation of 3 t full converter with highly inductive load. The
output current will be continuous and ripplefree. In the waveforms of Fig. 3.7.2,
observe that voltage waveform is continuous till a =6CJ'. But with inductive load,
voltage waveform is continuous for any value of a. Fig. 3.7.5 shows the waveforms of
34» full converter for highly inductive load. Fig. 3.7.5 (c) shows the output voltage
waveform for a = &. Observe that this waveform is same as that of resistive load
shown in Fig. 3.7.2 (e). Fig. 3.7.5 (d) shows the continuous and ripplefree output
current. Fig. 3.7.5 (e) shows supply phase current waveforms i R, iy and i 8 . Observe
that the R-phase current is positive whenever T1 conducts and it is negative whenever
T 4 conducts. All the three current waveforms are of the same nature (quasi square
wave) having 1200 phase shift with respect to each other.
Fig. 3.7.S (£) shows the output voltage waveform for a = 900. The waveform goes
negative for same period, because of inductive load. The load inductance generates a
large voltage to maintain the load current in the same direction. Hence SCRs continue
to conduct and load voltage becomes negative occasionally. Note that there is no
freewheeling in full converter.
I
Power Electronics - Ill 3 . 95 AC/DC Converters
,_., Example 3.7.3 : Derive an expression for aoerage and r.m.s. output voltage of 3+ full
converter having highly inductive load. (2004)
Solution : In the Fig. 3.7.3 observe that output voltage waveform is continuous for
complete range of a . Hence single expression can be drived. · In Fig. 3.7.3 (c), observe
that one ripple period of output voltage can be,
T =(~+_a)-(:+a)=;
During this period line voltage VRY is applied across the load. From Fig. 3.7.3 (b),
VRY will be,
VRY :::;; ✓3 Vm sin ( c.ot+ :)
Here Vm is the peak value of supply phase voltage.
I) Average output voltage
IT
Vo(av) = T f
v o ( co t) do> t
0
... ... (3.7.4)
This equation holds for complete range of a .

II) RMS output voltage
The rms output voltage is given as,
1
V o(rms) = [ T !
l T ]2
v;(rot) do>t
1
1t 2
2+a
1
=
7t
1t
I v~y (cot) dcot
3 6+a
1
2
1+a 1-cos(2cot+ ;)
= !· 3Vn~
ff
J 2 dcot
6+a
I
1t ff 2
=
9v.2
m
27t
2+a
f cos ( 2cot + 31t) dcot
f dcot- 2+a
1t 7( •
6 +a 6 +a
1
1t 2
2+a
( 2cot + }"
sin\
9V. 2 ~+a )
= -1!!. [rot] 2 -
21t ~+a 2
6
n
-+a
6
= { :f [~+a- ~ -a-;[sin(n+2a+ ;)-sm(; +2a+ ;)]]}2

9
1
9
= { :: [ ;-½(-"3cos2a]]}2
Since output voltage is 50 % of its maximum value,

Vo(av) = 0.5 Vo(av)max
= 0.5 x 280.68 = 140.34 V
Consider the formula for output voltage,
V o(av) =
if3v,,,
7t cosa
Putting values in this equation,

3.J3x1697
140.34 = ----cosa
1t
a = 60°
II) Average and rms output currents
Average output current is given as,
V
T
~(av)
= '\av)
R
=140.34
10
= 14·034 A
To obtain rms current, we have to obtain rms output voltage, for a ~ 60, the output
voltage waveform is continuous as shown in Fig. 3.7.2 (d). Consider the period from
(~+a) to (~+a) when voltage VRY is applied arrows the load. 1rus period is,
From Fig. 3.7.2 (b) we can write an equation for line voltage VRY as,
V RY = J3Vm sin(rot+ : )
Here Vm is the peak valve of phase voltage. RMS value is given as,
1
Vo<rmsl = [ i !v,2("'t)d"'f
Power Electronics -111 3 ·100 AC/DC Converters
= 3I}(rms)
... = Io(_rms)
... (3.7.7)
.J3
15 7
= .};- = 9.189 A
iv) Rectification efficiency ( rt)

Rectification efficiency is given as,
Average or de load power
11 =
RMS load power
= Vo(_av)IG(av)
Vo(rms) 1o(rms)
= 140.34 X 14.034 _ 0 7Tl 717 0¼

159.17xl5.917 - · or · 0
v) To obtain power factor

The active load power is the power consumed in the load. It can be calculated as,
Active load power = I~rms) x R
= (15.917)2 X 10
= 2533.5 W
At any time instant two thyristors conduct. Hence the supply current can be given
in terms of thyristor currents as,
l;c,-ms) = 21~(,_""-')
= 2 · o(rms)
3
... Is(nns) = Io(rms)~ ... (3.7.8)
= 15.917 ~
= 13 A
For 3 cj) supply, the total supply volt-ampere will be,
Supply VA = 3 V5 lg
= 3 x 120 x 13 = 4680 VA
Power Electronlc:9 -111 3 -101 ACJDC Converters
The power factor is given as,

Active load pawer
PF=
Total supply power(VA)
= ~:os = 0.5413 (lagging)
3.7.3 Comparison between 3+ and 1♦ Converters

Sr.No. Parameter 1♦ converter 3♦ converters
1. Rip,ple content in output More Less

2. Output power. Leu upto 5 kW More than 5 kW.
3. Supply current wavefonn. Square wave for 1+ full Quasi square wave for 3+ full
converter. converter.
4. Ripple frequency. 100 Hz 150 Hz and 300 Hz
5. Control and complexity. Less complex and easy Complex control and
control. Implementation.
6. Maximum supply power 0.9 0.955
factor.
7. Supply and load derating. Higher. Less
T:able 3.7.1 Comparison of 3+ and 1+ converters

It shows that it is preferable to use~ converters for better power efficiency. Hence
for higher load power requirement 3t converters are always preferred. But for simple
and low power applications lq, converters are used because of their simplicity of
implementation.
Review Question
1. Explain the worling of 3 ♦ full converter for highly inductivt load with the help of war,eforms.
Unsolved Example
1. A 3♦ fall conwrter operatQ from 3♦, 415 V, 50 Hz supply. The load u highly inductive.
Dttmni~ the triggering 11ngle of tire conoato- to gd trom1gt output voltllge of 300 volts. The load
miltsma is R == 10 Q. Determine the load current and ,x,r.oer.
[Ans. : a = 57.63°, 1 0 ( 4111) = 30 A, Po(«o) = 9 kW]
3.8 Effect of Source Inductance Dec.-2003
Normally the converters are fed from supply transform~. The inductance of the
supply transformer becomes input to converter. Tius inductance is called source
inductance. It affects the performance of converter.
Power Electronics - Ill 3 • 102 AC/DC Converters
3.8.1 Effect of Source Inductance in 1♦ Full Converter

Fig. 3.8.1 shows the circuit diagram of lf full converter with source inductance.
Note that the source inductance 'L5 ' is not physically connected. It is equivalent
inductance of the source.
load
Fig. 3.8.1 14» FCB with source inductance Ls

Operation of the Converter
Here we will assume that the load is highly inductive. Hence the output current is
continuous and ripplefree.
Mode-I (a+µ to 1t +a)
Fig. 3.8.2 shows the waveforms of the circuit. Equivalent circuit -1 shows the
current path for the duration (a+µ to n+ex). SCRs T 1 and T2 are conducting. The
complete load current is carried by T 1 and T2 . The supply current flows through
source inductance. It stores the energy. This mode ends at (n +ex).
Fig. 3.8.2 see on next page.
Mode-II (n+a to 1t+ex+µ)
At 7t +a, the supply voltage is nagative. SCRs T 3 and T 4 are triggered at 7t +a.
Since T 3 and T 4 are forward biased they tum-on and load current starts flowing
through them. Hence the current through 'Ls' also mes to reverse as shown in
equivalent circuit-ID of Fig. 3.8.2. But the energy stored in 'Ls' induces a voltage that
forward biases T1 and T2 as shown in equivalent circuit-II of Fig. ,3.8.2. Therefore T 1
and T2 also remain in on state and carries load current partially. Thus in this interval
all the four SCRs, T 1 and T2 as well as T 3 and T 4 are conducting. As the stored
energy in 'Ls ' reduces, the current in T1 and T2 goes on reducing. Therefore the
current in T 3 and T 4 goes on increasing. These current waveforms are shown in
Fig. 3.8.2 (b) and (c). The output voltage _is zero, since T 3 and T2 are conducting
simultaneously. Fig. 3.8.2 (d) shows the output voltage waveform. The period from
(1t +ex) to (1t +a+µ) is called overlap period. The angle 'µ' is called overlap angle.
All lhe four

SCRS ccnduct
~
-lflOUgh
Equiv-,,i circuit · II CIICUits-
shown~
OulPUt Yellage 1$
-~flls
.. period
Equlvaleftt c:ircult · HI
Fig. 3.8.2 Waveforms of 1, FCB showing effect of source Inductance

Mode-Ill (1t +a + µ to 2Tt + a)
At (7t +a+µ), the energy in the source inducta~e is zero and overlap period ends.
Hence T1 and T2 turn-off. Therefore T 3 and T4 on!y remain in conduction. The full
load current is earned by T 3 and T 4 • 1his mode ends at (27t + a) when T1 and T 2 are
triggered again.
Sfngle and Three Phase
,_. Example 3.:8.1 : Derive an expression for output voltage of 1♦ FCB having source
inductance ' Ls '. The overlap angle is 'µ' due to source inductance.
Solution : Average output voltage is given as,
lT
J
Vo( av) = T v O ( (J)f) d(J)t
0
From the output voltage waveform of Fig. 3.8.2 (d) we can write above equation
as,
l n+a
= 7t J Vm sin (J)f doot
a+µ
= Vm [-cos(J)t]"+a
7t a+µ
V.
... Vo(av) = ; [ cosa+cos(a+µ)] ... (3.8.1)
We know that output voltage of 1♦ FCB without source inductance is

2
~m cosa.
Hence reduction in output voltage due to source inductance will be,
Vo(reduced) = Vo(av) - Vo(iw) with Ls
2V. V.
= ---2!!..cosa - --1!!..( cosa+cos(a+µ)]
7t 7t
V.
= 2!. [ cos a - cos(a +µ)] ... (3.8.2)
7t
Average output voltage In tenns of L 5

When all the four SCRs are conducting in overlap period, the output voltage is
zero. Therefore the complete source voltage appears across 'Ls'· Fig. 3.8.3 shows the
loop, that shows supply voltage appears across L5 through T 1 and T2 • By KVL to this
loop,
Fig. 3.8.3 Source voltage appears across 'Ls' during overlap

Hence output voltage is given as,

V o(av) = V ~av) without L5 - V o(reduced}
2Vm 2roL5 I 0
= - - COSCl ... (3.8.5)
1t 1t
1his is the formula for output voltage in terms of Ls·

To obtain an expression for overlap angle'µ'
Consider equation 3.8.3,
cosa-cos(cx +µ)
2roL5 10
cos(cx +µ) = COS<l - V,
m
... a+µ = cos- 1[cos cx-

200
Vm
Ls Io]
... ... (3.8.6)
This is an expression for overlap angle 'µ '.
Review Questions
1. Explain the effect of source inductance on the output of conVtrlns.
2. Derive an expression for reduction in output voltage and croerlop angle due to source inductance.
3.9 Single Phase Dual Converters

We have seen that the single phase full converter operates in two quadrants for
inductive load. H two such single phase full converters are connected back to back,
then it is possible to get four quadrant operation. Such converters are called as dual
converters. They ,o perate in all the four quadrants. Fig. 3.9.1 shows the circuit diagram
of 1 ♦ dual converter. The P-converter has the output V01 and it operates in
rectification mode (i.e. a < 90>). The N-ronverter has the output V02 and it operates in
the inversion mode (i.e. a > 90°). For a > 90, the average output V02 of N-oonverter is
negative. The two outputs V0 1 and V02 appear across the load. The two converters
operate on inductive load. Hence their average values are given as,
'
2Vm
Vol(av) = 7t
cos a 1
} ... (3.9.1)
2 Vm
and vo2(nv) = - - cos a 2
1t
230V-50 Hz 230 V-50 Hz

mains supply mains supply
P-converter N-converter
Fig. 3.t.1 1+ dual converter
Since one converter operates in rectifying mode and other converter operates in
inversion mode, their average values must be equal and opposite in sign. i.e.,
Vol(w) = - Vo2(av) ... (3.9.2)
Putting for Vol(av) and V0z(w) from equation 3.9.1 in above equation,
2 vm ·
- - cos a 1 = - - - cos a 2
2 vm
7t 1t
... cos Clt= - cos a2

... a2 = n-a1
or a 1 +a 2 = n ... (3.9.3)
Thus if a 1 <9Cr, then a 2 > 90° and their sum is 180° or n. Fig. 3.9.2 shows the
waveforms of 1 ♦ dual converter.
Sr. Parameter Circulating current mod• Non-clrc11.1latJng current mode

No.
1. Converter 1operation Both converters are always 'ON'. Only one converter is 'ON' and
other is 'OFF'.
2. Triggering angles a,+ Cl2 == 18(1 a, and <Xi are leas than 9CJ>.
3. Continuous I Converter always operate In The operation can be continuous

discontinuous..operation continuous current mode because or discontinuous depending upon
of circulating current Independent the load.
of load.
4. Dynamic response Good dynamic response because Slow dynamic response due to
of continuous current mode. deadband during changeover.
5. Efficiency Efficiency Is low due to losses in Efficiency is higher since there

circulating current limiting reactor. are no losses.
6 Cost and complexity Higher due to circulating current Lower since only one converter is
and its limiting reactor. to be controlled at a time.
Table 3.9.1 Comparison between clrculatlng and non-clrculatlng current modes

1
1-+ Example 3.9.1 : For a single phase dual converter, obtain an equation for circulating
current i cir.
Solution : We have seen that the average values of v 0 1 and v 0 2 are same but their
instantaneous values are not always same. Hence circulating current flows between the
two converters. The circulating current can be obtained by integrating the
instantaneous voltage difference. i.e.,
i cir =
00
~ JVr d (1) t
In Fig. 3.9.'2 observe that v 01 and v 02 are same in the interval from 1t +a 1 to
21t -a 1. Hence there is no instantaneous voltage difference. But from 21t -ex 1, v 01 and
v 0 2 are different. Hence above equation will be,
1 (J)f
1cir = c.o L f Vr d CO t ... (3.9.4)
r 21t- a1
Here we can write,

Vr = V ol+ Vo2
In Fig. 3.9.2 observe that v 01 =-Vm sin c.ot and Vo2 =-Vm sin oot from 21t - cx1 to
21t + a 1. Hence above equation becomes,
vr = - Vm sin 00 t - Vm sin 00 t
= - 2 Vm sin c.o t
Power Electronics - Ill 3 -1 11 AC/DC Converters
Hence equation 3.9.4 becomes,

O>t
l cir = (J) ~, J -2 Vm sin rot d CJ.) t
2n-a1
rot
= ~ ~m J (- sin rot) d ro t
, 21t-«1
= 2 Vm ( cos rot] wt
ro L, 2n-cx1
2
= V.Lm [ cos ro t - cos ( 21t - a 1)]
(J) r
2 Vm [ cos rot- cos a ]

= -L- ... (3.9.5)
Cl) ,
1
Titls is the required expression for circulating current in the 1 ~ dual converter.
3.1 O Three Phase Dual Converters

We have discussed 1 41 dual converters earlier. We know that dual converter
operates in all the four quadrants of v O - i O plane. Dual converters are used in
reversible speed drives. The 3 q> dual converters supply more power compared to 141
dual converters.
3.10.1 Circulating Current Mode

Fig. 3.10.1 shows the circuit diagram of 3 cl> dual converter. It uses two 3 t full
converters. We know that the average output voltage of 3 cp full converter is given for
highly inductive as,
,vo(av) -_ 3J31t Vm cos a (
... 3.10.1
)
Hence the outputs of the two converters will be,

Lr Lr
T T ic1r
1,. ,
I
io
T2N
+
R
y vo1
L
0 Vo2
t R
y
A Vo
8
P-coniverter or
l
D
!
l +
N-converter or
B
converter-1 converter-2
Fig. 3.10.1 3 ci, dual converter
Power Electronics - Ill 3-112 AC/DC Convertars
3.J3 Vm
Vol (av) = 1t
COS CX1
and
3 .J3 Vm cos a 2
vo2(av) = 1t
From Fig. 3.10.1 it is clear that,
Vo (av) = Vol (av)=- Vo2 (av) ... (3.10.2)

