Collins Integrated Science For The Caribbean 3 PDF

Integrated
Science
for the Caribbean 3
udes cd-
Gene Samuel & Derek McMonagle
mor
lcni
Advisors: Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers,

Ishaq Mohammed & Sheldon Rivas
det
adpu
Integrated
Science
for the Caribbean 3
Advisors:
Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers,
Ishaq Mohammed, Sheldon Rivas & Doltan Ramsubeik
det
a d p u
HarperCollinsPublishers Ltd
The News Building
1 London Bridge Street
London SE1 9GF
© HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2015, 2017
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www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools
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Authors: Gene Samuel & Derek McMonagle
Advisors: Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers, Ishaq Mohammed, Sheldon Rivas & Doltan Ramsubeik
Illustrators: QBS Learning
Publisher: Elaine Higgleton
Commissioning Editor: Tom Hardy
Project Management: QBS Learning
Editor: Julianna Dunn
Copy Editor: Sara Hulse
Proofreader: Aidan Gill
Cover Design: Gordon MacGilp
Gene Samuel has taught science at Forms 1 and 2 level at St. Joseph’s Convent Secondary School, Castries,
for many years.
Derek McMonagle is a leading writer of science educational materials with world-wide experience. He has
developed courses at primary, secondary and advanced levels for many countries including Jamaica and the UK.
eBook Edition © September 2018

Print book Edition ISBN 9780008263041
eBook Edition ISBN 9780008326449
Version: 2018-08-29
Contents
Introduction – How to use this book 4

Unit 1: Human body systems: the excretory system 6
Unit 2: Human body systems: the reproductive system 16
Unit 3: Communicable diseases of the
reproductive system 24
Unit 4: Environmental impact of human activities 42
Science in practice: Improving your local
environment 82
Unit 5: Electricity 84
Science in practice: Lighting up a model
doll house 112
Unit 6: Magnetism 114
Unit 7: Light 136
Unit 8: Chemical bonding 168
Unit 9: Acids and alkalis 190
Science in practice: Measuring soil acidity
to improve yield 218
Index 220
Acknowledgements 226
3
Introduction – How to use this book
Form 3
Industry This tells you what you

We are learning how to:
• explain the impact of human activities will be learning about in
on the local and global environment
• appreciate the impact of industry on
the environment.
this lesson.
Industry
Towns and cities are not just places where people live,
This introduces the topic.
but also where they work. Most of the damage to the
environment from urbanisation is a result of increased
industry.
The book has plenty of

good illustrations to put
the science into context.
FIG 4.8 Many of the industries that produce electricity, raw
materials and the products needed by modern society also
produce waste gases that pollute the atmosphere
The exhaust gases from car and truck engines also put waste
gases into the air and cause atmospheric pollution.
Materials that are released into the environment, either
accidently or deliberately, may cause severe damage to
plants and animals.
The populations of some sea animals, such as shrimp and

red snapper, have become greatly depleted as a result of
overfishing, together with pollution and the loss of suitable
4.4
habitats. If stocks of fish fall below a certain level, it is likely
that they will die out completely over time.
The effects of industry are not just felt in the urban
environment. Working practices also produce problems in the
countryside. Farmers use pesticides to protect their crops. This
FIG 4.9 An oil spillage at sea may be washed ashore
and will not only kill seaweed and fish, but may also
increases
FIG 4.10 A sea duck covered infood
oil production but at a cost to the environment.
damage animals such as birds that feed on them from
m a damaged ship; it is unable to
fly or swim and may die
48 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 4: Environmentall im

impact
mpact of human activities Fun fact
Water pollution is
widespread in Trinidad
and Tobago. Much
of this is the result of
industry. Industrial
There are often some FIG 4.11 Some insecticides are indiscriminate and will kill
all insects whether they damage the crops or not
sources of water
pollution include:
fascinating fun facts or Activity 4.3 wash from quarries,
factory waste, overuse
challenge facts. The drama of human activity
You should work in a small group for this activity. You will
not need any equipment or materials but you will have to
of chemicals such as
fertilisers and pesticides,
and waste oil.
improvise by finding objects to support your role play.
Here is what you should do: Key terms
1. Choose one of the effects industry has on the industry factories and
environment that were described in the lesson, or other places where
choose another you know about. goods are processed or
Each spread offers 2. Write a short drama about the consequences this will
have on the environment in the long-term if action is
produced
atmospheric pollution
questions to help you to not taken now. pollution of the
atmosphere by waste
check whether you have 3. Your drama should be about three minutes long. Be
prepared to act it out for the rest of the class. gases produced by
industry and vehicles
understood the topic. Check your understanding overfishing removing
more fish from the sea
1. In order to conserve the environment, people must than can be replaced by
look for ways of sharing with other organisms and natural breeding
ways of minimising the impact of their activities on pesticides chemicals
Key terms are defined other organisms. Discuss how the provision of parks
and lakes within towns might help to achieve this.
used to control pests
such as insects on crops
on the pages where they
are used. 49
4 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: How to use this book
Review of Environmental impact At the end of each
of human activities
• Human activity has an impact on the environment. As the population of the world group of Units there
increases, the effect humans have on the environment increases.
• Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people in a country who live in are pages which list the
key topics covered in
towns and cities. Urbanisation is increasing in many countries as people come to
towns looking for work or for other reasons. As towns and cities grow larger, so does
their impact on the environment.
• As a country develops, its industry grows larger. Industry has an impact on the
environment due to increased use of land for buildings and roads, and the creation of the Units. These will be
useful for revision.
various types of pollution.
• Genetically modified (GM) crops are food crops that have been modified by adding
favourable genes. This might:
❍ increase the yield
❍ reduce the time until the crop is ready to harvest
❍ make the crop resistant to attack by insects
❍ make the crop resistant to drought.
• GM crops appear to be the answer to world food shortages but some scientists
believe that they may cause damage to the environment in different ways.
• Invasive alien species (IAS) are species of organism that have been transferred from
one area of the world to another, either accidentally or deliberately. Where an
organism has an abundance of food and no natural enemies, its population rapidly
increases at the expense of native species. IAS may also carry diseases that can be
transferred to native organisms. Examples of IAS in Trinidad and Tobago include the
pink mealy bug, the black wattle acacia tree, the red palm mite, the Asian green Review questions on Environmental
mussel and the coconut moth.
• Nature reserves are areas where human activity is strictly controlled. This allows the
impact of human activities
organisms that are found there to live in the absence of human activities, which 1. a) What is meant by the term ‘biodegradable’?
increases their chances of flourishing. Reserves also provide a haven where people
can observe and study wildlife. There are a number of nature reserves in Trinidad and b) Give three examples of materials that are:
Tobago. i) biodegradable
• Deforestation is the removal of trees so that land can be used for building or for ii) non-biodegradable.
farming. The removal of trees destroys many different habitats, both in the trees c) Why is non-biodegradable waste a threat to the environment?
and on the ground beneath them. The results of deforestation are the loss of many
species of organism from an area and an increase in soil erosion. 2. Copy and complete the following sentences.
• Biodiversity is the number of different species of organism found in an area. a) Biodiversity is a measure of the number of different types of and
Biodiversity is high when an area has many different habitats. Trinidad and Tobago .
has the highest level of biodiversity in the whole of the Caribbean. b) Matura National Park is in the of Trinidad.
• Urbanisation, industry and deforestation all reduce the level of biodiversity in c) In a national park human activities are .
an area. Other human activities, such as changes in land usage, also impact on
biodiversity. d) In a national park the level of is high because organisms are
protected.
76 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 4: Environmental impact of human activities e) One of the rare living in the Matura National Park is the ocelot.
3. Copy and complete the following sentences using words from the box.
endangered extinct habitats protected
a) When land is cleared for farms natural are destroyed.
At the end of each section there