From equation 3.10.1 and above equation we have,
3J3Vm
- - - cos a 1 =
3J3 Vm
- - - cos a 2
1t 1t
cos CXt = - cos Cl2

or ... (3.10.3)
This is the relationship between triggering angles of the two converters. The
converter having a < 900 operates in rectifying mode. And the converter having
a > 90° operates in inverting mode. Fig. 3.10.2 shows the waveforms of 3 cp dual
converter. Fig. 3.10.2 (c) shows the output voltage waveform of converter 1 for
a 1 = 60°. It operates in rectification mode. Fig. 3.10.2 (d) shows the output voltage
waveform. of converter-2 (inverted output Le. - v 0 2) for a2 :;:; 1200. It operates in the
inverting mode.
The two outputs v 0 1 and v 0 2 are same in magnitude. But their instantaneous
values are different. Hence small amount of circulating current flows from one
converter to other converter. This current can be limited by the circulating current
reactor L, connected between the two converters.
,_. Example 3.10.1 : Derive an expression for circulating current in 3 ci, dual converter.
Solution : Consider the interval from (: +a 1 ) to (~+a 1 ) in Fig. 3.10.2. The voltage
v 01 = V RY and v 02 = Vy8 in this interval. From Fig. 3.10.2 (b) we can write,
V01 = V RY = ..ff, V111 sin ( Ct) t +:)

and v 0 2 = v RB = J3 V,,, sin ( wt - ~)
Hence the ripple voltage across the inductor during the interval
(: + ex 1) S w t S ( ; + o. 1 ) will be,
Output voltage of, -

converter~ 2
(¼=1t-Cl1 =1200
ipple voltag
across
inductor
Fig. 3.10.2 Waveforms of 3 ~ dual converter
= .J3 Vm sin (rot+: )-.J3Vm sin ( oo t - ~)
= 3 Vm cos ( oo t - : ) ... (3.10.4)
The w aveform of this voltage is shown in Fig . 3.10.2 (e). Now the circulating
current can be obtained as,
11) To obtain peak current of converter - I

The load resistance is 10 n. Hence the peak load current will be,
3V. 3x179.63
Peak load current = i[' = = 53.89 A
10
:. Peak current of converter - 1 will be,
I peak (Convl) = Peak load current + peak circulating current
= 53.5 + 53.89
= 107.39 A
3.10.2 Non-circulating Current Mode 2006

We know that both the converters are 'ON' (i.e. conducting) in circulating current
mode The directions of voltage and current both can be reversed to operate it into all
the four quadrants. In the noncirculating current mode, only one converter operates at
a time. Hence circulating current doesnot flow. Hence circulating current inductor L,
is not required. When converter-I is 'ON' output voltage is positive. When converter-2
is 'ON' output voltage is negative. The output current direction will also be reverseri.
But the response of noncirculating mode dual converter is slow. Table 3.9.1 given
earlier for comparison of circulating and noncirculating current modes is applicable for
3+ dual converters also.
Review Questions
1. Compare circulating and non circulating current modes.
2. Derive an equation for circulating current in dual converter.
3.11 Power Factor Improvement

• In the 1♦ and ~ converters discussed till now we observed that the power
factor depends upon firing angle a.
• As firing angle increases, power factor reduces. This is because reactive
power increases with firing angle.
• The power factor improvement techniques empty forced commutation of
SCRs in the converters.
• The SCRs are turned on and off at desired instants so as to control the
displacement factor and power factor.
• Various power factor improvement techniques are :
i) Extinction Angle Control (EAC)
ii) Symmetric Angle Control (SAC)
iii) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
iv) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
Power Electronics -111 3 -1 18 AC/DC Converters
Supply power factor will be,

PF = Ji(l-cosfl) ... (3.11.5)
JiiP
Displacement factor will be,
DF = sin~ Qeading) ... {3.11.6)
Harmonic factor will be,

~----
HF = 1tf3 -1 ... (3.11.7)
4(1-cos~)
•
The performance of extinction angle control is similar to that of phase angle
control discussed in the operation of lei> semiconverter earlier. The only difference is
that displacement factor is leading in extinction angle control, whereas it is lagging in
phase angle control.
3.11.2 Symmetrical Angle Control (SAC) 2006

Fig. 3.11.3 shows the waveforms of symmetrical angle control.
_l_ _l
I
I I I _L I 'I
T -r-
I
' .. . -
'(
I (a)
-/r- ---,-- '-~

' I
V I
~7 ~
/
- Load
/ I - '
.
- l-
I
- voltage I I
t +-
'
-l - L
I
a ,t-,n n
,
VO
! - .l.
2
I
J_
"k V
- ,_ ,.._
I I
!
-
. t- r--
I
7-
I
i - t- --
I
~ I -- --
I ~ i
l j
I
..
,__(~)_+
I I
,- .. .
I I
I l
1oeav)
--...., .. i
I
,is1 I
- I
- I i- - -
Supply
---~! 7 ..,l.' .. -
-
__
.... .... ~ ....
I
~--' ,__1 - __ --1
current t -
is ' :a
I
I
1t-,O TC.. .... _ _.., I
,_
I
I
-1- - - Jt
2 r
I- --t --,-
I
I
I
I
! I I I
I
I I
i -1-~
It
r· 7 -'
I
~
I
I i
r--
I
Fig. 3.11 .3 Waveforms of symmetrical angle control
• The SCR T 1 is triggered at a and turned off at 1t-a. Thus ~ = n-~
Fig. 3.11.3 (b) shows the supply current waveform for ripple free load
current. Observe that the supply current pulse is symmetric around ~.
• The dotted line in Fig. 3.11.3 (b) shows ·fundamental oomponent (i51 ) of
supply current. Note that this fundamental component is in phase with
3.11.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Fig. 3.11.4 shows the waveforms of PWM.
.
.
DC cor lrol voltage
- Control
I~ ,,-V7~V I V I
waveforms \ I \ I\ l l ~ I\ I\ I (a)
;v V V V V V t
I I n I
I
I
I
I •
I
I
- -
- -
r~,
- Load voltage
VO
11'} ( 1· _( · .- -
~ '
(b,
t
~ <½ b2
1 • '
./ I
I
- ,,. .,
' !
Sup~ly I
n- -n~ ti~ r:l ~
n --Fl. (c)
~
current o<av) - .. .
t
- is
«1 ~, <½ J½ TI ti Id-~l:f
I
Fig. 3.11 .4 Waveforms of PWM
• The triangular wave and DC control voltage is compared in the control
circuit. This comparison gives start and end of multiple pulses in each half
cycle.
• The SCR T1 is triggered at a 1 and commutated at ~1 . This results first pulse
of voltage across output as shown in Fig. 3.11.4 (b). Again T 1 is triggered at
a2 and commutated at ~ 2 . This repeats till 1t.
• In one half cycle· there are multiple pulses of output. The average value of
output voltage can be varied by changing amplitude of OC control valtage in
Fig. 3.11.4 (a).
• The lowest harmonic present is supply current depends upon number of
pulses per half cycle.
Mathematical Analysis
Output average voltage,
1T .
Vo(av) = Tf v 5 (wt)dwt
0
=
1
1t LP PtJ Vm sin(rot) dwt, Here p is number of pulses per half cycle.
k =1 ~
Pow.r Electronics - Ill 3 -123 ACIDC Converters
Summary
Sir. Type of convertar Load Parameter

No.
1. 1 ♦ half wave R 2
Vo(av) • ~(1+ cosa)
RL Vo(av) = ~(cosa- cosP)
RL with freewheeling diode Vo(av) = ~(1+ oosa)
2. 1 ♦ semlconverter R
Vo(av) = ;(1+ coscx)
1
Vo(rms) = (~[n - cx+-dsin2a]}2
RL Vo(av) = V:( 1+ cos a)

1
Vo(rms) = ( ~ [n - cx+~sin2a]}2
OF= cos~
RL 2
P Fn(n ~cos2 ~2
=-a)
n(1t - a)
HF= -1
1 8~s2 ~
2
3. 1 ♦ full converter R
V0 cav) • ~(1+ coscx)
1
Vo(rma) = (v.2[
2i 1t-a+ 2sin
1 2a]}2
V _ 2Vm
RL . o(av) - n cos a
V - Vm
o(rms) - 72 t,
RL with freewheeling diode

Vo(av) =V;(1+ cosa)
1
Vo(rms) • (v,2[n-a+ 21sin2a]}2

~
OF = cosa
RL PF =2./2
1t
cos a
HF :r 0.4834 or 48.34 %
Power Electron lcs - Ill 3-124 AC/DC Convertars
4. 3 ♦ half wave R
converter Vo(av) =~m cos a for as 3(J"
3
• ~[1+ co{i+ a)]fora> 30°
Rl V :w3Vm
o(av) • 2Jt cosa
5. 3 ♦ semi converter R, RL
Vo(av) • mv.
27t m (1+ cosa)
6. 3 ♦ fuD converter R
Vo(av) • ~Vm cos o.foras 60°
Vo(av) =~Vm[1+ cos(i + a)] fora> 60°

RL
Vo(av) =3J3V.
1t m cos a
RL - with freewheeling di- V o(av) is same as that wtth R-load.

ode
7. 1 ♦ dual converter RL V. _ 2Vm

01(av) - ff COS a,
2V.
voi(,v) = .,tcos~
a,+ <Xi= 180"
•cir • !'t [ cos cot - cos a,]
.
DC/DC Converters
Objectives
• Prlndple of DC to DC c:onuerslon In power eledronlc:s.
• Step-down and step-up prlndple fn choppers.

• Control strategies of choppers.
• Choppers with RL and RLE loads, their current analysis.
• Performance parameters of choppers.
• Classf/lcat1on of choppers according to their V0 - 10 quadrant of operation.
• Impulse commutated thyristor chopper.
• AppllC(ltJons of choppers.
• Study of SMPS (flyback converter}

• Resonant converters.
4.1 Introduction
The DC choppers convert the
input DC voltage into fixed or DC
variable DC output. Fig. 4.1.1 shows chopper
the basic block diagram of the
chopper.
• The chopper has fixed or Fig. 4.1.1 Basic inputs/outputs of DC chopper
variable DC input, V5 • And
the output V0 is also fixed or variable. Hence DC chopper is also called as de
to de converter.
• The output V0 can be greater or less than the input. Hence the choppers can
be step-down or step-up type.
(4 • 1)
Power Electronics - Ill 4-2 DC/DC Converters
• Choppers are used in de traction drives, trolley cars, marine lifts etc. The de
choppers use switching principle. Hence they have high efficiency. The
choppers are also used in de voltage regulators for high efficiency.
• The dynamic response of choppers is fast due to switching nature of the
devices.
4.2 Step-down Chopper

circuit diagram of the basic is io
step-down chopper. The
switch (sw) can be a power
transistor, SCR,
power MOSFET, IGBT or
GTO, vs
Base
drive
rl
0 R
similar switching device.

Normally the drop in the (a) Basic step down (b) Step down chopper with
switch is very small and it chopper transistor a a switch
is neglected. Fig. 4.2.2 Fig. 4.2.1
shows the waveforms of
the step-down chopper with resistive load.
Fig. 4.2.2 (a) shows the drive of the switch. In case of power transistor, it will be a
base drive. The drive is applied for the period O to 6 T. Hence the switch rums ON for
this period and connects supply Vs to the load. Hence v O = Vs in this period. From 6 T
to T the drive of the switch is removed, hence it turns off. Hence the load voltage is
zero. Since the load is resistive, output current will be, i O = 1;:. Hence the nature of
output current is same as output voltage.
Fig. 4.2.2 Waveforms of the step~own chopper with resistive load
Copy ght ma r al
>• Example 4.2.1 : For the stepdown chopper having resistive load derive an expression
for the following -
i) Average output voltage V0 (av)
ii) rtns output voltage V0 ( rms)
Solution : I) To obtain Vo(av)

The average value is given as,
1 T
Vo(av) = T f Vo (t) dt
0
In the output voltage waveform of Fig. 4.2.2 observe that v 0 = V5 from Oto 6 T, rest
of the time v O is zero. Hence above equation can be written as,
6T ar
V0 ( QT}) =~ f Vs dt
0
= i f
0
dt = i·
6T
... v o(av) = 6 Vs ... (4.2.1)
Here 6 = T on is called the duty cycle of the chopper. The value of duty cycle lies
T
between Os 6 s 1.
II) To obtain Vo( rms)
The rms value of output is given as,
1
Vo(rms) = [l
T !v
T
~ (t) dt
]2
We know from Fig. 4.2.2 that v O = V5 from O to 6 T (i.e. when the transistor switch
is on). Hence above equation becomes,
v•(= ) =u6[v1 d
2
t =[~ yd,t ~[1 •6T]~
Vo(mts) = .J6 Vs ... (4.2.2)
,_., Example 4.2.2 : Explain the basic principle of step-down chopper and write down the
expressions for -
i ) Average output voltage
ii) Output power
iii) Effective input resistance in terms of chopper duty cycle.
Power Electronics - Ill 4.5 DCIDC Converters
Since 6 = V~av), above equation becomes,

s
This is an expression for effective input resistance.
,_. Example 4.2.3 : For a chopper shown below, DC source voltage is 230 V, load
resistance is 10 n Consider the voltage drop of 2 V across chopper when it is on. For a
duty cycle of 0.4 calculate,
i) Average and nns value of output voltage
ii) Chopper efficiency
r-----, L
+lo--1-ol'o-+-
i_____' -...---'
Ch
Load
Fig. 4.2.4 Chopper circuit of example 4.2.3

Solution : The given data Is,
½ = 230 v, R = 10 n , v,h = 2 v, o = 0.4
It is a step-down chopper. The inductance filter is present. We will consider that
the load is fairly resistive.
I) To obtain average and nns values

The average value is given by equation 4.2.1 as,
Vo(av) = 6V5
This equation neglects the drop in chopper. Considering the drop, above equation
will be,
V o(av) = o(V5 - Yeh)
= 0.4 (230 - 2) = 91.2 V
Therms value is given by equation 4.2.2 as,
Vo(rms) = J'6Vs
Considering the voltage drop across <:hopper,
Vo(rms) = .J6<Vs - Vch)
= ./OA (230 - 2) = 144.2 V
II) To obtain chopper efficiency

The load power can be calculated as,
6T 2 6T V. 2
Po = .!. J ~ dt = ! J( s - Vch) dt
T R T R
0 0
= ! CVs - Vch)2 6JT dt =.!_.(Vs - V,h)2 •OT

T R T R
0
... (4.2.3)

2
P0 = 0.4(l30- 2) = 2079.36 W
10
The supply power (input power) can be calculated as,
l 6T .
f
Ps = T Vs l s dt
0
In the Fig. 4.2.2, observe that i5 = i O and v 6 = ½- Hence above equation becomes,
... (4.2.4)
Putting the values,

230-2
P5 = 0.4 X 230 X lO = 2097.6 W
Therefore efficiency of the chopper is,

Load power (output power)
Tl =
Supply power(input power)
= ~o:7~ = 0.9913 or.99.13 %

Here note that efficiency is very high since voltage drop in the chopper is very
small.
POWltr Electronh:s - Ill 4-7 DC/DC Converters
4.2.1 Chopper Control Techniques

The chopper can be operated as constant frequency or variable frequency. These
are also called as Time Ratio Control (TRC) techniques.
1. Constant frequency operation :
The chopper frequency is kept constant Hence total period T remains constant. T 0 n
and T0JJ both are varied to vary the duty cycle. The advantage is that the filter
components are easy to design. Fig. 4.2.5 (a) and (b) shows the waveforms of this
operation.
i
_I ! I ! I
I
I
, 1-,- -,--- ----t- -,,
l
- - --
c v0 I {a)
- _i :
-
- 8ai ,
~~ lI
c o
ii,
~ 1
l
,
I
Ton iI
,
- T
constant
, ,
-k -
I - -
'
j
.
- ,-
I<
b t 1
,
- i +V•--e--t Toff -l--- -+-J__ -- •·-
; I T0 n T~ 11 i "_ _ , t ; _
--l-' - -1 r--T is varied 1 - ,-.·
1
-+-- if (max) ~
Vo I - ,
~ ~
~ ---~
~1
!
I
b-,
~
h~
J_ "' - ;{i)
I --r---'
I
Af -
II 1 I
I io(min) I I
i--,...-
I
0
I ---Chopper ! Chopper
1
•
,_ e ---i on\- -; off

-
- -~ ~ r - ~ - , -
I
--
I
...---+,
I
1
I
---------4
'.
1
I
--.--~,-- , -
I
I
<i>
t 1-
,- ~ 8
-"Ta- -
-'-'----t----+--+----+---+
1--1-----.>----I----
' --+---+-- - ----'-----t-1--+---+---f
1 : • 1 1 :
-+,,, ~ - 1- 1 - - - + -+, --+--+--il---f--+-
, -+---+--,I--+-
,- ~ -
-------------
T i - I -___!_ -·
I
Ton t'
I -- -
I I
T_.~_ff -·____.__
1 , r
j
I
t
Ll-
-r--i-1 !
Fig. 4.2.5 Chopper control schemes
POMtr Electronics - Ill 4-9 DC/DC Converters
+ o-------4
Switch
200V 20Q
Solution : I) To obtain duty cycle

Average voltage is given as,
Vo(av) = 6Vs
And rms voltage is given as,
Vo(rms) = ..ff, Vs
Here not that Vo(av) = Vo(mis) if ..ff, = 6. This is possible only for
6 = 1
ii) Chopper efficiency
The switch is ideal. Hence there are no losses in the chopper. Therefore efficiency
of the chopper is 100 %.
,_. Example 4.2.8: A trmisistor chopper is shown in Fig. 4.2.6. If the DC supply of
120 V is applied and the transistor is switched by applying periodic base pulses of
voltage varying between 0 to 1 V, sketch the load voltage with reference to the input
base pulses. Calculate i) Average/DC output ooltage, and ii) Average load cu"ent
assuming the chopper frequency as 200 Hz, duty cycle of operation as 33.33 %, and
load resistance of 10 n.
L
Vdct DC supply 0
A
0
Vdc = 120 V, f\. = 100
Fig. 4.2.6 Chopper circuit of example 4.2.6

Solution : This is a step-down chopper. The base drive and load voltage waveforms
are shown in the Fig. 4.2.2. The average value of output is derived in equation 4.2.1
as,
Vo (av) = 6Vs
i) Average load current I0 («i,)
Here the given data is,
V5 = Vdc = 120 V
1
6 = 33.33 % = 0.3333 =
3
R = lOQ
Hence average output voltage will be,

Vo(av) = 6Vs
1
= -x120 = 40 V
3
Since the load is resistive, averge load current will be,
Vo(av)
lo(av } = R
40
= -=4A
10
,. . Example 4.2.7 : With the aid of basic circuit and waveform explain the basic principles
of operation of a step-down chopper with resistive load. Obtain expressions for i) DC
output voltage ii) Output power and iii) Chopper efficiency
Solution : I) DC output voltage
The DC output voltage is given by equation 4.2.1 as,
Vo(av) = 6Vs
ii) Output power
Since the drop in chopper switch is not given, we will consider ideal switch.
Hence output power as calculated in example 4.2.2 will be,
P = ovl
o R
iii) Chopper efficiency

The supply power to the chopper is given by equation 4.2.4.
Power Electronics - Ill 4 - 11 DC/DC Converters
Ps = 6Vs• Vs ~Vch
Since chopper is lossless,
P.s = 6V.s ·J[---y

Vs - 6¼2
. . Po 6V.s2 I R 1
Chopper effi·ciency is Tl = - = - - - =
' Ps 6Vs2 / R
The efficiency is 100 % since chopper is lossless.
Review Question
1. Draw the circuit diagnmr and explain the operation of step-duum chopper with the help of
waveforms.
Unsolved Examples
1. In a DC chopper the average load current is 30 A. The chopping frequency is 250 Hz and supply
voltage is 110 volts. Calcuhlte ON and OFF periods, if the load resistance is 2 il.
(Ans.: T0 n =1.18 msec, T ff = 1.818 maec)
0
2. A chopper luzs supply voltage of 220 V, load rtsistana R = 10 Q and operating fra,umcy of 1 kHz.
The duty cycle is 50 % Determine,
i) Awrage and ,ms output voltage
ii) Output powa.
= =
[Ans. : V0 («11) 110 V, Vo(rms) 155.56 V, P0 • 2420 W]
4.3 Step-down Chopper with RL Load

Normally the choppers are used to drive the OC motors. These motors are
considered as RL (inductive) load. Fig. 4.3.1 shows the circuit diagram of step-down
chopper having inductive load.
Transistor is used as a switch.
It can be MOSFET, GfO, IGBT or
SCR also. Since the load is.
inductive, freewheeling diode Drive
iFW
L ·1
DFw is used . in the circuit. v1 Vo
R
Normally the inductive loads are DFW
motors. Hence back emf 'E' is
also shown in the circuit diagram E _l
·as a part of load. Such loads are
also called as 'RLE' load. Fig. 4.3.1 Step-down chopper with RL load
4.3.1 Continuous Load Current

Fig. 4.3.2 shows the waveforms of this circuit. The switch is turned 'on' for O to
6 r . Here '6' is the duty cycle of the chopper. The output voltage is equal to supply
voltage (v0 =v5 ) when the switch is 'ON'. The equivalent circuit-I in Fig. 4.3.2 shows
the current flow when the switch is on. The output current is assumed continuous. At
oT, the output current reaches to maximum value I max.
T, / I,, ...
v. J.I
L
R D,,w
L
1 I
I
Equivalent circuit - I
TE
Equivalent cln:ult • II
E
Fig. 4.3.2 Waveforms of step-down chopper for

Inductive load (continuous load curnnt)
C pyrght al
u R R
E E
Equivalent circuit - I Equivalent circuit - II
Fig. 4.3.3 Wavefonns of stepdown chopper for

Inductive load (dlscontlnuou• load current)
di (t)
V5 = L ~t + R i 1 (t) + E
Here we have neglected the drop in the switch (transistor). At t = 0, i 1 (t) =I min .
Hence solution of above equation wi11 be,
...
... (4.3.12)
This equation gives the time at which the load current will be zero or
discontinuous.
,. . Example 4 .3.5 : A chopper circuit drives an inductive load from 200 V DC supply.
Given the load resistance as 4 n. the average load current as 30 A and operating
.frequency is 400 Hz. Compute the ON period and OFF period of the chopper. Also
detennihe the duty cycle of the chopper.
Solution : Given data :
Supply voltage l's = 200 V, Load resistance R =4 Q
Output current I O (av) =30 A, Frequency / =400 Hz.
i) To obtain Vo(av)
Output average voltage is given as
Vo·(av) = Rx Io(av) = 4 x 30=120 V
ii) To obtain 6
We know tlilat
Vo(av) = 6 Vs
0
= Vo(av) = 120 V = O6
Vs 200 V .
Iii) To obtain T on and Toff

We know that,
T
6 =~
T
=TonX f
.. Ton =; = i~ = 1.5 ms
and T = Ton+ Taff
Toff = T - Ton = f1 - Ton

= ~ - 1.5 X 10- 3 = 1 ms
4
, . . Example 4.3.6 : A DC chopper has a resistive load of 20 n and input voltage

¼ = 220 V. When the chopper is on, its voltage drop is 1.5 V and chopping frequency is
10 kHz. If duty cycle is 80 % determine the average output voltage, rms output voltage
and chopper on time.
Solution : Given data :
Supply voltage Vs =220, Drop in switch Vr =1.5 V
Frequency f = 10 kHz, Duty cycle 6 = 0.8
Load resistance R = 20 n
I) To detennlne Vo(av)
V0 (av) is given as,
Vo(av) ;; 6 Vs
Considering the drop in the switch,
Vo(av) = 6 (Vs -Vr)
= 0.8 (220 -1.5) = 174.8
II) To determine V0 ( rms)

vo(rms ) is given as,
Vo(rms ) = ../6 Vs
Considering drop in the switch,
Vo(rms) = ../6 (Vs - Vr)
=../M (220- 1.5) = 195.4 V
Ill) To determine T 0 n
Duty cycle is given as,
6 = Ton =f Ton
T
... T on =
6
f - 10000
0.8
= 80 µsec
, . . Example 4.3. 7 : A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a freewheeling diode.

The load inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10 il. The input to the chopper is 200 V
and the chopper frequency is 100 Hz. The ON to OFF time ratio is 2 : 3 calculate
i) Average load current
ii) Limits between which current fluctuates.
I max =I mm
. e- OT~ + V
5-E(1-
R e-or1)
Since E=0,
= - 0.4 l~oxs 200 ( - 0.4 x l~oxs)

I min e + 10 1 - e
= 1min X 0.99203 + 0.15936

Putting the value of I min (equation 4.3.13) in above equation,
l max = 0.98807 I max X 0.99203 + 0.15936
f max = 8.0465 A
And I min will be (from equation 4.3.13),
Jmin = 0.98807 I max
= 0.98807 X 8.0465
= 7.9505 A
lo(av) can also be calculated as,

I max +/min
I o(ao) = 2
= 8.0465 + 7.9505 = 7_9985 A

2
,. . Example 4.3,. 8 : A chopper is feeding an R-L load as shown in the Fig. 4.3.5.
V5 =220 V , R =5 0, L =7.5 mH, f = 1 kHz, 6 = 0.5 and E = 0 volts. Calculate -
i) Minimum instantaneous load current, I min
ii) Peak instantaneous load current, I max
iii) Maximum peak to peak load ripple current.
iv) Average value of load current, I «av)
v) nns load current I «rms)
vi) Effective input resistance R; seen by the source.
vii) rms chopper current, I T(rms)
= 25.63 - 18.36 = 7.27 A

Maximum pealk to peak ripple in load current is given by equation 4.3.9,
Iomax(p-p) = ; tanh(~1)
= 220 tan h ( 0.001 x5 )
5 4 x7.5 xio- 3
= 7.266 A
Thus the maximum ripple is 7.266 = 7.27 A since 6 = 0.5.
iv) Average value of load current
The average value of load current is approximately given as,
I
,o(av)
= Imax+Inun
2
25.63 + 18.36
=
2
= 21.995 = 22 A.
v) RMS load currant
The rms load current is{given ~~ }t/ 2

2 o(p-p)
Io(rms) = I min + + I min I o(p-p) ... (4.3.16)
3
Putting values,
2 7.272 }1/2
lo(rms) =
{
18.36 +
3
+ 18.36 X7.27
= 22.095 A
vi) Effective Input resistance
The average source current can be calculated from average load current as
fs(av) = 6Io(av)
= 0.5 x 22 = 11 A.
... Input resistance R; = '1s
1s(av)
= 220 = 20 Q
11
vii) RMS chopper current
The rms chopper current can be calculated as (see Fig. 4.3.3),
6T 2 }1/2
I T(nns) = {~ ! i (1) dt
Similarly from equation 4.3.4,
, e -6TR
I mm L +
R
-E(
Vs- - 1-e-6TR)
L
-0.4,_1_.10 200- 0 ( -0,4._1_, 10)

= I mine 200 s + 1-e 200 s
10
= 0.996 Imin + 0.07984 ... (4.3.18)

Putting for 1mm from equation 4.3.17 in above equation,
11'Utt = 0.996 (0.98511 Imax) + 0.07984
... l1111tt = 4.24 A
Similarly from equation 4.3.17 we can get 1mfn as,
Imin = 0.98511 Imax
= 0.98511 x 4.24 = 4.1768 A
(ii) To obtain average load current
The average load current is given as,
I ~~)
= I max + I min _ 4 .24 + 4.1768
2 - 2
= 4.2 A
,_. Example 4.3.10 : For the chopper circuit shown in Fig. 4.3.6, the duty cycle, k = O.E
and chopping frequency f = 5 kHz. Determine
i) Minimum instantaneous load current
ii) Peak instantaneous load cu"ent
iii) Maximum peak to peak current in the load
iv)Average load current
v) RMS load current
Chopper
+ D D
I l
SW
R=10n
V9 =220V Dm Vo
L=15.5mH
l
Fig. 4.3.6 Chopper of example 4.3.10
E =20V
Power Electronics - Ill 4-26 IDC/DC Converters

Supply voltage, V 5 = 220 V
Duty cycle, o= 0.5
1
Chopper frequency, / = 5000 Hz. Hence T = - -
5000
Load resistance, R = 10 .Q
Load inductance, L = 15.5 mH
and E = 20 V
i) and ii) To obtain Imu and Imm
From equation 4.3.3 !min is given as,
· = I max e-(1-6)TR
1mtn E[
L - -R 1- e
-(1-6) TR]
L
-(1-0.5)·~ · 15.5:010-3 - 20[1- -(t-05)·:sck· 15.5 :010-3]

]min = I maxe 10 e
= 0.9375 Ima - 0.12496 ... (4.3.19)

From equation 4.3.4 !max is given as,
Il1UU -- Inun•-6T~ + \;E(l-e-6T~J

I = I . e-o.s-~ -15.5:010-3 + 220-20(1-e-05-~ -15.5:010-3)

max mm 10
= 0.9375 1mm + 1.2495

Putting for Imm from equation 4.3.19 in above equation,
Ima = 0.9375 (0.9375 Ima - 0.12496) + 1.2495
= 9.351 A
Putting this value of lmax in equation 4.3.19 we get,
!min = 0.9375 (9.351) - 0.12496
= 8.642 A
(iii) Maximum peak to peak current in the load
Maximum peak to peak current in the load is given as,
lo<p-pJ = Imu - lmin
= 9.351 - 8.642 = D.709 A
iv) To obtain average load current

Average load current is given as,
I o(m,) = I max +I
2
min
9 351 8 642
= · ; · = 8.996 = 9 A
Average load current can also be obtained by following equation,
= Vo(av) _ 6V5 - E _ 0.5 x 220-20
1o<w> R - R - 10
= 9A
v) RMS load .current
The rms value of load current is given by equation 4.3.16 as,
1
lo<nns) -
_ [ 2
I min +
I~p-p)
3 + I min Jc(_p-p)
]2
1
2 2
lo<nnsJ = [ (8.642) 2 + (0709)
3
+ 8.642 x 0709] = 8.9988 = 9 A
Review Question
I. Explain tM opm,tum of step-down chopper for inductiVt: load with the help of waveforms.
4.4 Step-up Chopper

In the previous section we studied step-down chopper. The average value of
output voltage V0 ( (lT)) is always less than or equal to supply voltage V5 in step-down
chopper. In the step-up ch~per Vo(av) ~ V5 •
Fig. 4.4.1 shows the circuit diagram of the step-up chopper. Observe that there is
an inductance in series with the supply V5 • A switch (transistor GTO, MOSFET etc) is
is L A D1
1T1
~ -------..
r l~
1~
v+
I T1 C
0
-
B
Fig. 4.4.1 Step-up chopper having transistor as a switch
Po•r Electn>nk:s - Ill 4-29 DC/DC Convert.rs
shown. The voltage v AB = 0 since transistor is conducting. Fig. 4.4.2 also show the
output voltage and current waveforms. Here we have assumed that the output voltage
and current are continuous and ripple-free. The capacitor maintains ~e voltage vO •
I
1 1
and supplies the current i 0 when transistor is 'on'. Hence the diode D 1 is reverse
biased and it does not conduct
At 6T transistor (switch) is turned off. Hence the inductance generates a large
voltage L d~~ to maintain the current i L in the same direction. Note the polarity of
inductance voltage in equivalent circuit-11 of Fig. 4.4.2. The diode D 1 is forward biased
and it starts conducting. Thus the output voltage will be
diL
Vo = Vs + L dt
Thus the output voltage of the chopper is greater than supply voltage Vs. This
shows the step-up operation. The voltage induced in the inductance adds to the
supply voltage and this total voltage appears as output voltage. The capacitor also
charges to this boosted voltage. The inductance as well as supply provides the energy
to the load from 6 T to T (Le. when the switch is off). The current through the
inductance decreases because its stored energy goes on reducing. At T, the transistor is
again tumed on and the cycle repeats.
,. . Example 4.4.1 : Derive an expression far llvtT4gt output voltage of the step-up
chopper.
Solution : Let the average voltage aa~ the inductance be VL. The value of this
voltage over one cycle (0 to T) will be,
1 T
VL = T I VL ( t) dt
0
The inductance voltage is v L ( t) = L ddi L . Hence above equation will be,

t .
1 TI diL (t)
VL = T L d dt
0 t
LT
= T J diL (t) ... (4.4.1)
0
The above integration is with respect to inductance current di L (t), hence w_r;
should change the limits appropriately.
At t = 0 (lower limit), i L (t) = I min
and at t =T (upper limit), it (t) = !min
Hence equation 4.4.1 will be,