b) When populations of plants and animals fall they are said to be .
c) If something is not done to conserve plants and animals they may become
.
are special questions to help d) In national parks, plants and animals are from the activities of people.
you and your teacher review

4. Describe ways in which building and operating a sugar factory might harm the local
environment.
your knowledge, and see if you

5. The pawi is a bird that lives in the canopy of hill forests in Trinidad and Tobago. It
feeds on fruit from the trees and builds its nest high up in them.
a) The pawi is classified as an environmentally sensitive species in Trinidad and Tobago.
can apply this knowledge and What do you think this means?
b) Suggest some reasons why any loss of forest would be detrimental to the
the science skills that you have

population of pawi.
6. Scientists have developed a genetically modified corn that produces a poison that
developed.
kills harmful insects. Decide whether each of the following is an advantage or a
disadvantage of growing this crop.
a) The farmer no longer has to buy insecticides.
78 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 4: Environmental impact of human activities
Science in practice
Improving your local environment

Are there things about your local
environment you think somebody
should do something about? Maybe that
somebody is you?
People are often appalled by rubbish
dumped in their community but they don’t Science, Technology,
Education and
know what to do about it. As a scientist
you have analytical skills that can help your
community.
Rubbish doesn’t appear on our streets
by magic. It appears because people are Mathematics (STEM)
activities are included
careless or sometimes just lazy. You are
going to do what you can to improve the FIG 4.62 Litter is unsightly and dangerous
situation in your community.
1. You are going to work in a group of 3 or 4 to reduce rubbish in your community.
It would be best if all of the students in your group live near one another.
The tasks are: which present real-
• to identify the areas of your community which are affected by rubbish
• to analyse the rubbish to see what you are dealing with life problems to be
• to try and identify sources of this rubbish
• to find out what help is available from local authorities
• to take steps to reduce or even eliminate the rubbish on the streets of your investigated and
community.
a) Before you can tackle the problem of rubbish on the streets of your community you resolved using your
science and technology
need to identify the problem areas. It’s possible that there is rubbish all over the place
but are there particular areas which are always heavily littered? For example, are there
always lots of sweet wrappers in the area around the local sweet shop? You might:
draw a simple map of the area
around your community skills. These pages
are called Science in
grade areas from 1 (seldom much
rubbish) to 5 (badly affected most
of the time).
b) As well as where, you also need to
know what and how much. You
might:
• gather the rubbish from a sample
practice.
area and analyse it. You might
separate it into categories like:
paper and cardboard, plastic,
glass, etc.
FIG 4.63 Quantifying the problem
5
Form 3
Unit 1: Human
body systems:
the excretory
system
Excretion
All of the many chemical processes that take place in an
organism are collectively called the body metabolism. As
a result of metabolism, waste products are formed in the
cells. If these were not continually removed they would
accumulate and poison the cells. FIG 1.1 Our bodies are continually
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from producing metabolic waste products
which must be excreted
the body of an organism.
In humans, waste products are formed by a number of
processes. The main metabolic waste products are given in
Table 1.1.
Waste How it is Where it is How it is
product formed produced excreted
Carbon During cellular In all living Gaseous
dioxide respiration cells exchange in
the lungs
Water Through the
lungs and
skin, and as
urine and
faeces
Urea Deamination In the liver As urea in
of unwanted urine and
amino acids sweat
Bile Breakdown of In the faeces
pigments old red blood
cells
TABLE 1.1
The three organs mainly responsible for excretion in humans
are the kidney, the lungs and the skin. The following flow
chart summarises their roles.
6 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 1: Human body systems: the excretory system
exhaled air waste product
organ 1.1
lungs skin sweat
carbon water urea

dioxide
kidneys urine
FIG 1.2 Organs responsible for excretion
Excretion is the removal of the waste products of

metabolism from the body and not undigested food, which
is removed by a different process called egestion. Egestion
and excretion are different processes and should not be
confused.
eating inside the digestion

food body nutrients
metabolism
undigested waste
food products
egestion excretion
FIG 1.3 Egestion and excretion
7
Form 3
Excretion by the We are learning how to:
kidneys • identify location and parts of the kidneys

• understand how the kidneys filter our
blood and remove substances.
Position of the kidneys