I .
VL = ~ 1mdiL(t)
.
=~ [iL(t)t~
mm
1mm
L
= T [Imm -Irrun ] =O ... (4.4.2)
Thus the average voltage across the inductance is zero. The inductance stores the
energy when the switch is 'ON' and
supplies the energy to the load when L
~--A
the switch is 'OFF'. vL -
Now let us conside.r the loop ~
formed by supply voltage V5 , V5
inductance and switch. This loop is
shown in Fig. 4.4.3. The voltage .___ _ _ _ ____, 8
across the switch is v AB. The
waveform of v AB is shown in Fig. 4.4.3 Loop fonned by supply, inductance
Fig. 4.4.2. The average value of v AB and switch in step-up chopper
can be obtained as follows :
1 T
VAB = T J VAB (t) dt
0
In Fig. 4.4.2 observe that v AB = V0 (av) from 6 T to T and rest of the period it is
zero. Hence above equation becomes,
= Vo(av) ( 1 - 6) ... (4.4.3)
By KVL to the loop shown in Fig. 4.4.3,

Vs = VL +VAB
The above equation holds for steady state. Putting values from equation 4.4.2 and
4.4.3 in above equation,
... (4.4.4)
This equation gives the value of average output voltage. When 6 = 0, V0 ( ar,) = ~
and V0 ( av ) ➔ oo as 6 approaches to unity. The value of duty cycle · 6' lies between 0
and 1.
Power Electronics -111 4-31 DC/DC Convertars
, . . Example 4.4.2 : Explain the principle of operation of a step up chopper. A step up DC

chopper has an input of 200 volts and .an output of 250 volts. The blocking period in
each cycle of operation is 0.6 ~ 10- 3 seconds. Find the period of conduction in each
cycle.
Solution : Given : VO (av) = 250 volts
Vs = 200 volts
T0ff = 0.6xlo- 3 sec
For the step up chopper, the average value of output voltage is given as,
Vo(av) =
1 6
~ from equation 4.4.4
. th d
Here 6 = T T onT ts e uty cycle.
on+ off
Let us calculate 6 first Putting V o(av) and V5 ,
250 = 200
1-6 .'
... 6 = 0.2
And
Putting for 6 and T0ff,
0.2 =
Ton +0.6x10-3
... T0 n = 0.15xl0- 3
Thus the period of conduction in each cycle is 015 x 10- 3 seconds.

, . . Example 4.4.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200V. The output :required is 600 V.
If the conducting time of thyristor is 200 µ s, compute-
i) Chopping frequency ii) If pulse width is halved for constant fraluency of
operation, find the new output voltage. · '
Solution : The given data is, •
Vs = 200 V
Vo(av) = 600 V
T on = 200 µs
Powar Electronics -111 4-32 DCIDCConvertara
i) To obtain chopping frequency

For the step-up chopper, the average value of output voltage is given as,
Vs
Vo(ao) = 1-&
... 600 = 200

1-8
... 6 = 0.6667
The duty cycle 6 is given as,
6 = Ton
Ton +Toff
1
sirv:e fa-
T
... f = _!_ = 0.6667

Ton 200xto- 6
= 3333.33 Hz • 3.3 kHz
This is the chopping frequency of the chopper.
il) To obtain new output voltage
The chopping &equenc:y is constant. Hence

T = !f • 3333.33
l = 3 x 10-• = 300 µs
2
The Ton pulse width is halved. Hence new T0 n will be ~µs = 1000 µs.
Hence duty cycle will be,

6
3 = Ton = 100 x 10- = 0.3333
T 300x10- 6
The new output voltage of chopper will be, •
V5 200
Vo(n) =
1 - 6 - 1- 0.3333
= 300 V
Thus the output is also reduced by half.
Power Electronics • Ill 4.34 DC/DC Conver1ars
Since Ton is halved, it will be,

200
Ton -- 2 µs = 100 µsec
:. Duty cycle,
Therefore new outplt voltage will be,

Vs
V o(w) = - -
1-0
= 220 = 330 V
1
1--
3
Thus the output voltage is also reduced by half.
4.4.1 Use of Step-up Operation for Energy Transfer

Normally step-up operation is
L used in chopper based de motor
Back emf drives for energy transfer. The
of de
motors Fixed energy is transferred from fixed or
v, vdc oc variable source (normally de motors)
supply to fixed de source (i.e. supply).
Fixed or
variable Fig. 4.4.4 shows the circuit diagram
source for such operation. The waveforms
Fig. 4.4.4 Use of stap-up operation and functioning of this circuit is
same as shown in Pig. 4.4.2.
The step-up operation is normally used in chopper based de drives. Let the
voltage V5 be due to back emf of the motor. It will depend upon the speed of the
motor. Normally during the braking the speed is decreased from the large values. The
energy associated with the back emf (speed) of the motor is fedback to the de supply
(Vd, )·
This operation is called regenerative braking. In regenerative braking, the braking
energy is ~ot wasted, rather it is fed.back to the supply. This increases efficiency of the
chopper drives.
· When the switch is 'on', the current flows through the inductance. The loop
formed is given in Fig. 4.4.5. The inductance stores the energy from the source Vs,
when switch is 'on'. The KVL to the above loop gives,
di 1 (t)
vs = -~
dt
... (4.4.5)
L If the inductance stores the energy, then it

goes on saturating. Hence i 1 (t) goes on
di 1 (t)
increasing. Hence must be positive. i.e.
dt
from equation 4.4.5 we can write,
d i1 (t)
Vs = dt >0
Fig. 4.4.5 Inductance stores the
energy from Vs, when the :. \'s > 0 ... (4.4.6)
switch Is 'on'
Now consider the situation when chopper

L o,
switch is turned off. From Fig. 4.4.4 the
equivalent circuit will be as shown in
Fig. 4.4.6 below.
As shown in the above figure, the current
flows through inductance and diode D 1 to the
supply Vdc· The inductance generates the voltage
v L with the polarity as shown in Fig. 4.4.6. The Fig. 4.4.6 Inductance supplies the
energy to the suppty when
energy stored in the inductance is supplied to
Vdc·
We can write KVL in Fig. 4.4.6 as,
d i 2 (t)
Vs = L dt + Vdc ... (4.4.7)
d i2 (t)
Vs - Vde = L di1' ... (4.4.8)
.
Since the energy in the inductance is transferred to Vd, , current i 2 (t) g~ on
di 2 (t)
reducing. Hence must be negative. i.e. above equation becomes,,
dt
d i2 (t)
\'s - Vdc = L dt <0
·,,
... \'s - Vdc < 0
or l's < Vdc ... (4.4.9)
Thus energy is transferred to Vd, when above condition is satisfied. We can
combine above equation and equation 4.4.6, i.e.,
... (4.4.10)
Poww Electronics - Ill DCIDC Convertera
This is the condition for power transfer &om fixed or variable source (l's) to the
fix~ de supply (Vd, ).
Here note that. step up operation is used for regenerative braking or to transfer
power from motors to the de supply. Condition of equation 4.4.10 must be satisfied to
implement such operation.
4.5 Chopper Clasalflcatlon

In the previous sections we discussed the basic principles of chopper operation.
The choppers are classified depending upon the directions of current and voltage
flows. These choppers operate in different quadrants of v O - i O plane.
There are broadly following types of choppers :
i) Class A chopper
ii) Class B chopper
iii) Class C chopper
iv) Class D chopper
v) Class E chopper
4.5.1 Class A Chopper

The class A chopper operates in the first
Forward motoring quadrant of v 0 -i0 plane as shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
or
Rectifying operation The output current and output voltage both are
vo(,v} l!!ffli!!"!l"i"'P'l"!P.!'!I"' positive. These values never go negative. This
type of chopper operates as the rectifier. The
energy always flows from source to the load.
Hence it is also called as forward motoring.
0 The step-down chopper discussed earlier is
basically class A chopper.
Fig. 4.5.1 Clan A chopper operates
In the first quadrant
Power Electronics - Ill 4.37 DC/DC eonv...rs
4.5.2 Clm B Chopper

The class B chopper operates in the second
quadrant of the v O - i O plane as shown in
Fig. 4.5.2. The load voltage is positive and load
Forward regeneration "'-"'~~M Vo(1v)
current is negative. The load current flows out
or of the load. Since the current flows from load
Inverting operation
to the source, the energy is transferred from
load to the source. This is also called as
- av) 0 inverting operation. Such situation occurs
during the braking of de motor. The energy
Fig. 4.5.2 cam a chopper operatH
In the HCOnd quadrant associated with back emf of the motor is fed
back to the source. Hence current becomes
negative. Since motor rotates in the same directio~ it is called forward regenerative
braking. The word regeneration means energy is fed from load to the source
during braking. Pig. 4.5.3 shows the circuit diagram of class B chopper.
Fig. 4.5.3 Circuit diagram of class B chopper

In the above circuit, the supply voltage is l's- The diode D 1 allows the current flow
only from load to the source. Here motor load is assumed. L and R are the inductance
and resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf of the motor. Here note that Eb is
responsible for negative current flow.
When the transistor (i.e. switch) is turned o~ the negative current flows from
Et,,R,L and T1. This current keeps on increasing. The waveforms are shown in
Fig. 4.5.4. The switch is 'on' from Oto 6T. The current i0 flows through E& ,R, L and
switch in negative direction. Refer to equivalent circuit-I in Fig. 4.5.4. The current rises
and reaches to I max at 6 T. The inductance stores energy during this period. The
energy is supplied by back emf E,,. At ~ T, the switch is turned off. The diode D 1 is
forward biased and the negative output current flows through supply V8 • Equivalent
circuit-IT in Fig. 4.5.4 shows this situation. The output voltage is equal to Vo(av)· The
current is forced through supply voltage Vs. Thus supply consumes power. This
power is transferred from load inductance and Eb . At T, the switch is turned on again
and the cycle repeats.
Power Electronics .. Ill 4-38 DC/DC Converters
➔ 4
Drive of the
switch
is
· 1____:~
_____
·.,._____.r
Equivalent circuit- I Equivalent circuit- II
Fig. 4.5.4 Waveforms and operation of class B chopper

The equation for the output current can be obtained on the similar lines as done in
example 4.3.1. The expressions for output current are given as follows :
i O ( t) = I min e-t R
L -
Eb
R ( -t
1- e
R)
L for O S t S 6 T ... (4.5.1)
... (4.5.2)
Here note that the class B operation is never implemented independently. It takes
place in two and four quadrant chopper having motor loads.
4.5.3 Class C Chopper

The class C chopper operates in two quadrants. It is the combination of class A
and B choppers. Fig. 4.5.5 shows the quadrants of operation of this chopper. It
operates as a rectifier as well as inverter. In the first quadrant forward motoring takes
place and in the second quadrant forward regenerative braking takes place.
Copy ght ma r al
Forward regeneration v0 Forward motoring

or Inverting operation or
Rectifying operation
-lo(av) O 1o<av)
Fig. 4.5.5 Clan C chopper operates in two quadrants

Fig. 4.5.6 shows the circuit diagram of class C chopper having transistor switches.
It is basically obtained by combining class A and B choppers. T 1 and D 2 conducts for
the operation in the first quadrant (i.e. class A). In the above circuit diagram, note that
whenever T1 or D 2 conduct, the output current and voltage will be always positive.
Whenever T2 or D 1 conduct, the chopper operates in the second quadrant (i.e.
class B). It is inv,e rting operation. In Fig. 4.5.6 observe that output current is negative
whenever T2 or D 1 conduct. The energy is fed back to the supply when D 1 conducts.
Note that v O always remains positive.
Fig. 4.5.6 Class C chopper

Table 4.5.1 shows the various equivalent circuits showing operation of this
chopper.
Equtvalent circuit Quadrant Description
T, conducts and energy flows
v.l Forward motoring or rectifying

from source to load. v0 and i 0
are positive.
.__ f
0-....--.:>
_~_
..1_\ ..._: ______,J Ev
POW9r Electronics - Ill 4-41 DC/DC Converters
Fig. 4.5.8 shows the circuit diagram of class D chopper having transistor switches.
When T1 and T2 are conducting, output current and output voltage both are positive.
Power is taken from the source and given to the load. This is operation in the first
quadrant, i.e. rectifying. When T1 and T2 are switched off, the load inductance
generates the large voltage to maintain the current in the same direction. The
inductance volta~ forward biases diodes D 1 and D 2 • This situation is shown in
Table 45.2. The diodes conduct and supply energy from load to the source. The
output voltage is negative. Hence chopper operates in N th quadrant.
Fig. 4.5.8 Clau D chopper

Equivalent clricult Quadrant D•crlptlon
I T1, T2 conduct power ftowl

from source to the load.
Rectifying or forward motoring.
i O Is maintained In the ume

IV direction by Inductance voltage
Inverting or reverH regenerative L.d~o. Diodes, 0i and D2 . , .
bralcfng. forward blued and conduct
Table 4.5.2 Operation of clau D chopper
4.5.5 Class E Chopper (Four Quadrant Chopper)

Class Bis a four qua~t chopper. It operates in thi four quadrants of v 0 -i 0 as
shown in Fig. 4.5.9. The output current as well as voltage both can take positive or
negative values. The first quadrant is forward motoring. The output voltage and
Equivalent circuit Quadrant Description
V + T1 and T2 conducts load

$
consumes the power from
Forward motoring or
the source.
rectifying.
T1 turned off but T2 conducts

Hence current IO flows
through T2 and 0 4 . load
inductor induces voltage as
Forward motoring. shown freewheeling action
takes place.
T2 is tumed off. Hence

IV Inductance forces current
v+
s_ through D3 and D4• This
Inverting operation i O positive current flows through supply.
VO negative. load energy is fed to the
supply.
To reverse the direction of

Ill rotation of the motor, T3 and
T4 are turned on. v0 and i 0
Rectifying operation motor both are negative. E Is
rotates in opposite direction. shown negative since motor
rota1es in opposite direction.
T3 is turned off, but T4

I Ill remains on. To maintain the
I current in the same direction
·.'..
Freewheeling operation induc:tance generates voltage
motor rotates In the same and iO flows in same
direction. direction through D2 and T4
This la freewheeling action.
POWltf' Electronics - Ill 4-44 DC/DC Convert.rs
T4 la turned olf. Hence

vs• II Inductance forcea current
through 0, and ~ Thia
Inverting operation / 0 current flows through aupply.
negative VO positive. load •MIVY la fed to the
supply.
Table 4.5.3 Operation of four quadrant chopper

Four quadrant chopper has the capability to operate in all the four quadrants.
Hence it is used in reversible de drives. The bra.king is regenerative. Hence four
quadrant chopper drives are highly efficient. Their dynamic response is also fast.
Review Questions
1. How choppers 11n classifed ?
2. Explllin two 'fl"'dnmt 1171d four 'l""'ffl'"t dtoppm.
4.6 Appllcatlons of Choppers

Choppers are used in following applications :
i) DC motor drives when the OC supply is available.
ii) Battery operated vehicles.
iii) Switched mode power supplies.
iv) Battery charges where uncontrolled rectifiers give DC to choppers.
v) Traction drives use four quadrant choppers for energy savin,g.
vi) Lighting and ~ controls also prefer choppers.
Table 4.6.1 lists the comparison between chopper and controJled rectifiers :
'
Sr. No. Controlled rectltlen Choppers
1. Operate on AC input. Operate on DC input.
2. Output ripple depends on input supply Output ripple depends on twitching

and type of .rectifier. frequency.
3. Large ftttert ate requlr9d to f9dlJCe At high ripple frequenciN, lfflllll ftftffl
ripple. are required.
4. Power factor can be poor for Power factor la better.

inductive load,.
5. Efficiency II poor. Efflcilncy ii better.