The kidneys remove waste products from the blood. These
are stored in the bladder in solution as urine, ready to be
excreted at regular intervals. The body has two kidneys
situated in the lower abdomen. Each kidney is connected to
the bladder by a tube called a ureter.
Something to think
left kidney about
The kidneys are essential
renal artery
the blood
for life. People who
supply have defective kidneys
urine passes
renal vein must have waste
through the products removed from
ureter from
each kidney to bladder – their blood regularly
the bladder stores urine by dialysis. If they are
lucky they might receive
a replacement healthy
kidney by a transplant
operation.
FIG 1.4 Position of the kidneys
Structure of the kidneys
Each kidney consists of two main regions – the cortex and the
medulla. Running between these regions are structures called
nephrons where waste products are removed from the blood.
The nephrons are responsible for removing a mixture of nephron – extends
between the medulla
useful substances and waste products and substances from and the cortex
the blood by ultrafiltration and then reabsorbing useful cortex
substances by selective reabsorption.
Each nephron contains a knot of blood capillaries called a
glomerulus. As blood is forced through these capillaries a
solution called the filtrate is formed in Bowman’s capsule.
This contains a mixture of both useful substances and
waste products.
As the filtrate passes around the loop of Henle, useful medulla
substances like amino acids, glucose and some mineral salts ureter
are reabsorbed back into the blood capillaries. The remainder
passes out of the nephron into a collecting duct from which FIG 1.5 Parts of the kidney
it goes to the bladder.
Activity 1.1
Observing the structure of a kidney
from renal
artery
Bowman’s capsule
1.2
glomerulus
Here is what you need:
• goat’s kidney • dissecting pins
• scissors • hand lens. cortex
• scalpel medulla
Here is what you should do: to renal
1. Carefully examine the outside of the vein
loop of Henle
kidney. What shape is it? Observe
where the kidney connects to the
bladder via a ureter. blood
collecting
2. Cut the kidney in half longways and capillary
duct
look at the inside. Can you see the
cortex and the medulla regions?
Can you see any other structures FIG 1.6 Structure of a nephron
inside the kidney?
Key terms
Check your understanding ureter tube that
connects a kidney to the
1. The following table shows the concentration of bladder along which
substances in blood plasma, in the filtrate obtained in urine passes
Bowman’s capsule and in urine. ultrafiltration the
Substance % in blood % in % in urine removal of a mixture of
plasma filtrate useful substances and
waste products as the
Amino acids 0.05 0.05 0.0 filtrate in the glomerulus
Glucose 0.1 0.1 0.0 selective reabsorption
Proteins 7.0 0.0 0.0 the reabsorption of
useful substances as the
Salts 0.45 0.45 0.80 filtrate passes through
Urea 0.03 0.04 2.0 the loop of Henle
a) Which substance is not removed from the blood dialysis removal of
plasma during ultrafiltration? metabolism waste
products outside the
b) Which two substances are removed from blood body by machine
plasma by ultrafiltration and are not reabsorbed
by selective reabsorption? Explain how you can
tell this from the figures in the table.
FIG 1.7 Dialysis
9
Form 3
The roles of the We are learning how to:
lungs and the skin • understand how and what our lungs
excrete
• measure which parts of our bodies
in excretion sweat the most.
Excretion in the lungs

We think of the lungs as the organ that provides trachea
the body with oxygen but they also have an
important role to play in excretion. right bronchus ribs
heart
The oxygen absorbed by the lungs, and the glucose bronchiole
obtained by digestion, are carried around the body air sacs
in the blood. They are required for the process of diaphragm
respiration which provides cells with energy: FIG 1.8 Structure of the lungs
glucose + oxygen ⇒ carbon dioxide + water + energy
The waste products of respiration are carbon dioxide
and water. If these were not continually removed
from a cell the cell would soon cease to function. For
example, carbon dioxide dissolves in water to give an
acidic solution. If it was not removed from the cell it
would lower the pH of the cytoplasm, which would
interfere with other chemical reactions.
Carbon dioxide and water are carried away in the blood and
excreted in the lungs. Exhaled air contains about 4% carbon
dioxide and is always saturated with water vapour.
During deamination the –NH2 group is removed from the
amino acid forming NH3 (ammonia). The remainder of
the amino acid molecule is converted to carbohydrates to
provide the body with energy:
CO2 + NH3 → CO(NH2)2 (urea)
Activity 1.2 Formation of urea
Investigating which parts of the body sweat most Urea is formed in the
Here is what you will need: liver as a result of the
• blue cobalt chloride paper – squares × 6 deamination of amino
• access to a watch or clock. acids. The body cannot
use all of the amino
Here is what you should do: acids obtained from
1. Mark each piece of blue cobalt chloride paper with food to build new
a number from 1 to 6. proteins.
2. Decide six places on your body which you are going
to compare for the amount of sweat produced. List
1.3
which number goes with which body part.
3. Go and stand somewhere warm so that you are Fun fact
sweating.
4. Place the first piece of blue cobalt chloride paper on a Cobalt chloride paper
part of your body for example, your forehead. Leave is blue when anhydrous
it there for a few minutes until you can see it turning but turns pink in the
pink. The length of time will depend on how much presence of water. It can
you are sweating. Make a note of the time. be used to detect the
5. Repeat step 4 on the remaining five parts of your presence of water.
body using the same time period as you did for the
first one.
6. Compare how much each cobalt chloride paper turned
pink. Deduce which part of your body sweated more
and which sweated least.
Ammonia is toxic so it is combined with carbon dioxide to
form urea, which is less toxic and is removed from the body
in urine and sweat.
Excretion through the skin hair shaft pore of
The skin is the largest organ of the body sebaceous sweat gland
and has many functions, including the gland epidermis
excretion of urea and water. hair erector
muscle
Within the skin there are many sweat hair follicle
glands leading to pores on the surface. It fat cells dermis
is through these pores that the body loses sweat
sweat. Sweat consists mostly of water but gland
it also contains small amounts of dissolved
substances such as urea and minerals. blood capillary
Sweating serves two important purposes FIG 1.9 Structure of the skin
for the body:
• it allows the body to excrete water and urea Key terms
• when the water from sweat evaporates it cools the body.
After the water from sweat has evaporated small amounts respiration process by
of solids like urea are left behind, which is why people smell which cells obtain energy
if they do not wash regularly. sweat gland structure in
the skin through which
Check your understanding sweat is released
1. State from which organ(s) each of the following are sweat water containing
excreted. small amounts of
dissolved solids like urea
a) carbon dioxide b) urea c) water. and mineral salts
11
Form 3
Water balancing We are learning how to:

• spot the signs of dehydration.
The human body loses water in a number of different ways

including:
Something to think
• as urine – a solution of waste products such as urea and about
mineral salts
• as sweat – essentially water but contains some urea and When the urine is deep
mineral salts. yellow or orange this
is a sign that the body
Sweating is dehydrated and the
person must drink some
Sweating is an important mechanism in maintaining the water straight away.
body at a constant temperature. As the water from sweat
evaporates from the skin it removes heat and so it helps to
cool the body.
The amount a person sweats is determined by the
temperature of their surroundings and how active they are.
When the weather is hot or when a person is very active,
perhaps playing a sport, their body gets hot. They produce
lots of sweat in order to cool down to maintain body
temperature.
FIG 1.10 On hot days we lose lots of
When the weather is cool or a person is inactive, perhaps water through sweating
sitting reading a book, they produce very little sweat. The
body doesn’t need to lose heat in order to maintain body
temperature.
The body loses far more water through sweating on a hot
day than it does on a cold day. If the body produced the
same amount of urine on a hot day as it does on a cold
day, the person would soon become dehydrated and feel
unwell. So how does the body control the amount of urine
produced?
Action of the kidneys
The kidney maintains water balance by varying the amount
of water reabsorbed into the blood. This results in urine of
different concentrations.
FIG 1.12 Sportspersons need to

drink water to prevent becoming
dilute concentrated dehydrated
FIG 1.11 Urine changes colour with concentration
On hot days or when a person is active they produce lots
of sweat. Their kidneys compensate for this by reabsorbing
lots of water so less urine is produced. Their urine is highly
1.4
coloured because the concentration of urea and other waste
substances is high.
On cool days or when a person is inactive they produce very
little sweat. Their kidneys reabsorb relatively little water so
more urine is produced. Their urine is very pale because the
concentration of urea and other substances is low.
Activity 1.3
Finding out about dehydration and oral rehydration
solutions
You should work in a group of 3 or 4 for this activity. You are
going to research into dehydration and how oral rehydration
solutions (ORS) may be used to treat this condition.
In carrying out your research you should consider such
things as:
• What is dehydration?
• When a person becomes dehydrated are they just short
of water or is there more to it?
• Why might vomiting and/or diarrhoea result in dehydration?
• What do ORS contain?
• What brands of ORS are available at your local pharmacy?
• How should ORS be taken? FIG 1.13 Oral rehydration salts
Prepare a brief oral report on dehydration that you can
present to the class.
Check your understanding
1. The following table shows the amount of water lost
by a person in different ways during a cool day.
Way in which water was lost Volume / cm3
From the lungs 650
From the skin 550 Key terms
In faeces 250 dehydrated containing
As urine 1250 less water that normal
a) Show this data as a bar graph. concentration amount
of a substance dissolved
b) Describe how the amounts of water lost by the in a given volume of
different ways will change on a hot day. liquid
13
Review of Human body systems:
the excretory system
• Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism from the body.
• Metabolic waste products include carbon dioxide, water and urea.
• Egestion is a different process to excretion and is the removal of undigested food from
the body.
• The kidneys absorb waste products from the blood which eventually pass out of the
body as urine.
• Each kidney consists of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• In a nephron ultrafiltration removes useful and waste substances from the blood and
the useful substances are reabsorbed.
• Dialysis is a method of removing waste from the blood artificially using a machine.
• Carbon dioxide and water vapour are excreted by the lungs.
• Water and urea are excreted by the skin as sweat.
• Heat is lost from the body when the water in sweat evaporates.
• People produce lots of sweat on hot days and/or when they are active.
• People produce little sweat on cool days and/or when they are inactive.
• The kidneys control water loss from the body by producing more or less urine.
• Dilute urine is pale while concentrated urine is coloured yellow-orange.
• Oral rehydration salts are used to treat dehydration.
Review questions on Human body
systems: the excretory system
1. a) How is egestion different from excretion?
b) Name three organs concerned with excretion.
2. The following diagram shows a section through a kidney.
artery D
C
vein E
B
A
FIG 1.14
a) Name parts A, B and C.
b) State one way that the blood in vein E differs from that in artery D.
c) What passes along A and where does it go?
3. Justin has noticed that after playing football for an hour on a sunny day his urine is a
much deeper colour than normal.
a) Explain why this is the case.
b) How can Justin make his urine return to its normal colour?
4. a) What is a glomerulus and in which part of a nephron is it found?
b) What happens during ultrafiltration?
c) What happens during selective reabsorption?
d) Why don’t blood proteins pass out of the blood during ultrafiltration?
5. In terms of water loss from the body, what difference, if any, would you expect to
each of the following on a hot day compared to a cool day?
a) Amount of sweat produced.
b) Amount of water in exhaled air.
c) Colour of urine.
d) Amount of urine.
15
Form 3
Unit 2: Human
body systems:
the reproductive
system
Reproduction
Reproduction is one of the seven characteristics of all
living things. Reproduction is the means by which a species
continues to exist. Organisms exhibit a number of different
methods of reproduction, for example sexual reproduction
or asexual reproduction. In humans, sexual reproduction
takes place. This occurs between a male and a female and
requires specialised reproductive systems.
FIG 2.1 Male and female