Power Electronics -111 4-45 DC/DC Converters
8. Regenerative braking is slow. Regenerative braking can be made

effective.
7. Costly and bulky. Small and compact, but circuits are

complex.
Table 4.6.1 Comparison between choppers and controlled rectifiers
4.7 Switching Mode Regulators (SMPS) 2004,2005
• The de output of the rectifier or battery is not regulated. It varies according

to the load variations. Switching mode regulators are used to conyert
unregulated de to regulated DC output.
• The switching mode regulators use de choppers. Fig. 4.7.1 shows the block
diagram of switching mode regulator. The de chopper takes the input V5
from some unregulated supply. The chopper may use Transistor, MOSFET,
IGBT, SCR or GTO for switching.
DC
+- chopper -- +
I
G)
>
vg 'C
0
Vs V0
control
Error
amplifier - comparator
Reference voltage
Fig. 4.7.1 Block dlagra'!' of switching mode regulator

• . The comparator compares the reference voltage with output voltage. The
reference voltage is set for the particular output voltage. The comparator
generates the error signal. Tna error signal acts as the control voltage.
• The control block uses the control voltage v c to generate the drives of the
chopper.
• Fig. 4.7.2 shows the control waveforms. The control voltage v c is compared
with the sawtooth waveform. The result of comparison is the drive of the
chopper as shown in Fig. 4.7.2 (b). This drive is given to the switch in the
chopper. The sawtooth waveform is generated by an oscillator in the control
circuit. The frequency of the sawtooth waveform decides the switching
frequency of the chopper. Normally the switching period is 100 times longer
than the switching time of the switch. Excessive switching ftt~encies may
increase losses in the chopper.
Fig. 4 .7.2 Control waveforms of the switched mode regulators

• The filters are normally used in the output to make the output voltage ripple
free and smooth. The regulation is also improved. The width of the drive is
continuously adjusted to regulate output voltage. Hence it is also called as
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control.
4.7.1 Classification of SMPS

SMPS can be classified as shown below.
SMPS I
I
l
Isolated Nonlsolated
oonverters oonverters
I
f Buck regulator
Unidirectional Bldlrectlonal 2. Boost regulato r
core excitation core excitation 3. Buck boost regulator
4. Cuk regulator
1. Flyback converter
1. Push-pull converter
2. Half bridge converter
2. Forward ooverter
3. Full bridge converter
Fig. 4.7.3 Classification of SMPS

Now we will study these converters in detail.
Copyr ght ma r al
Nonldeallties In SMPS
SMPS have the nonidealities because of following :
i) The magnetizing inductance of the transformers used in isolated type of SMPS
need to be taken care-of.
ii) The leakage inductance of transformer used in isolated SMPS needs to be
considered for snubber design.
4.8 Nonisolated Converters

4.8.1 Buck Regulators 200s, 2006
In the buck regulator, the average output voltage vo (av) is less than the supply
voltage. Fig. 4.8.1 shows the circuit diagram of the buck regulator having transistor
switch. Observe that the buck regulator is similar to the step-down chopper. The
inductance L and capacitance C are the filtering components. Due to freewheeling
v+
s
Control ---•'-----....,,
B
Fig. 4.8.1 Circuit diagram of the buck regulator
diode DFW, L and C, the output voltage and current are maintained continuous and
ripple free. Fig. 4.8.2 shows the waveforms of buck regulator. The switch (transistor) is
turned 'on' from O to oT. Hence current through the inductance increases. The
equivalent circuit-I in Fig. 4.8.2 shows this situation. The current reaches to I max at
oT. The transistor switch is turned off at oT. The inductance tries to maintain the
current i L in the same direction. The voltage of the inductance L d i l is induced with
dt
the polarity as shown in equivalent circuit-II in Fig. 4.8.2. This voltage forward biases
the freewheeling diode D FW . The inductance current goes on reducing and reaches to
minimum at T. The inductance tries to remove ripple in the output current. The
output current is maintained at 10 (av) with negligible ripple. The capacitance tries to
remove the ripple in the output voltage. The output voltage has very small ripple
around Vo(av) . The capacitance value is increased to remove the ripple in v 0 • Thus LC
filter makes v O and i O ripple free and continuous.
i
v. C C
Equivalent circuit- I Equivalent circuit• II
Fig. 4.8.2 Operation of the buck regul3tor
C
The average value of the output voltage is given as,

Vo(av) = 6 Vs ... (4.8.1)
Here 6 = TTn is duty cycle of the chopper. The ripple in the output voltage is
given as,
½ (1-6)6 ... (4.8.2)
Vo(ripple) = B LC /2
Here f =: is frequency of the chopper. And the ripple in the output current is
given as,
½ (1-6) 6 ... (4.8.3)
o(ripple) =
1
Lf
Applications
1. Battery operated portable equipments.
2. For unidirectional supplies.
Advantages
1. Buck regulator is very simple and it requires only one transistor (switch).
2. Efficiency is about 90 %.
3. Low cost and size.
4. Large tolerance of line voltage variation.
Disadvantages
1. Only unidirectional output is available.
2. High output ripple.
3. Slow transient response.
4. Input filter is normally required.
, . Example 4.8.1 : Derive an expression for peak to peak ripple voltage of the capacitor
for buck regulator.
Solution : Fig. 4.8.1 shows the circuit diagram of buck regulator. Let the capacitor
voltage be vc. When the switch T 1 is conducting, the voltage across inductances is,
eL = Vs - Vo(av)
The current through inductance is i L.
Hence,
Hence from above two equations we can write,

diL
½ - Vo(nv) = Ldt ... (4.8.4)
Assuming linear change in i L, we can write RHS of above equation as,
di L = L Umax -/min) when T1 is on.

dt (6T-0) '
\'s -Vo(av) = L Umax6;Imin)
Li L(ripple)
=
6T
Here I L(ripple) = I max - I min is the ripple in inductance current. We can write the
above equation as,
ST = Li L (ripple) ... (4.8.5)
Vs -Vo(av)
When the chopper switch T 1 is off, we can write,
eL = Vo(av)
diL
and eL = Ldt
Assuming Jin.ear change in current we can write above equation as (when T2 is
off),
= L I L (ripple)
(1-6)T
Since eL = V0 (~v), above equation becomes,

I
= L L (ripple)
(1-6)T
Li L(ripple)
(1-6)T = ... (4.8.6)
vo(av)
Power Electronics - Ill 4 -51 DC/DC Converters
We know that,
T = (1 - 6) T + 6T
Putting expression for (1 - 6) T from equation 4.8.6 and aT from equation 4.8.5 in
above equation,
Li L(ripple) Li L(ripple)
T = Vo(av)
+
Vs - Vo(av)
.
= L"1L( . le) {
npp
1 + 1
Vo(av) Vs - Vo(av)
}
=
. rs-
Li L(ripple) V
Vo(ov) + V
(V. _ V
o(av) s
o(ao)}
o(av)
)
Li L(ripple) Vs
=
Vo(av)(Vs - Vo(av))
The peak to peak ripple current a I from above equation will be,
Vo(av) (Vs - Vo(av))T
1L (,ripple) = L V:
s
v.,..>(1- v~~> )r
=
L
Vo(av) 1
We kn.o w that Vo(av) = oV 5 or Vs = 6 and T =f where f is the frequency of
buck regulator. Hence above equation can be written as,

. 6V5 (1-6)
1L (,ripple) = Lf ... (4.8.7)
Observe that this equation is same as that of equation 4.8.1.

Using Kirchhoff's law at the +ve point of load,
ii = ic +io
The ripple in iO is very very small and hence it can be neglected. Hence from
above equation,
Ripple in iL = Ripple in (ic +i 0 )
1L(ripple) = 1C(ripple)
Power Electronics - Ill 4-52 DC/DC eo·nvartars
6T (1 - 6) T T . .
The average value of capacitor current during period + , i.e. 1S
2 2 2
(~ capacitor current of Fig. 4.8.4),
.
1C(ripple)
l c(av) = 2x2
ic(ripple)
=
4
Since ic(ripple) = i_L(ripple), above equation becomes,
1L (ripple)
I c(av) = ... (4.8.8)
4
The capacitor voltage is given as
vc (t) = ~ Jic dt + vc (t = (JJ
vc (t) - vc (t = O) = ~ f ic dt
Over the half cycle period, vc (t) - vc (t = 0) will give ripple voltage of capacitor.
l T/ 2_
Renee, _vc(ripple) = . C 'c dt J
0
Equation 4.8.8 gives average value of ic. Hence above equation becomes,
Vc(ripple)
_!_
= C
f
T / 2·
l L(ripple ) dt
4
0
·
= _!_ l L(ripple) f dt
T/2
C 4
0
= ..!_. i L(r ipple) • T
C 4 2
Putting the value of i L(ripple) from equation 4.8.7,
= _!_ _6V5 (1-6). T
Vc(ripple) C 4 X Lf 2
Since T = l, above equation becomes,
_ 6V5 (1-6)
vc(ripple) - BLC /2 .... (4.8.9)
This is the required expression for ripple voltage of capacitor. In Fig. 4.8.3, observe
that capacitor voltage is same as output voltage. Hence above equation gives ripple
voltage in the output.
Power Etectronlc:9 - Ill 4-53 DC/DC Converters
, . . Example 4.8.2 : A buck regulator has a input voltage of 12 V,rei,uired output voltage
of 5 V and peak ripple voltage is 20 mV. The switching frequency is 25 kHz. If the peak
to peak ripple current of the inductor is limited to 0.8 A, determine :
i) Duty cycle ii) The filter inductance iii) The filter capacitance (2003, 8 Marks]
Vo<wJ = 5 V, V5 = 12 V, vo<rippltJ = 20 mV
f = 25 kHz, io<,ripple) = 0.8 A.
I) To obtain duty cycle
Vo(av) = 6¼
6 = V~av) =
s
i 2
= 0.4166
Ii) To obtain filter inductance

V5 (1 -6)6
I o(ripple) = If By equation 4.8.3
... L = V5 (1-6}6 = 12(1-0.4166)x0.4166 = 145_S3µH

i«_ripple/ 0.8 X 25 X 10 3
Iii) To obtain fllta'r capacitance

V5 (1-6)6
Vo(ripple) = BLC/2 By equation 4.8.2
... V5 (1-6)6 12(1-0.4166) x0.41 66 1
C =
8Lf2v o(ripplt) Bx 145.83x 10-0 x(25 x10 3 )2 x 20 x 10...,3
= 200 µF
4.8.2 Boost Regulators Nov.-2007, May-2008

The boost regulator provides
higher output voltage than the input
voltage. The boost regulator is like
l. the step-up chopper. Fig. 4.8.3 shows

the circuit diagram of the boost
regulator having MOSFET as a
I B
switch. The switch is first turned on.
It conducts from O to 6T. Hence
current flows in the inductance.
Fig. 4.8.3 Circuit diagram of boost regulator Inductance stores the energy during
this period. The output voltage and current is maintained by the filter capacitor.
Fig. 4.8.4 shows the waveforms and equivalent circuits. The output voltage drops
slightly due to discharge of capacitor from O to 6 T. The switch is turned off at 6 T.
Hence inductance generates a large voltage L di L with the polarity shown in
dt
equivalent circuit-IT in Fig. 4.8.4. This voltage forward biases D 1 to maintain current.
The current flows through load. The output current is ripple free and continuous due
to capacitor. From 6 T to T the inductance energy is transferred to the capacitance and
load.
--JIIII"-_ __ ......_ ___ ___

.,.
t
L
C 0 o-i0\I C
A \ It
_,..
1
._____ ~.- - - '----'

Equivalent circuit• I
D
Equivalent circuit• II
Fig. 4.8.4 Waveforms and operation of boost regulator
C PY ght m
The ripple in the output voltage is given as,

I o(av) 6
"o (ripple) = JC ... (4.8.10)
Here f = ~ is the frequency of the chopper.
And the ripple in the output current is given as,

. V5 6
1
o(ripple) = fL ... (4.8.11)
The output average voltage is given as,

- Vs ... (4.8.12)
v o(nv) - 1 - 6
Let the circuit be loss less. Then input power is equal to output powet Le.,
Vs Is = Vo(av) • I o(av}
Vs
= 1 - o·Io(av)
I o(av)
.. Is =
1-~
... (4.8.13)
Assuming linear rise in the supply current flowing through inductor,

• 1~ripple)
Peak inductor current, (I max) = Is + 2
... (4.8.14)
Applications
Used in the applications where required output voltage is greater than the supply
voltage.
Advantages
1. It can step up the output voltage without a transformer.
2. High efficiency due to single switch.
Disadvantages
1. High peak current flows through to switch (MOSFET).
2. Output voltage is highly sensitive to changes in duty cycle.
3. Large inductance and capacitance are required.
=
0.5 x 0.66667 = 60.63 m V
25x 10 3 x 220x 10-6
4.8.3 Buck Boost Regulators

The output voltage polarity of
buck boost regulator is opposite to
that of the input voltage. Hence this
is also called as inverting regulator.
The output voltage of this regulator
C can be greater or less than the input
+
voltage. Hence, the name is given as
1>uck boost' regulator. Fig. 4.8.5
shows the circuit diagram of
buck-boost regulator. The L, C and
D 1 are the filtering components. T 1 is
Fig. 4.8.5 Buck boost regulator
the transistor switch. Note the
inverted output voltage polarity. The
output current is also shown negative.
T1 is turned on at t = 0. It conducts from O to 6 T. Hence current flows through
inductance. Diode D1 is reverse biased. Fig. 4.8.6 shows the waveforms and equivalent
circuits of buck-boost regulator. Inductance stores the energy from O to 6T. The
current through inductance keeps on rising. The capacitor discharges and supplies
. current to loacl Load current is assumed continuous and ripplefree. The output
voltage varies according to capacitor voltage.
At 8 T, transistor switch is turned off. The equivalent circuit-II in Fig. 4.8.6 shows
the position from 6T to T. Inductance generates the voltage L d~~ with the polarity
shown in equivalent circuit-fl. This forward biases the diode D1 . Thus inductance
supplies energy to the load from 8 T to T. Hence inductance current decreases. The
capacitor is also charged. Hence its voltage also rises.
. 6
vo(av) = - 1-6 l's ... (4.8.15)
The ripple in the output current is given as,

. 6 V5
1
o(ripple) = fL ... (4.8.16)
o,
-<J----- I
I
C
L
0 I
I
A
♦
0
I
'L
Equivalent circuit • I Equivalent circuit -11
Fig. 4.8.6 Waveforms and operation of buck-boost regulator

Here f =~ is switching frequency of the chopper. Similarly ripple in the output
voltage is given as,
_ 61 o(av)
V o(ripple) - fC ... (4.8.17)
Let the circuit be lossless. Then net input power will be same as net output power
but with opposite polarity. Hence,
Vs Is =- Vo(av) I o(m,)
6
= l-6Vs l d_av)
... ls =
6
1- 6 l a.av) ... (4.8.18)
Applications
It is used in the applications where inverted output is required. The output is also
greater or less than input voltage.
Advantages
• 1. Provides inverted output.
2. Both buck/boost operations simultaneously.
3. High efficiency.
4. Short circuit protection can be easily implemented.
>• Example 4.8.4 : The buck boost regulartor has an input voltage of Vs = 12 V and
duty cycle of 6 = 0.25. The switching frequency is F = 25 kHz. The inductance
L = 150 µH and filter capacitance C = 220 µF. The average load current
Io<av> = 1.25 A.
Determine i) Average output voltage ii) Peak to peak output voltage ripple
iii) Peak to peak ripple current of inductor iv) Peak current of the transistor.
[200~ 8 Marks]
Solution : G iven data
vs = 12 V, 6 = 0.25 , f = 25 kHz
L = 150 µH , C = 220 µF, Io<aoJ = 1.25 A
I) To obtain average output voltage, Vo(avJ
6
Vo<nJ = -1 - 6 Vs ~. By equation 4.8.15
Power Electronics - Ill 4-60 DC/DC Convertars
0.25
= - ------- x12 =-4 V
1- 0.25
II) To obtain peak to peak output voltage ripple vo(rfPPMJ

6Io(llT1)
ti1o(rippk) - .. JC. By equation 4.8.17
= 025 xl.25 = 56.81 mV

3
25xl0 x220x10~
ill) To obtain peak to peak ripple current of Inductor, /0 (ripple)

. 6V5 0.25x12 .
1o (ripple) = f L = ~ = 0.8A By equation 4.8.16
25x10 3 x150 xlO
Iv) To obtain peak current of transistor

Average value of supply current is,
Is = 6 1-6
I c:(av) = Q.25 X 1.25 = 0 4166A By equation 4.8.18
.. l-Q.25 . .
This 15 is the average current of duration 5f. Hence peak current of the transistor
T1 will be,
1 I 'ot.rtpp1e>
I'Fl(ptak) = 6 s + 2
= Js x0.4166+
08
2=20664 A.
4.8.4 Cuk Regulators 2004

The Cuk regulator provides the
negative output voltage. Hence it is
also inverting regulator. The output
voltage can be less than or greater
T1 than the input voltage. Thus it is
similar to buck-boost regulator.
Fig. 4.8.7 shows the circuit diagram of
Cuk regulator.
Fig. 4.8.7 Clreutt diagram of Cuk regulator The operation of the above circuit
can be presented as follows : T 1 is
turned on at t = 0. It conducts from O to 6 T as shown in waveforms of Fig. 4.8.8. The
equivalent circuit-I in Fig. 4.8.8 shows the situation. L1 stores the energy from the
supply. Current through L1 inaeases. Capacitor C 1 discharges through T 1 , load and
L2 . Capacitance C 2 also stores the energy. The output voltage also increases.
At 6 T, transistor T1 is turned off. Hence inductance L1 current flows through

L 1 -C1 -D 1 and V5 • Capacitance C1 charges and energy stored in L 1 is transferred to
capacitance C 1• The load current flows through L2 and D1• The capacitor C2 also
provides load current and tries to maintain the load voltage. Equivalent circuit-II in
Fig. 4.8.8 shows this situation. The transistor remains off from 6 T to T.
Here note that when T 1 is on, L1 stores energy from supply. L2 and C2 get energy
from C 1• When T1 is off, C1 gets energy from L1 and supply. C2 and L2 supply energy
to the load. 1his is clear from current flow directions in equivalent circuits in
Fig. 4.8.8.
t. ♦ L
0 V
~
0
♦
A • A
0 D
Equivalent circuit - I Equivalent circuit - II
Fig. 4.8.8 Waveforms and operation of Cuk regulator
C p ght al
Power Electronics - HI 4 .. &3 .
DC/DC Converters
,. . , Example 4.8.5 : The input ooltage of a cuJc vegulator is V, = 12 V. The duty cycle
6 = 0.25 and switching frequency f = 25 kHz. The filter inductance is L2 = 150 µH and
filter capacitance is C2 = 220 µf The energy transfer capacitance is C1 = 200 µF and
inductance Lt = 180 µH. The average load current is Io(tmJ = 1.25 A. Determine
•I
i) Average output voltage, Vo(av)
ii) Average input current, 15
iii) Peak to peak ripple current of inductor L1
iv) Peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor C1
v) Peak to peak ripple current of inductor L2
vi) Peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor C2
vii) Peak current of transistor T 1• (2004, 8 Marks)
Vs = 12 V, 6 = 0.25, f = 25 kHz
L2 = 150 µH C2 = 220 µF
L1 = 180 µH C1 = 200 µF
Io<1n1J = 1.25 A.
I) Average output voltage, Vo(•vJ
6 By equation 4.8.19
Vo(av) = - 1 - 6 Vs
0.25
= - _ x12= - 4V
1 025
11) Average input current, '•

6
I, = 1-6 lex.av) By equation 4.8.21
0.25
= l - 0.25 xl.25 =0.4166A
HI) Peak to pea~ ripple current of Inductor '-1, IL 1 (rtPPM)

. 6 Vs
1
Lt (ripple) = f Li
J
0.25 X 12
= ------=U6667A
25 x10 3 x180xl0- 6
Iv) Peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor C1 , vc1(rtppl•)

{l-6)1s
Vc1(ripple) = f C1
=
(1- 0.25) X 0.4166 = 6249 mV
25 X 103 X 200 X 10-6
4.9 Isolated Converters
4.9.1 Flyback Converter·

Principle
The Flyback converter is derived from buck-boost converter discussed earlier.
C.
Circuit diagram and waveforms of flyback converter

Fig. 4.9.1 shows the circuit
. - - - I ~t--""'T"""----, + diagram of Flyback converter.
• In the above diagram the
c, transformer is of high &equency
. NP
having turns ratio N' The de
s
supply V5 is applied to the
switching transistor through the
transformer primary. Note the
'dot' conventions on the
Fig. 4.9.1 Circuit diagram of flyback converter transformer primary and
secondary.
Operation and Waveforms
The operation of the flyback converter can be explained with the help of following
modes.
Mode-I, T1 - on
In this mode transistor T1 is turned ON. Current starts flowing in the primary. In
the equivalent circuit - I of Fig. 4.9.2, observe that secondary voltage reverse biases
diode D1 when T1 is conducting. Therefore load current is supplied by capacitor C1. In
the waveform of Fig. 4.9.2(b), observe that current through transistor T1 rises &om
0 to t 1• At t1, the transistor T1 is turned off.
Mode-II, T 1 - OFF D 2 • conducts
1bis mode starts when transistor is turned-off at t 1. As shown in equivalent
circuit-II of Fig. 4.9.2, the voltage polarity of the transformer secondary is inverted.
This forward biases diode D 1 and it starts conducting. Thus the transformer secondary
supplies energy to the capacitor C1 as well as load. Note that this energy was stored
in the transformer when T 1 was conducting in mode-I.
In the waveform of of Fig. 4.9.2(d) observe that the transformer secon dary voltage
fluctuates between ±V0 • Fig. 4:9.2 (e) shows the waveform of transformer primary.
When T1 is ON the primary voltage is equal to supply voltage, l's. When T 1 is off the
primary voltage is equal to supply voltage, l's. When T 1 is off, the primary voltage is
Np
- N Vo.
s
,. . Example 4.9.1 : Derive an expression for voltage transfer ratio ~0 in terms of

. s
transformer turns ratio and duty cycle for jlyback converter operating with continuous
load current.
Solution : Fig. 4.9.2 (£) shows the waveform of flux in the transformer. The flux
increases linearly from 0 to ti, with initial value of ♦ (0). i.e.,
♦ (t) = cj,(O) + ~ t for Ost s t1

p
♦ (t) = ♦max when t = t1. i.e.,
♦max = ci, (0) + ~ s t1 ... (4.9.1)

p
When transistor is turned-off, secondary voltage becomes V0 and the flux decreases
linearly from t1 to t2. This flux .will be ~ 0 (t-t1). It reduces from ♦max· Hence ♦ (t)
s
will be,
Putting for +max from equation 4.9.1,

♦ (t) = cj, (0) + Vs ti - Vo (t-t1)
Np NS
Note that t =ti, ♦ (t) = q, (0) (see Fig. 4.9.2 (f)) and above equation becom es,
cp (0) = f (0) + -Vs t1 - -Vo (t2 - ti)
Np NS
Vs t 1 = Vo (t2 -ti)
-
NP NS
Vo t1
= Ns .
\1s NP t2 -ti
One cycle com pletes at t2, Theref01ie t2 = T and t1 = T011 •

Power EJectronics -111 4-68 DC/DC Conv.,.,.
... Vo = N s .
V5
Ton
Np T-T0n
= N5 T0 n/T
•
Np T-T0 n/ T
= N S __
6_ . 6 -- T . d uty cycle.
T on 1.e.
since
NP 1-6
Thus V0 N9 6
Vs = Np .I"="a ...(4.9.2)
or V N s 6Vs ... (4.9.3)

0 = N · 1-6
p
This equation gives an output voltage of flyback converter.

, . . Example 4.9.2 : An isolated flyback converter operating in the continuous conduction
mode at a frequency of 50 kHz, is fed from the 230 V, 50 Hz mains via a full wave
rectifier and LC filter so as the maintain continuous supply current. ~ output ooltage
is 24 V and maximum duty cycle is limited to 60 %. If the supply mains varies from
180 V to 270 V calculate -
i) The minimum voltage rating of the power switch if it is requined to kup a safety
margin of 100 V for voltage spikes due to leakage inductance effects.
ii) The flyback converter transformer turns ratio required to obtain rated output voltage
at 50 % duty cycle under normal mains conditions.
iii) Range of operating duty cycles with above transformer turns ratio.
Solution : Given :
Va, = 230 V and 180 - 270 V.
After full wave rectification and LC filtering peak de voltage obtained is,
V5 = 230 Ji = 325.27 V
V0 = 24 V, 6max = 60 % or 0.6
Vspike = 100 V
I) To obtain voltage rating of T1
In the equivalent circuit Il of Fig. 4.9.2 observe that when T 1 turns off the voltage
across it is,
..
Power Electronlcs -111 DC/DC Converters
From equation 4.9.3 V0 = ~s•:~s

p 6
. Hence above equation becomes,
= l's+ NP . Ns . 6l's + vspikt

NS Np 1-6
6Ys
= vs + 1 - 6 + vspikt
= vs(1+1~6)+vspi.ke
Vs ... (4.9.4)
= 1-6 + Vspik.t
Putting values in above equatio~

.., = 325.27 100
vr1 1-0.6 +
= 913.175 V
Thus the minimum voltage rating of T1 is 1 kV.
ii) To obtain transformer turns ratio
From equation 4.9.3 we know that the output voltage is given as,
V - N S 6l's
0 - N . 1-6
p
Here V0 = 24 (rated), 6 = 50 % or 0.5 and l's = 325.27 V.

... 24 = N S . 0.5 x 325.27
Np 1-0.5
... 0.07378
or
Ill) To obtain the range of duty cycles

The ac input voltage varies from 180 to 270 V. Therefore
for Vac =180 V, Vs(min) = lsoJ2 =254.55 V
for Vac =270 V, l's(max) = 27()./2 = 381.83 V
For minimum supply voltage, duty cycle will be maximum i.e.,

= Ns 6max Vs(min)
Vo Np · 1-6max
24 = 0.07378.
6
7_~ 254·55
max
6max = 0.561 or 56.1 %

For maximum supply voltage, duty cycle will be minimum. i.e.,
= Ns 6mm 'Vscmax)
Vo N . 1-6 ·
p nun
24 = 0.07378 · 6mm X 3Sl.S3

l-6m1n
· = 0.46 or 46 %
6 nun
Thus the range of duty cycles is 0.46 to 0.561.
4.9.2 Forward Converter

Prlnclple
The forward converter is derived from step-down (buck) converter.
Circuit diagram and operation of forward converter

Fig. 4.9.3 shows the circuit diagram of forward converter.
01 L lo
VL il
• •
N, D2 C Vo
Fig. 4.9.3 Forward converter

Power Elecwnlcs • Ill 4-71 DC/DC Converters
•
- VOitage
I
I
I
i +- - __ ..,
-t -
I I
across
-1-
I
- T1
I
- ·- -1- - I
I
-~
- --ON 1
OFF - ' ON
I
---,_ _ I OFF-
- - -- I
t
I
•-
- l ~- - - ·-
--- , - ,--- --
~_....
- -,
- Current ..... .....
....... ....... .... J.-- .......
--- --......
~
~ ~
through
,._Inductor
~
--- - I- - ---~ i -
- jl
r'
-
-
01
Ton
-- T1 - ...... --+-0
I 2
I
I
T1
01
--k-
0 2- -
-t
-- -- --- --- --
- Diode ,
I
__!-.. ~ I I I
i
- 01 I I
- current
I
io1
I I
I
Ton l
I
"'
I
!
I
I
I
I
t
I I I I I
j I I
- _L j
- -
,_ Diode -
I I
- -
~ .....___ ~ .....___
-
-
02 I
I
current
1
l I
I
I
I
I I
~ Ton T i I t
i -
Tra nsforrner
_j_ -j - -
primary
voltage ---+·- 1- - -
I
VP
J_
I
~
- - i---
I -- ,_ -
I I !
i I ~N {VL+Vo) I I t
I
1'~-
s I
,_ - _J_
. <~ ~ I
-- J_
- _j_ -7
I
--
....... t- >-
I
- I
I I
- -
/ .....
D1
-L L
Equivalent circuit - I Equivalent circuit - n

Fig. 4.9.4 Wavefonns of forward converter
Operation
• Mode-I, T 1 on
When T 1 is on, the diodes D 1 is forward biased and D 2 is reverse biased. As
shown in the waveforms, current through inductance (i d increases.
• Mode-II, T 1 off
When T1 is turned off, diode D2 is reverse biased and D1 is forward biased
because of induced voltage in the inductance. The inductance now supply energy to
the load. As the energy in inductance goes on reducing, the current through
inductance (i L) also goes on reducing.
See Pig. 4.9.4 on previous page.
>• Example 4.9.3 : Derive an expression far output voltage of forward converter.
Solution :
Step 1 : When T 1 is ON, diode D 1 conducts and D 2 is reverse biased. Hence
voltage across inductor is,
VL = -N s V.s -Vo
NP
Step 2 : When T1 is turned off, D1 is reverse biased and diode D 2 starts

conducting. The voltage across inductor will be,
vL = - Vo
Step 3 : Integration of voltage across inductor over one time period will be zero. Le.,
T.r v L dt + Tf v L dt = 0
0 Ton
Ton(
J NsNV 5
)
-V0 dt+
T
f (- V )dt 0 = 0
0 P ~ n
... ( ~ ; V5 -V0 y.,, -V0 (T-T0.) =0
... Vo = -Ns V.s

NP
Ton
X-
T
This is the expression for output voltage.

4.1 O Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications
4.10.1 Advantages
i) In linear power supply the series pass transistor operates inactive region.
Hence there is high power loss. But in SMPS, all devices operate in saturation
and cut-off regions. Therefore losses are reduced in SMPS.
ii) Due to reduced power loss, SMPS have efficiencies upto 95 % but linear power
supplies have very small efficiencies.
iii) SMPS operate at very high frequencies. Therefore filtering components and
transformers have very small size. Where as linear power supplies have bulky
components.
iv) SMPS have transistors in switching mode. Hence their power handing capacity
is more as compared to linear mode.
v) SMPS are more cost effective due to reduced size of transform.er and filters.
4.10.2 Disadvantages
i) Since SMPS operate at high switching frequencies, they generate radio
frequency interference (RPI) to neighbouring circuits.
ii) Since the devices operate in switched mode, there are switching losses at high
frequencies.
iii) The transient response of SMPS is very slow compared to linear power
supplies.
iv) SMPS have pooor load regulation as compared to linear power supply.
4.10.3 Applications of SMPS

i) Television sets, DVD players
ii) Computers, printers, monitors.
iii) Battery charges, electronic ballasts
iv) Video games, toys.
Large number of applications use SMPS due to their high power efficiencies.
Power Electronics - Ill 4-7S DC/DC Converters
2. Step-down chopper with RLE load
l_ ... = I maxe-(1-6) TR
L
E ( 1 - e-(l-6)TRL )
- -R
.,..,.
Ima = Imme-6T: + V, ;E(1_,-6T:)

Io<p-p> = Ima - Imm
- vt:{at,}
Vo<11t1) = ~vs, Io<11t1>- R
1
Io<nns> = {I~+ I~~P) +Imml~P-P f

= Imax + Imin
2
1T(nns) = ./fJio(rms)
3. Step-up chopper
Vs
Output average vo1tage, Vo(av) = - -
1 -6
□□□
(4 - 76)
Power Electronics - Ill A-3 Appendix -A
d [br) f (').., x) dA]

a(x) = f (b (x), x) db (x) - f (a (x), x) da (x)
dx dx dx
+bf) 6 / (').., x) d').. (Leibniz's rule) (B-16)

d(x) dx
Integration :
Definition : (C-1)
Integration Techniques :
1. Change in variable. Let v = u(x) :
b u(b) ( / (x) )
Jf (x) dx
a
=
u(a)
f dv I dx x •
1 u-1(0) dv (C-2)
2. Integration by parts
Ju dv = uv - Jv du (C-3)
Integral Tables :
lndeftnlta Integrals :
(a+ bx)"+ 1
J (a +bx)" dx = - - - , O <n (C-4)
b (n+ 1)
J~
a+bx
= !Inla+bli
b
(C-5)
dx -1
I (a+ bx)"
=
(n-1) b (a+ bx),._1
, 1 <n (C-6)
2 2
tan- 1 ( 2ax+b
2
}b• < 4a C
.J4ac -b .J4ac -b
2
f
dx
2 = I In ( 2ax+b- ~b
2
-4ac) , b' > 4ac
c +bx+ax 2
.Jb -4ac 2ax+ b + .Jb -4ac
-2 ,b2 =4ac
2ax+b
J c +bx+ax2
xdx
= _!_ lnlax 2 +bx+ cl-.!_ f dx
(C-8)
2a 2a C +bx+ax2
Power Electronics - Ill A-5 Appendix-A
f xsin(x)dx = sin (x)-xcos(x) (C-27)
f x 2 sin (x) dx = 2x sin (x) - (x 2 - 2) cos (x) (C-28)

eax
J e"x dx = -
a
, a real or complex (C-29)
f xea:x dx = ex (;- a~} a real or complex