The male sex cells are called sperm and the female sex cells
are called ova (singular ovum). For reproduction to occur,
the sperm must leave the male body and enter the female,
where it joins an ovum and fertilisation takes place. This
results in the formation of an embryo, which grows inside
the female.
16 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 2: Human body systems: the reproductive system
2.1
FIG 2.2 A sperm fertilises an ovum
FIG 2.4 The human male reproductive

system
FIG 2.3 A developing human embryo
Because the male and female reproductive systems have
different functions, they are different in structure. In this
unit you will learn about the structure of both systems and
how the structure of each relates to their functions.
FIG 2.5 The human female

reproductive system
17
Form 3
The male We are learning how to:
reproductive • outline the structure of the human

male and female reproductive systems
and the functions of the parts
system • identify the parts of the male
reproductive system and their
functions.
The male reproductive system
sperm duct
bladder
seminal penis
vesicle
urethra
prostate
gland
scrotum
testis
epididymis
FIG 2.6 Male reproductive system
The male reproductive organs are the two testes. These
lie outside the body cavity in a sac called the scrotum.
This allows the testes to remain at a temperature that is
slightly below normal body temperature. This favours the
production of sperm.
Each testis contains many tubes in which sperm is formed.
These meet and join to connect with the epididymis.
The epididymis leads to the sperm duct. The two sperm
ducts open into the ureter just after it leaves the bladder.
Urine from the bladder and sperm both pass out of the
penis through the urethra. The body has a mechanism that
prevents these events happening at the same time.
sperm duct
2.2
epididymis
Fun fact
A vasectomy is a
procedure a man can
have if he and his
partner agree that they
do not want to have
FIG 2.7 Structure of a testis any more children.
It involves a minor
The seminal vesicle branches from each sperm duct operation during which
just before it enters the prostate gland. The seminal a short section of each
vesicle contains fluid that mixes with the sperm to form sperm duct is removed
semen. The prostate gland secretes a fluid that nourishes and the remaining ends
the sperm. Millions of sperm are released each time a male tied off. This prevents
ejaculates. sperm from passing
from the testes to the
Activity 2.1 urethra. A vasectomy
does not affect a man’s
Tracing the movement of sperm ability to have sexual
Here is what you need: intercourse.
• model of the male reproductive organs (if this is not Key terms
available use Fig 2.6).
Here is what you should do: testes male reproductive
1. Follow the passage of the sperm from where it is organs
formed to where it leaves the body on the model. scrotum sac outside the
2. Make a list of the parts of the male reproductive body that contains the
system in the order that sperm passes through them. testes
sperm specialised
Check your understanding reproductive cells
produced in the testes
1. In which parts of the male reproductive system is sperm duct tube along
sperm produced? which sperm pass before
2. What is the function of the seminal vesicles? they reach the prostate
gland
3. What is the name of the duct that joins the
epididymis to the urethra? penis part of male
reproductive system
4. What else apart from sperm leaves the body through through which sperm
the urethra? and urine pass
19
Form 3
The female We are learning how to:
reproductive • outline the structure of the human

male and female reproductive systems
and the functions of the parts
system • identify the parts of the female
reproductive system and their
functions.
The female reproductive system

oviduct mature ovum in the oviduct
ovary
uterus uterine wall
vagina cervix Fun fact

FIG 2.8 All of the parts of the female system are held within the body cavity Men produce new
sperm daily throughout
The female reproductive organs are two ovaries. These are their lives. Women are
found at the back of the abdomen, just below the kidneys. born with all of their
Ova develop in the ovaries. ova. These are in the
form of immature ova
ova developing or follicles, which are
ready for ovulation stored in the ovaries.
A woman will have
between one and two
million follicles at birth.
Of these, only about
400 will mature during
the woman’s child-
conceiving years, while
ovulation, when an the rest will die.
ovum is released
When a woman can no
FIG 2.9 Structure of an ovary longer have children,
When a female is mature, her ovaries will release one ovum few or no follicles will
each month. This is called ovulation. remain in her ovaries.
Close to each ovary is the funnel-shaped opening of an
oviduct. The oviducts are also called fallopian tubes. They
are narrow tubes along which the ova pass from the ovaries
2.3
to the uterus. Fertilisation of an ovum by a sperm normally
happens in the oviduct.
The uterus is wider than the oviducts. It is the place where a
fertilised ovum will develop into an embryo and eventually
into a baby.
The uterus, which is usually about 80 mm long, connects
with the outside of the body by a muscular tube called the
vagina. The neck of the uterus is a ring of muscle called the
cervix.
The urethra, which carries urine from the bladder, opens
at the outer end of the vagina. Key terms
ovaries female
Activity 2.2 reproductive organs
Tracing the movement of ova ova specialised female
Here is what you need: reproductive cells
• model of the female reproductive organs (if this is not ovulation when a
available use Fig 2.8). mature female releases
one ovum each month
Here is what you should do:
1. Follow the passage of the ova from where they are fallopian tubes narrow
formed to where they leave the body (assuming they tubes along which the
are not fertilised) on the model. ova pass from the ovaries
to the uterus
2. Make a list of the parts of the female reproductive uterus the place where
system in the order that the ova pass through them. a fertilised ovum will
develop into an embryo
Check your understanding and eventually into a
baby
1. In which parts of the female reproductive system are vagina muscular tube
ova produced? connecting the uterus
2. What is the name of the duct that joins an ovary to with the outside of the
the uterus? body
3. What is the cervix and where is it found? cervix ring of muscle
where the uterus joins
4. How many ova are normally released at one time? the vagina
21
Review of Human body systems:
the reproductive system
• The testes are the male reproductive organs. They are found in the scrotum outside
the body cavity.
• Sperm is produced in many tubes inside the testes. These tubes meet and join to
connect with the epididymis. During ejaculation sperm passes from the testes through
the sperm ducts into the urethra, and leaves the body.
• As sperm passes along the sperm duct it mixes with a fluid from the seminal vesicle to
form semen, and is nourished by fluid from the prostate gland.
• The ovaries are the female reproductive organs. They release an ovum once each
month. The ovum passes along an oviduct into the uterus. If the ovum is fertilised
by a sperm this normally takes place in the oviduct. The fertilised ovum will become
embedded in the uterus wall and develop into a baby.
• If the ovum is not fertilised, it will pass down the uterus, through the cervix into the
vagina, and eventually leave the body.
Review questions on Human body
systems: the reproductive system
1. Name the parts A to E in Fig 2.10.
B D
A
FIG 2.10
2. Name the parts A to E in Fig 2.11.
B
A
C
D
E
FIG 2.11
3. a) In which part of the body are the following formed:
i) Sperm?
ii) Ova?
b) What travels along:
i) an oviduct?
ii) a sperm duct?
c) What is the alternative name for a fallopian tube?
d) How many of the following are normally released by the body at any one time:
i) Sperm?
ii) Ova?
23
Form 3
Unit 3:
Communicable
diseases of the
reproductive
system
Communicable diseases of the reproductive system
Communicable diseases are diseases that can be passed
on from one person to another. Communicable diseases
of the reproductive system are diseases that are passed on
between people during sexual activity, particularly during
sexual intercourse. These are sometimes called STDs
(sexually transmitted diseases) or STIs (sexually transmitted
infections).
There are several different STDs that it is possible for
humans to contract. Some diseases, such as herpes, cause
considerable discomfort and inconvenience but are not life-
threatening. Others, such as syphilis, may result in severe
illness and death if they are not treated.
FIG 3.1 The transmission of sexually transmitted diseases is preventable if people

are prepared to take sensible precautions, such as using condoms
24 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 3: Communicable diseases of the reproductive system
Condoms provide a simple way of preventing the transfer
of STDs, although they are not considered by doctors to
be 100 per cent safe. Their effectiveness depends on them
3.1
being used properly and not being damaged.
FIG 3.2 Male and female condoms

Something to think
Both male and female condoms are available. The male about
condom is slipped over the penis prior to sexual intercourse, There is a lot of
whereas the female condom is inserted into the vagina. misinformation about
Despite the huge advantages of using female condoms, sexually transmitted
both as a contraceptive and to prevent the transmission of diseases. People who do
STDs, a surprisingly large proportion of females are unaware not know very much try
they exist and relatively few females use them compared to to hide their ignorance
the use of the male condom. by making up stories or
If a person has any suspicion at all that he or she might repeating the stories of
be suffering from a disease of the reproductive system, it others.
is important to seek medical advice straight away (it is far There is a lot of reliable
better to face a little embarrassment than to suffer the information on the
effects of a disease and to pass on the disease to other internet about sexually
people). transmitted diseases
Each year, a significant proportion of the country’s resources and there are clinics
is spent on dealing with problems resulting from diseases of where you can obtain
the reproductive system. information and talk to
informed people. Here is
There are a number of local agencies, such as the Family an example of a website
Planning Association of Trinidad and Tobago, that will you could try:
provide advice about STDs. If you believe you have kidshealth.org/teen/
contracted an STD, they will carry out tests to check if this is sexual_health/
the case and can advise about treatment.
25
Form 3
Herpes, chlamydia We are learning how to:
and human • identify the different types of

communicable diseases of the
reproductive system
papilloma virus • describe herpes, chlamydia and human
papilloma virus (HPV).
(HPV)
Herpes, chlamydia and human papilloma virus (HPV)
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
Herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV).
Genital herpes is a common STD that results in blisters around
the genitals of both men and women.
Herpes can be treated with the antiviral drug Aciclovir but
the virus stays in the body and can recur.
Chlamydia
Chlamydia is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.
Most people who have chlamydia do not experience any
symptoms.
Chlamydia is treated with antibiotics.
Human papilloma virus (HPV)
The human papilloma virus (HPV) is a group of viruses that
affect the skin and the moist linings of your body.
HPV is a highly contagious infection. There is no medical
cure for the condition but the body’s immune system is
usually able to deal with it.
FIG 3.3 The bacterium Chlamydia
Activity 3.1 trachomatis
Researching bacterial vaginosis

You will not require any equipment or materials for this
activity, but you will need sources of reference material.
Carry out research into the disease bacterial vaginosis. Use
these questions to help you structure your answer.
1. What causes this disease?
2. What are the symptoms of this disease?
3. How are people infected?
4. What is the cure for this disease?
3.2
1. The following passage is about a common STD called
trichomoniasis. Read it carefully and answer the
questions that follow.
Something to think
about
Some STDs often
produce few or no
FIG 3.4 Trichomonas vaginalis parasite symptoms. People may
Trichomoniasis or ‘trich’ is caused by the protozoan have the disease for
parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis. The parasite a long period of time
is passed from an infected person to an uninfected and not be aware of it.
person during unprotected sex. During this time they
might be infecting other
Most women and men who have the parasite are not people.
aware that they are infected.
When trichomoniasis does cause symptoms, Key terms
they can range from mild irritation to severe
inflammation. Men may feel itching or irritation herpes a sexually
inside the penis. There may also be burning after transmitted disease
urination or ejaculation. Women may notice itching caused by the herpes
and discomfort during urination. They may also simplex virus (HSV)
experience burning, redness or soreness of the
genitals. The infection can be successfully treated antiviral drug a drug
with antibiotics. that treats a virus
a) What causes the disease? chlamydia one of the
b) Why might a person not realise that they are most common STDs, it is
infected? caused by the bacterium
c) How is the disease passed from person to Chlamydia trachomatis
person? human papilloma virus
d) What symptoms might an infected man (HPV) a group of viruses
experience? that affect the skin and
e) How is the disease treated? the moist linings of the
body
27
Sciences
Form 3
Gonorrhoea, We are learning how to:
syphilis and HIV • explain the transmission of HIV

(human immunodeficiency virus)
• describe gonorrhoea, syphilis and HIV.
Gonorrhoea, syphilis and HIV

Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea is sometimes known simply as ‘the clap’.
Fun fact
A number of famous
people from history are
thought to have died
from syphilis, including
Christopher Columbus,
who was the first
European to discover
Trinidad, on July 31
1498.
FIG 3.5 Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae or

gonococcus
The typical symptoms of gonorrhoea include a thick green
or yellow discharge from the vagina or penis, pain when
urinating, and bleeding between periods in women.
The disease is usually treated with a single antibiotic
injection and a single antibiotic tablet. If it is not treated FIG 3.6 Christopher Columbus
there is a risk of serious complications, including infertility Scientists can never
(inability to have children). be certain without
examining the person’s
Syphilis body, but observations
Syphilis is caused by a bacterium that is readily passed from made by physicians,
an infected person during sexual activity. especially at the time
a person was ill and
There are three stages in the development of syphilis. died, sometimes
1. Primary syphilis: to begin with the disease is painless correspond closely with
but there are highly infectious sores around the the symptoms observed
genitals. These last between two and six weeks before during the latter stages
disappearing. of untreated syphilis.
2. Secondary syphilis: the person remains infectious and
develops symptoms such as skin rashes and a sore
throat. These quickly disappear. After this the person
3.3
will experience no other symptoms, perhaps for a
number of years.
3. Tertiary syphilis: around one third of infected people
who are not treated will, sooner or later, develop
serious conditions, including heart disease, blindness,
deafness, paralysis, insanity and eventual death. Key terms
Syphilis is treated using antibiotics, usually in the form of gonorrhoea sexually
penicillin injections. transmitted disease
HIV and AIDS caused by bacterium
called Neisseria
AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It is gonorrhoeae or
caused by a virus called the human immunodeficiency virus, gonococcus
or HIV.
antibiotic medicine
The virus attacks the body’s immune system, which is that works on bacterial
responsible for fighting diseases. This leaves the body infections
unable to destroy the germs that cause other diseases.
syphilis sexually
You will learn a lot more about HIV and AIDS in future transmitted disease
lessons. caused by a bacterium
that is readily passed
Check your understanding from an infected person
during sexual activity
Answer the following questions about syphilis.
AIDS stands for acquired
1. What type of organism causes syphilis? immune deficiency
2. During which stages is it infectious? syndrome
3. Why might a person who has contracted syphilis HIV human
incorrectly think they are no longer infected? immunodeficiency virus,
the virus that can cause
4. What is the usual treatment for this disease? AIDS
29
Form 3
Transmission We are learning how to:
and prevention • identify the different types of

reproductive system
of STDs • describe ways of preventing STDs.
Transmission and prevention of STDs

Diseases are described as sexually transmitted when they are
passed from one person to another during sexual activity
and, in particular, during sexual intercourse.
These diseases spread most rapidly when people have sexual
relationships with a number of different partners and when
they have unprotected sex, that is sex without a condom.
FIG 3.7 Long-term partners

The simplest way to avoid STDs is not to have any sort of
sexual relationship, until you are with a long-term partner
and you both know that the other is not infected nor likely
to be sexually active with others. The chances of becoming
infected are much reduced if a person only has sex with one
partner, in a stable relationship.
One of the most widely used methods of protection against
STDs or STIs is condoms. They are available for both males
and females. The condom provides a barrier between the
body fluids of the participants during intercourse so tiny FIG 3.8 Condoms provide some
organisms such as viruses and bacteria cannot pass from protection from STDs if they are used
one person to the other. consistently and correctly
Having unprotected sex just once can be enough for a
disease to be passed on from one person to another. People
who suspect they have been infected can go to a clinic,
3.4
where they will be examined and tests will be done. If
treatment is necessary they will be given suitable drugs.
STD clinics can provide help to cure these diseases but it is Fun fact
much better not to contract them in the first place. Many There are a number
people end up suffering from an STD simply through lack of of health centres that
knowledge. provide healthcare
Avoidance of STDs is better than cure. and counselling to
people with sexually
Activity 3.2 transmitted diseases.
Informing people about STDs The services provided by
these centres include:
Here is what you need: clinic care, counselling,
• leaflets, pamphlets and other information available blood tests for STDs and
from STD and other clinics HIV/AIDS, treatment
for STDs and referrals
• large sheet of paper or thin card. for further care where
Here is what you should do: necessary.
Use the printed material you obtain to make a poster Some centres have
informing people about one or more STDs and telling a walk-in service,
them how to avoid becoming infected. which means you do
not need to make an
appointment, and it is
Check your understanding free to all citizens of
1. A young adult claims to have had unprotected sexual Trinidad and Tobago.
intercourse with several different partners and never
caught any STDs. He thinks that all of the warnings Key terms
about STDs are unnecessary.
Do you agree with this opinion? What can you say condoms a barrier
that you think might persuade him to reconsider his between the fluids of
attitude and become more socially responsible? the participants during
intercourse so organisms
cannot pass from one
person to the other
body fluids fluids
such as semen that are
discharged by the body
clinic place where
medical advice is given
avoidance stopping
yourself from getting a
disease
31
Form 3
HIV and AIDS We are learning how to:

• identify the different types of
reproductive system
• understand the difference between
HIV and AIDS.
HIV and AIDS

HIV
FIG 3.9 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a virus called the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
The body’s immune system defends it against disease. If

the germs that cause a disease enter the body, the immune
system can destroy them so you do not become ill.
HIV attacks the white blood cells, which are an important
part of the body’s immune system. Once the immune system
is not working properly, the body is open to attack by germs
that can cause a whole range of illnesses.
HIV lives only within cells and body fluids, not outside the
body. HIV does not attack the body, but it weakens its
defences. A person infected with HIV may not show any
3.5
symptoms for a number of years but the immune system
gradually becomes weaker, leaving the person more
susceptible to infection.
AIDS
AIDS is described as a syndrome rather than a disease,
because it manifests itself in the body as a whole collection
of diseases that all result from a weakening of the immune
system.
The first symptoms of AIDS are very much like flu. They
include a high temperature and swollen glands.
As the body’s immune system becomes weaker, the body
may develop more serious conditions like pneumonia and
different types of cancer. It is these conditions that will
eventually cause the person to die.
Activity 3.3
National Strategic Plan 2013–2018
You should work in a small group for this activity. You will Medical fact
not need any equipment or materials but you will need
access to the internet. The first recognised
Here is what you should do: cases of AIDS occurred
As part of the HIV and AIDS National Strategic Plan in the USA in the early
2013–2018, the government has created an information 1980s. The first case
website at hiv.health.gov.tt/ in the Caribbean was
reported in Jamaica in
Investigate this website and find out how it helps people 1982.
to find out more about HIV/AIDS.
Key term
syndrome a medical
1. Why can the germs that cause minor illnesses in condition that has a
healthy people make people with AIDS very ill? range of effects
33
Form 3
Ways of contracting We• explain

are learning how to:
HIV/AIDS the transmission of HIV

(human immunodeficiency virus)
• understand different ways in which a
person may contract HIV.
Ways of contracting HIV/AIDS