0
(C-30)
Jx
2
e"x dx = e 0
x (x -
2
a
- -2x
a2
+- 2)
a3
a real or complex (C-31)
3 2
f x 3 eax d x = e rix (x
- - -3x-
2
6 ) a real or complex
6x - -
+- (C-32)
a a a 3
a4
u
f eax sin(x)dx = a! +1 [asin(x)-cos(x)] (C-33}
eu
J e"x cos (x) dx = [a cos (x) + sin(x)] (C-34)
a2 +1
Definite Integrals :
f- -1+xn
xm -1
-dx =
n 7t /
sin(m1t / n)
, n>m>O (C-35)
0
f- x 0
-
1
e-x dx = l<a),a > o (C-36a)
0
where l(a+l) = fa{(i) (C-36b)
rm = I (½)
1; = ✓7t (C-36c)
I (n) = (n-1) ! if n is an integer (C-36d)

-
J X
2n
e
-a:x2 dx _ 1 . 3 . 5 .... (2n-1)
- - - - -- -
2n+1 a"
l -
a
(C-37)
0
J'ne b2/(4ri2) ,a> 0

•1 e-112:r.2-+-b,x d x = - (C-38)
-j e -u cos (bx) dx =
a
a , a>0 (C-39)
2 2
0 a +b
j e-ar sin (bx) dx = 2

b
2
, a>0 (C-40)
0 a +b
✓7t e - b2 / V.
f• e-)
0
x
2
cos (bx) dx = - - - -, a> 0
2a
(C-41)
Important
Laplace Transform Relations
The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is given as,
F(s) =
-fJ(t) e- dt
st
0-
Sr.No. Name Property
1. Shifting theorem el [/(t - t0)] = e-sto/(s)
2. Differentiation theorem
,.f ~ f(t) = sF(s)- /(0- )
dt
3. Integration theorem f (s)

.t fof(t)dt = -
s
4. Convolution therom ,.f [/1 (t) • !2(t)] = f 1(s) •F2(s)
5. Complex translation .f [e
01
f(t) ] = F(s - a)
6. Differentiation by s d
,.f [t f(t)] = - - F(s)
ds
7. Initial value therom J(o+) = lim f(t) =lim[sF(s)]

t-+0+ s ➔-
8. Final value therom

,limf(t)
...... = lim[sF(s)]
s-+0
Table 8.1 Properties of Laplace Transfonn
(B • 1)
Power Electronics -111 B-2 Appendlx-B
Sr. No Name of the function Laplace transform pair
1. Exponential function eat E .1 1

) --
s-a
2. Unit step function Au(t) E .1 >A

s
3. Ramp function 1
tu(t) E .1 )
s2
4. Impulse function B(t) E .1 )1
5. Sine wave A sinro0t E .1 )

Aw 0
s2 +wi
6. Cosine wave A cosro 0 t ~ ..f A·s

~
2
s +w~
7. Damped sine wave e -ot sin rot E .1 )

(J)
2
(s+a) +w 2
8. Damped cosine wave e - ol COS (J)t E .1 )

s+a
(s +a)2 + ro2
9. Hyperbolic sine wave e - at sin hbt E .f )

b
2
(s+a) -b 2
10. Hyperbolic cosine wave e-at coshbt E .1 )

s+a
2
(s+n) -b 2
Table B.2 Important Laplace Transfonn Pairs

Power Electronics - Ill B-3 Appendix - 8
Name 0£ Element in time Impedance - voltage Admittance current

element dom~ source representation in source representation in
's' domain 's' domain
f
+ - l(s)
+
v(t) Vs) •► 1
V(s) :•-
•• R
Resistance
Y(t): R ~I) V(s) • R l(s)
1
l(s) • - .V(s)
R
~
- V t ♦ l(s) •o-- -- - -....
I 11sl
V(s) V(s)
Inductance !- +
Y(t)•~ V(s) = SL l(s)- U(O-)

di l(s).,. .!..
SL
V(s) • ~
s
' n ~IJ T~1-♦•c,, ♦

-
l(s)
t •CV(s)
Uc V(s)
!-
SC-
- v(O--)
♦ s
Vs)
l
==•C f C Y(O-)
Capacitance
bl
I
V(s) ,. 1 (s)+ Y(O-)

v(t) . ~tJ di+ Y(O-)
~ s l(s) ■ sC V(s)-C Y(O--)
Table B.3 Laplace Transformations of Basic Elements
□□□
(B-4)
Power Electronics • III
~ Chapterwlse University Questions with Answen
(P-1)
CD Power Semiconductor Devices
Q.1 Write short notes on following : [PU : Dec.-2.004, 12 Marks]

i) Repeatitive and non-repeatitive ratings of SCR.
ii) Fast recovery and schottky diodes.
Ans. : i) Refer section 1.9.
ii) Refer section 1.4.4.
Q.2 Explain the two transistor analogy for an SCR and derive an expression for the
anode current in terms of the current gains and leakage currents of the transistors.
[PU : May-2000, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2008, 6 Marks ;
May-1001, Dec.-2001, 2003, 2006, 8 Marks ;
Dec.-2004, 2008, 6 Marks)
Ans. : Refer section 1.6.5.
Q.3 Draw the forward and reverse characteristics of a triac. Clearly indicating the
latching and holding currents. [PU: Dec.-2.003, 4 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.10.4.1.
Q.4 A SCR is connected in seria with a RL load and is fed from a 115 V , 60 Hz AC
supply. The load resistance is 25 n and load inductance is 0.25 H. If a firing pulse
of 60 µs is applied at a firing angle of 45°, what is the maximum permissible
latching current of the SCR to ensure turn-on. (PU : May-2.003, 6 Marks]
Ans. : Fig. 1 shows the circuit
diagram. The input voltage is, l(t)
¼ = vm sinoot R=250
= lls.J2sin45° V5 = Vmslnd
= 115 "2 sin 45° rv
= 115 = 115 V ·
L = 0.25 H
Thus the input voltage at the
time of turning on is 115 V.
Fig. 1 RL circuit
Current through RL circuit is
given as,
V . -tR
i(t) = R(1-e L)
115
= -(1-e 0.25)
25
-t~
= 4.6(1-e-tOOt)
(P - 2)
..
Power Electronics - Ill P-3 Power Semiconductor Devlen
Since the firing pulse is of 60 µsec, the current at the end of firing pulse is,
~
i(t) = 4.6(1 - e-lOO x(i()x lO ) with t = 60 µsec
= 27.5 mA
Thus the maximum latching current must be 27.5 m.A to ensure tum-on.
Q.S Write short notes on : fast recovery diodes. (PU: May-2002, 8 Marks]
Q.6 What are different stress demands on power devices ? How we am achieve higher
blocking voltage and higher dv/dt capability for SCRs.
[PU : May-2002, 5 Marks; May-2008, 6 ~ ]
Ans. : Power devices have following stress demands :
i) They should have higher blocking voltages.
ii) They should have very high switching frequencies.
ill) They should have very small power dissipation.
iv) The dv / dt and di/dt capabilities should be very high.
To achieve higher blocklng voltage
• Higher blocking voltages can be obtained by lightly doping the n 1 layer and
making it wide.
• Connecting the SCRs in series, the blocking capacity can be further i n ~.
To achieve higher dv/dt capabllfty
• The displacement current can be reduced with the help of cathode shorts.
• Due to cathode shorts, the displacement current is diverted (intercepted) in
the device. It 'doesnot flow across the gate - cathode junction.
Q.7 Write short notes on : Modes of operation of triac and triac applications along with
diJU: as a tri~ dnJice. [PU : Dec.- ~ 8 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.10.4.2 and section 1.14.7..2 gives diac as a trigger device for
triac.
! Q.8 Write short note on : Surgt current and Ji 2t ratings of SCR.
[PU : Dec.-2001, 8 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.9.
Q.9 What are the advantages of IGBT over pqwer MOSFET and pqwer B]T?
[PU: Dec.-2001, 6 Marks]
Q.10 Write short notes on : MCI' [PU : May-2001, 5 Marks]

Q.11 Draw the vertical cross-section and 1-V characteristics of an IGBT.
[PU : May-2001, 4 Marksl
Ans. : Refer sections 1.13.1 and 1.13.3.
Q.12 Write a short note on IGBT as power device. [PU : Dec.-2000, S Marks]
Q.13 Describe following ratings as applicable to SCR.
i) Surge current rating

2
ii) i t rating iii) !! rating iv) ~; rating.
[PU : Dec.-2000, 10 Marks; Dec.-2006, 2007, 8 Marks]

Q.14 Draw forward and reverse characteristics of SCR. Show Ii, I", V80 and V8 R on the
characteristic. [PU : May-2000, 4 Marks]
Ans. : Refer Fig. 1.6.1.
Q.15 Explain the shorted emitter structure to improve the dv/dt rating of SCRs.
[PU : May-2004, 2005, 4 Marks]
Q.16 What do you understand by safe operating area (SOA) of a power semiconductor
device ? Draw the forward biased SOA of the IGBT and explain how it is superior
to that of power B]T. [PU : Dec.-2004, 8 Marks; May-2006, 6 Marks]
Q.17 Draw the vertical cross-section and input and output characteristics of an IGBT.
[PU : Dec.-2004 8 Marks]
Q.18 Draw the vertical cross-section of a power MOSFET and explain the following :
i) Reason for Nbcdy-source-short" in MOSFET structure.
ii) Presence of i-"1tegral reverse diode in the structure.
[PU: May-2004, 8 Marks; Dec.-2oos,·10 Marks]
Q.19 Draw the forward and reverse characteristics of a mac clearly indicating the latching
and holding currents. [PU : Dec.-2003, 4 Marks)
Power Electronics - Ill P-5 Power Semiconductor Devices
Q.20 Draw the typical isolated gate drive circuit for a MOSFET and explain its operation.
[PU : Dec.-2002, 8 Marks; May-2003, Dec.-2003, 6 Marks)
Q.21 What is the principal difference between the forward biased SOAs of
i) IGBT and BJT
ii) IGBT and power MOSFET. [PU : May-2003, 4 Marks]
Ana. : Refer sections 1.11.S and 1.13.2.
Q.22 Draw the vertical cross-section and forward biased and reverse biased SOA of a
IGBT. [PU : May-2003, 6 Marks)
Q.23 Fast recov'ery and schottky diodes. [PU : May-2001, 5 Marks)
Ans. : Refer sections 1.4.4.2 and 1.4.4.3.
Q.24 Draw the vertical cross-section and VI characteristics of IGBT. Also explain latchup
in IGBT and how to avoid it ? [PU : Dec.-2006, 8 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.13.1 for vertical cross-section of IGBT. VI characteristics are
given is section 1.13.3. Refer section 1.13.1.4 for latchup and how to avoid latchup in
IGBT.
Q.25 Draw the vertical cross-section of an IGBT and explain the reason for the
body-source-short in the IGBT structure ? [PU : May-2006, 6 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.13.1 for vertical cross-section and section 1.13.1.5 for
body-source-short reason.
Q.26 Why is a high-frequency pulse train preferred for gating SCRs as compared to DC
triggering. [PU : May-2006, 4 Marks]
Q.27 A SCR is connected in series with RL load and is fed from a 120 V, 60 Hz AC
supply. The load resistance is 15 n and load is 0.75 ~ - What is the maximum
allowable latching current of the SCR if the gate trigger circuit output pulse is of
100 µs duration at a delay angle of 45". [PU : May-2006, 8 Marks)
Ana. : Fig. 2 show the circuit diagram. ,.
i(t)
R = 150
= 120 {2 sin 45° L = 0.75 H

= 120V
Fig. 2
Current through RL circuit is given as,
R -tRJ
i(t) = v ( 1-e
L
...
= 16 mA.
Thus at end of 100 µs trigger pulse, SCR current will reach to 16 mA. Hence
latching current must be at least 16 mA to keep the device in ON condition. Thus,
IL = 16 mA.
Q.28 The Thevenin equivalent of an IGBT gate drive circuit is a DC source of 10 V in
series with a resistance R. The IGBT parameters are Cgs = 100 pF, Cgd = 150 PF
and V GS <TH> = 3 V. Calculate the Niue of R so that the turn-en delay, i.e. time
taken for VGS to rise from zero to VGS(TH) is 5 ns. [PU : May-2006, 6 Marks]
Ans. : Fig. 3 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
r:n
R
v, =10V T VGi)TC =c., 11 c,,
Fig. 3
Here 'C' is the parallel combination of Cgs and Cgd hence,

c = cgs + cgd
= 1000 pF + 150 pF
= 1150 pF
The voltage across capacitor will be gate-source voltage. Hence
V GS = v g (1 - e -t I RC )
Here we have to determine value of 'R' for t = 5 nsec, VGS = VGS(Th) = 3 V,
C = 1150 pF and Vg = 10 V. Hence,
· 3 = io( 2
l - e-Sxto-9 /(Rxlt50x!O-l ))
0.3 = l - e-4.3478/ R
0.7 = e-4.3478/ R
... R = 1219 il='.a.2 .Q
Q.29 The gate-cathode characteristic of a triac is given by Vg = 2+5 I,- A triggering pulse
train with an amplitude of 10 V, on period of 10 µs is applied to the gate through a
10 n series resistor. Calculate
( i) Peck gate power
(ii) Triggering frequency to obtain an werage gate power of 0.5 W.
[PU : Dec-2006, 6 Marks]
Ans. : Refer example 1.10.1.
Q.30 Give the constructional details of a SCR. Sketch its schematic diagram and the circuit
symbol. [PU : May-2007, 8 Marks]
Ana. : Re.fer section 1.5.1.
Q.31 Describe the different modes of operation of a thyristor with the help of its staHc V-1
characteristics. [PU : May-2007, 4 Marks]
I

Q.32 Explain in detail the following current ratings of SCR.
i) I 2t rating ii) di/dt rating. [PU: May72007, 5 Marks]
Ans. : Refer answer of Q.13 (ii) and (iii).
Q.33 Give the comparison between power diodes and thyristors. [PU: May-2007, 5 Marks]
Ans. : Following table lists the comparison between power diodes and thyristors.
Sr. No. Pow.r Diodes Thyristors
1. These devices are not controlled. These devices are controlled by gate.
2. These devices nonnally have one junction These devices have more than one junction.
3. These are used for rectification, These are used for controlled rectification
freewheeling and feedback. AC regulation, inversion and DC-DC
conversion.
4. These are used as protection for thyristors. Thyrsltors are main power conversion
devices.
5. The diodes of this type are fast recovery SCR, TRIAC, GTO are the devic;ea of
diodes, achottky diodes, etc. thyristor family.
Q.34 Draw vertical structure of power MOSFET. Explain its operation. Compare MOSFET
with other power devices. [PU : Dec.-2007, 8 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 1.12.1 and Table 1.13.1.
Q.35 Why MOSFET is used at high frequency applications ? [PU : Dec.-2007, 4 Marks)
Ans. : MOSPETs are preferred at high frequency applications because
Power Electronics -111 P-8 Power Semlcronductor Devices
i) Switching times of MOSFETs are very small. Hence they tum-off and turn-on
fast. This makes them suitable to operate at high frequencies.
ii) MOSFETs have insulated gate. Hence driver circuits for MOSFETs are very
simple. They can be easily designed for high frequency operation.
Q.36 Justify-parallel operation of MOSFETS can be done more easily as compare to
thyristors. [PU : Dec.-2007, 4 Marks]
Ans. : True • MOSFETs have positive temperature coefficient, hence their paralleling
is easy. H the current increasing in a particular MOSFET; then due to losses its
temperature will rise. This rise in temperature will increase internal resistance of the
MOSFET. Due to increased internal resistance, the current through the MOSFET will
reduce. Thus the current is balanced due to positive temperature coefficient.
Parallel operation of SCRs is difficult as compared to MOSFETs since, SCRs have
negative coefficient of temperature. This doesnot help the internal adjustment of equal
current through SCRs. In fact, external equalizing components are required for
paralleling of SCR.s.
Q.37 Draw the vertical cross-section of a power MOSFET and explain the following :
i) Reason for Hbody-source-short" in MOSFET structure
ii) Presence of integral reverse diode in the structure
iii) SOA of power MOSFET. [PU : May-2.008, 10 Marks]
Ans. : For (i) and (ii) refer answer of Q.18.

iii) SOA of power MOSFET :
Pig. 8 shows the SOA of power MOSFET.
Three factors decide the SOA of power
MOSFET,
i) Maximum drain current (I 0 M)
ii) Internal junction temperature (T;max) BVoss log Vos
iii) Breakdown voltage (BV 055 ) Fig. 4 SOA of power MOSFET
• The MOSFETs doesnot have any second break<lown limitations as in BJT.

• For power MOSFETs, Forward biased SOA and reverse biased SOA are
same. There is no difference between the two.
For switched mode applications the SOA is square. The SOA reduces as frequency
of switching reduces and minimum at DC operation.
Q.38 Draw the circuit diagram and explain any one protection circuit of IGBT.
[PU : May-2007, 4 Marks)
□□□
@ Drive and Protection Circuits for Power Devices
Q.1 Write a short note on methods of isolating control and power circuits in power
converters. [PU : May-2004, 2005, 2008, 6 Marks] (PU : Dec..-2004, 12 Marks]
Q.2 A line synchronized UTT relaxation oscillator, using ,a timing capacitor of 0.1 µF is
to be designed for triggering a SCR in a 115 V, 60 Hz circuit. The UJT has the
following data :
11 = 0.63, VP = 19.5 V, IP = 0.1 m.A, Vv = 1.5 V, Iv = 5 mA,
R BB = 7KS, VO = 0.5 V, normal leakage current with emitter open = 3 mA.
Calculate
i) Values of external resistance to be connected in base 1 and base 2 i.e. R 1 and R 2 .
ii) Values of timing resistor if firing angle is to be varied from 20° to 160°.
[PU : Dec.-2004, May-2008, 10 Marks]
Ans. : Given : C = 0.1 µF
Tl = 0.63, VP = 19.5, IP = 0.1 m.A
Vv = 1.5 V, Iv = 5 mA .,
RB1 +RB2 = 7.5 kn
V0 = 0.5 V, !leakage = 3 mA.
i) To calculate R 1 and R 2
VP = T) VBB + Vo
Vp-VD
VBB =
11
=
19
·g; 3
0.S = 30.15 V
0.7(RB2 + Ra1)
R2 =
T) VBB
3
0.7 x7.5x 10 = 276_ Q
= 3
0.63x30.15
VBB = l1ti1knge(R1 +R2 +RB1 +Ra2)
30.15 = 3x10- 3 (R 1 +276.3+7.5xl0 3 )
... R1 = 2390.3 n
(P - 9)
Power Electronics - Ill P - 10 Drive and Protection Circuits for Power Devices
ii) To obtain timing resistor

Here f = 60 Hz, therefore O> = 21tf = 21t x 60 = 377 rad/sec.
a = wRcC /n(1 ~ 11)

For a = 20° i.e. 0.349 radians,
0.349 = 377 x Re x 0.1 x 10-6 In( l -1.t:>3)

•
Re = 9312.5 n
For a = 1600 i.e. 2.792 radians,
2.792 = 377 x Re x 0.1 x 10-6 In(

1
-1.63
)
RC = 74.486 lci2
Q.3 Write short note on snubber circuits. [PU : Dec.-2003, 2004, 6 Marks]
Q.4 Draw the circuit diagram of a line synchronized ramp and pedestal UJT triggering
circuit for SCRs and explain its operation with the help of relevant waveforms.
[PU : Dec.-2003, 2006, 8 Marks; Dec.-2008, 10 Marks]
Q.5 What are the limitations of RC triggering for an SCR ? with the help of circuit
diagram and waveforms explain U]T trigger method for controlling firing angle of an
SCR. Enumerate its advantages as high frequency carrier gating.
[PU : May-2002, 10 Marks]
Ans. : Limitations of RC circuit
.,
1. The firing angle depends upon RC time constant. The values of Rand C may
change due to temperature.
2. Firing angle can change because of supply voltage fluctuations.
3. The gate firing circuit do not have any isolation from power circuit.
4. The RC firing circuit is not suitable for feedback control applications.
Refer section 1.14.5 for UJT triggering circuit.
Q.6 A relaxation oscillator using U]T is to be used for triggering on SCR. The UJT has
following data : 11 = 0.63, IP = 1 mA, Vv :::: 2 V, Iv :::: 4 mA,. R BB = 8 k{2, supply
voltage :::: 30 V, normal leakage current with emitter open. = 2 mA.
Assuming VO = 0 V for C = 0.47 µF. Calculate the tJalues af range of R, R 1 and
R 2 for changing firing angle from 20° to 160° [PU : May-2002, 8 Marks]
Ans. : This example is similar to that of Q.2. Refer the same for obtaining the answer.
Power Electronics - Ill P - 11 Drive and Protection Circuits for Pow.r Devices ·
Q.7 Write short notes on : Cooling methods of power deuices.[PU : Dec.-2001, 8 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 211.
Q.8 With the help of circuit diagram and relevant wavefonns explain UJT trigger ramp
and pedestal contro.l method of SCR. Give its advantages.
[PU : D~c.-2001, 10 Marks; May-2001, 8 Marks)
Q.9 Calculate ,the values of snubber components R and C in Fig. 1 to protect SCR from
reapplied dv/dt, if dv/dt rating of SCR is 100 V,1.lsec.
[PU : May-2001, S Marks; Dec.-2008, 6 Marks]
0.1 mH 250
+
500V
Fig. 1
Ans. : Given :
L = 0.1 mH
vm = 500 V
dv 100
dt = 100 V/µsec = ~ V/ µsec
10
2
C = _!_[0564 Vm]
r
2L dv I dt
1 [ 0.564 X 50() X lQ-6
= 2 X 0.1 X 10-3 l()()
= 0.04 µF
R = 2ai
0.1 x10-3
= 2 x 0.65 - - -- assuming a = 0.65.
0.04 xl0-6
= 65 .Q
Out of this, 25, .Q is already present in the circuit. Hence R = 64 - 25 = ~ n.
Q.10 With the help of circuit diagram and relevant waveforms explain ramp and pedesteal
triggering for an SCR. Give its advantages. [PU : Dec.-2000, 10 Marks]
Ans. : Refer section 2.1.5, i.e. UJT triggering.
Power Electronics -111 P-14 Single and Three Phase AC/DC Converters
1
vo(rms)
= vm [1-a+ sin2a]2
2 7t 27t
1
2
=
311.127 7t/6
1--+---'---~
sin( 2x:)
2 7t 27t
= 153.3 V
ro(av) =
vo(av)
R
= 9220.4 = 4.62 A
Vo(rms) = 153.3 = 7 665 A
Io(rms) = R 20 .
•• Po(av) = Vo(av) XI c(av) = 92.4 X 4.62 = 426.888 W
Po(rms) = Vc(rms) xio(rms) = 153.3x 7.665 = 1175.045 W
i) Rectification efficiency
1l = pc(av) = 426.888 = 0.363 or 36.3 %

Po(rms) 1175.045
ii) Form factor
FF = Vo(rms) = 153.3 = 1_66

Vo(av) 92.4
ili) Transformer utilization factor
PG(av}
11JF = Transformer VA
Po(av) Po(cro) •
= Vs(nns) xls(rms) = Vs xi c(rms) since l s(nns) = lo<.rms)
= 426.888 0 253 or 25.3 %

220x 7.665 = ·
iv) PIV
PIV = Vm = 311.127 V
Q.3 Discuss Effect of source impedance in single phase full wave converter. (2003)
Q.4 A theree phase full converter is fed from 3 phase 50 Hz. mains. Maximum value of
line to neutral voltage is Vm. The load resistance is 50 '2. Derive expression for
average and r.m.s. output voltage. (2004)
Power Electronics - Ill P-15 Single and Three Phase ACIDC Converters
Q.S A single phase fully controlled bridge converter supplies an inductive load. Assuming
that the output current is virtually constant and is equal to 2 0 A, determim the
1
following perfomumce measures, if the supply voltage is 220 V and if the firing
angle is maintained at 7t / 3 radians :
i) Average output voltage ii) Supply RMS current
iii) Supply fundamental RMS current iv) Fundamental power factor
v) Supply power factor vi) Supply harmonic factar v ii) Volt.age ripple factar.
(200S]
Ans. : Given data,
lo(tm) = 20 A
V:s(nns) = 220 V
1t
a = 3
i) Average output voltage
Vo(av) =
2V
1
t cosa
2 22
= x ix..fi. cos~ = 99.03 V
ii) Supply RMS current
Is(nns) = I o(av) = 20 A
iii) Supply fundamental RMS current
2..fi. I o(av)
1st =
1t
= 2.J2 X 20 =lS A
7t
iv) Fundamental power factor

..
OF= FPF = cos,1
= cos(-a) since ♦1 =- a
= cos(a) = cos~ = 0.5
v) Supply power factor

2..fi.
PF= - cosa
1t
2✓2 1t
= -cos- = 0.45
7t 3
Powar Electronics - Ill P-16 Single and Three Phase AC/DC Converters
vi) Supply harmonic factor

For 1 41 full bridge converter with ripplefree loac current,
HF = 0.4834 or 48.34 %
vii) Voltage ripple factor
Vo(rms) = Vs(nns) = 220 V
,------
Ripple factor (RF) = vo(rms)]2 -1

[ Vo(av)
2
= 220 )
( 99.03 -1 = 1.983
Q.6 Explain in detail the sinusoidal pulse width modulation control scheme for power
factor improoement. (2005)
Q.7 Write short note on Extinction angle control for power factor improvement. [2005)
Q.8 Describe with the help of circuit diagram, the working of a single phase full
converter in the rectifier mode with R-L-E load. Discuss how one pair of SCRs is
commutated by an incoming pair of SCRs. Illustrate your answer with the
waveforms for source voltage, output voltage and current, source current, current
through 1and voltage across one thyristor. Assume continuous conduction. (2006]
Q.9 A single phase full converter is connected to R-L-E lead. For discontinuous load
current, draw the source voltage, output voltage, load current and source current
w1nJeforms as a function of time when extinctwn angle 13 < n and Vm sin 13 < E
(explanatwn not required) and 1t <'3 <(1t +a). (2006)
Q.10 Explain why it is necessary to use forced commutation techniques for power factor
improvement in phase controlled converters. List the various forced commutation
techniques which can be used for this purpose. Which type of thyristor is suitable for
such application ? [2006]
Q.11 Draw tht. circuit diagram of a single phase forced commutation converter. Explain its
operation for Symmetrical angle control with the help of the waveforms of input
voltage, current in the switches, the input current and load current. Also show, how
the firing pulses are obtained. (2006]
□□□
DC/DC Converters
Q.1 The input voltage of a Cuk regulator Vs = 12 V. The duty cycle k = 0.25 and the
switching frequency is 25 kHz. The filter inductance is L2 = 150 µH and filter
capacitane is C 2 = 220 µF. The energy transfer capacitance is C 1 = 200 µf and
inductance L 1 = 180 µH. The average load current is I a = 125 A . Determine a) The
average ouput voltage Va b) The average input current ls c) The peak-to-pe.ak ripple
current of inductor L1 , AI 1 d) The peak to peak ripple, voltage of capacitor C 1, A, 1;
e) The peak to peak ripple current of inductor L2 , Af 2 f) The peak to peak ripple
voltage of capacitor C 2 , A,2 and g) The peak current of the transistor Ip· (2001]
Q.2 Explain the operation of a buck-boost regulator and draw the associated waveforms.
(2003, 2004)
Q.3 The bu~k-boost regulator has an input voltage of V5 = 12 V . The duty cycle k = 0.25
and the switching frequency is 25 kHz. The inductance L = 150 µH and filter
capacitance C = 220 µf. The average load current I a = 1.25 A . Determine a) The
average output voltage b) The peak to peak output voltage ripple. (2005, 2002]
Q.4 A Buck regulator has a input voltage of V5 = 12 V, the required output voltage
V0 = 5 V and peak ripple voltage is 20 mV. The switching frequency is 25 kHz if
the peak to peak ripple current of inductor is limited 0.8 A. Determine :
i) Duty cycle
ii) The filter inductance
iii) The filter capacitance (2003]
Q .S Discuss : cuk regulators. (2004)
Q .6 Draw block diagram of switching mode regulator, showing its essential elements.
Explain how does regulation is acheived ? Also explain, why should minimum
oscillator period be longer than the transistor switching time ? (2004]
(P - 17)
Power Electronics - Ill P-18 DC/DC Convertars
Q.7 A boost Tiegulator has an input voltage of V5 = 5 V, the regulator has an input
voltage of Va = 15 V and the average load current Ia = 0.5 amp. The switching
frequency is 25 kHz. If L = 150 µH and C = 220 µF, determine :
i) Duty cycle ii) Ripple current of inductor
iii) Ripple voltage of filler capacitor. (2004)
Q.8 What is switching mode regulator 7 Name the four basic types of switcmng mode
regulators. What are the advantages and disadvantages of buck regulator ? (2005]
Ans. : Switching mode regulators: Refer section 4.7.
Four basic types of SMPS: Refer Q .1.
Advantages of buck regulator: Refer section 4.8.1.
Q.9 Write short note on buck regulator. (2005)
Q.10 Draw the circuit diagram of all four configurations of switching mode regulators.
(No description/explanation required.) (2006]
□□□
sarvodayaBookSta l t
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Power Electronics • Ill

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Power Electronics - Ill

1.6.4.2 Holding Current(~). 1 -20

1.6.4.3 Comparison (Difference) between Holding and Latching Currents . . 1 • 20

1.8 SCR Gate Characteristics ................................................................. 1 - 32

Copyr ghted ma nal

~tfl pter • 3 Single and Three Phase AC/DC Converters

Copyr ght ma nal

(viii) ' , "" .. ...... ;.

Copyr ghted ma nal

4.5.2 Class B Chopper .•. . .....•..•... .. ... . ................... .. .......... . 4 • 37

• Principle of operation of power converter . Necessity, Input, output and controls.

• The power electronic system thus performs conversion of electric energy. It

1.1.1 App,lications of Power Electronics

1.1 .2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Electronic Controllers

1.1.3 Block Diagram of Power Electronic Controller

Fig. 1.1.2 Block diagram of the system having power controller

• The power source can be AC mains, generator or batteries. The power

1.2 Types of Power Electronic Converters

1.2.2 DC to AC Converters (Inverters)

1.2.3 DC to DC Converters (Choppers)

1.2.4 AC to AC Converters (Cycloconverters)

1.3 Power Semiconductor Devices

1. General purpose 1. SCRs 1. BJT

1.4 Power Diodes

1.4.1 Structure of Power Diode

.1.4.2 1-V Characteristics

resistance of the diode. Therefore current is linearly proportional to voltage. A forward

1.4.3 Switching Characteristics of Diodes

IFlg. 1.4.4 Switching characteristics of power diode

1.4.4 Types of Diodes

1.4.4.1 General Purpose Diodes

• The general purpose diode consists of additional lightly doped n - epitaxial

1.4.4.2 Fast Recovery Diodes (Switching Diodes)

1.4.4.3 Schottky Diodes

1-V characteristics of schottky diodes

Fig. 1.4.6 1-V characteristics of schottky diodes

Applications of schottky diodes

1.4.5 Applications of Power Diodes

1.4.6 Specifications and Ratings of Power Diodes

Serial Type of the Voltage-current Maximum On..state drop

1. General purpose 10 kV/5 kA 2 kHz 1-2 V

2. High speed 3 kV/1 kA 12 kHz 1-1.5 V.

3. Schottky 50 V/50 A 20 kHz 0.S-1 V

1.5 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1.5.1 Construction of SCR

Anode (A), Cathode (K) and Gate (G). A small positive

1.5.2 Merits, Demerits and Applications of SCR

1.6 SCR Characteristics and Modes of Operation

In the above figure, observe that the anode

junctions in the SCR : J1, I 2 and J3 . Due to

Reverse Forward blocking

Fig. 1.6.1 Static V~ characteristics of a SCR

1.6.2 Forward Blocking Mode

1.6.3 Forward Conduction Mode

iii) When dv exceeds permissible value

(I) When V AK >Vso

(...........) indicates switching of SCR ·

(Ill) When : exceeds permissible value

Here dv is the rate of change

triggering. Every SCR has dv rating. It is expressed in volts per microseconds

(Iv) When a gate cathode Junction Is exposed to light