There are three main ways in which a person might contract
HIV.
Unprotected sexual intercourse
HIV can be spread as a result of sexual contact. In particular,
the virus can be transferred during unprotected vaginal or
anal intercourse.
Infected blood
People in hospital sometimes receive a blood transfusion.
Blood used in blood transfusions is given by blood donors.
A person who has HIV is said to be HIV positive. If a person
who is HIV positive has not developed AIDS, they may not
realise that they are carrying the virus.
Before scientists realised the virus could be passed on in FIG 3.10 Blood used in blood
transfusions is given by blood donors
blood, people who were HIV positive were able to be
blood donors. When their blood was given in a transfusion,
the recipient became infected with the virus. Blood used
in transfusions is now checked so HIV can no longer be
transmitted this way.
Drug addicts may pass on HIV by sharing needles.
From an infected mother
If a pregnant woman is HIV positive, it is possible that
her child will be born HIV positive because the virus can
transfer across the placenta during pregnancy. The baby
could also acquire the virus from the mother during
delivery or through breast milk.
A mother who has HIV will not necessarily pass the
infection on to her baby.
FIG 3.11 A tiny amount of infected

blood left on a needle is enough to
infect another person
3.6
Fun fact
Medical people wear
thin latex gloves as a
matter of course when
treating patients where
there is the possibility
of coming into contact
with their blood or
other body fluids.
FIG 3.12 Newborn babies can be at risk of infection from many sources
Activity 3.4
Role play about the transmission of STDs
You will need to work in a small group for this activity. You
will not need any equipment or materials but you will have FIG 3.13 The latex provides a
to use objects to improvise. barrier that prevents the wearer
from becoming infected
Here is what you should do: The layer of latex is
Devise roleplay situations that may be responsible for the essential for protection;
transmission of communicable sexual diseases. In each rubber or plastic
case, highlight how a person might protect themselves. gloves are not suitable
or effective for this
purpose.
1. Explain each of the following as fully as you can. Key terms
a) Drug addicts should not use shared needles to blood transfusion
inject themselves with drugs. procedure where a
b) Donated blood is tested for different things patient who has lost a
before it is considered safe to use. lot of their own blood,
c) A person might be HIV positive even though they as a result of an accident
have not been sexually active or used drugs. or surgery or similar,
is given some blood
donated by another
person
drug addicts people
who are addicted to
drugs such as heroin
35
Form 3
Living with We are learning how to:
HIV/AIDS • discuss strategies for protecting

oneself against HIV infection
• understand and empathise with the
problems experienced by those who
must live with HIV and AIDS.
Living with HIV/AIDS

Although there are drugs that can reduce the
impact of AIDS, there is currently no known
cure for this syndrome. People who are
infected with HIV will remain so for the rest of
their lives.
It is not possible to get AIDS by:
• kissing
• touching (for example, hugging or shaking
hands with) a sufferer
• breathing the same air as a sufferer
• touching the same object as a sufferer
• insect bites.
Unfortunately, many AIDS sufferers are rejected
by other members of their community because
of false information. At a time when the
sufferer needs support to come to terms with
what has happened to them, their friends and,
sometimes, even their family members do not
visit them. FIG 3.14 The natural fear that people have about catching
AIDS sufferers sometimes lose their jobs and any disease is greatly magnified with HIV because there is
no cure and the future prospects for a person who does
their ability to support their family because become infected are not good
their work colleagues are frightened that
they will catch the syndrome. The AIDS victim then has no
alternative but to rely on charity to survive.
Activity 3.5
Educating people about AIDS sufferers
• large sheet of paper or thin card
• paints or colouring pencils.
Many of the problems experienced by AIDS sufferers are
3.7
due to people in their community not having enough
information about the syndrome. This lack of knowledge
causes people to be frightened.
Your task is to design a poster that will educate people
in the community about some of the misconceptions
about AIDS.
FIG 3.15 AIDS support groups consist of sufferers and non-sufferers who get
together to help each other
In communities that have a sensible and well-informed
approach to dealing with the problems caused by AIDS, Medical fact
there may be support groups. Members of support
groups talk about the problems caused by AIDS openly, In 2013 it was estimated
and share the things that they have found helpful in that around 14 000 adults
dealing with them. over the age of 15 were
living with HIV in Trinidad
Check your understanding and Tobago. The number
is divided approximately
1. List and explain some of the problems that may be equally between males
experienced by people living with HIV/AIDS. and females.
37
Review of Communicable diseases of
the reproductive system
• Communicable diseases of the reproductive system are often called sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs) or sexually transmitted infections (STIs). These diseases are
described as sexually transmitted because they may be transmitted from one person to
another during sexual activity, and in particular sexual intercourse.
• Herpes, chlamydia and the human papilloma virus (HPV) are examples of common
STDs.
Disease Cause Symptoms/Effects Treatment
Genital herpes virus skin damage or blisters antiviral drug
round the genitals Aciclovir
Chlamydia bacterium number of symptoms, antibiotics
though some sufferers
may be unaware that
they have it
Human group of affects moist no medical
papilloma viruses membranes of body – treatment but
virus may lead to genital body’s immune
warts and cervical system is usually
cancer in women if able to deal with it
left untreated
Gonorrhoea bacterium thick green or yellow antibiotics
discharge from vagina
or penis
Syphilis bacterium sores on the genitals – antibiotics, e.g.
if not treated serious penicillin
conditions such
as heart disease,
blindness, deafness,
paralysis and insanity
may develop
TABLE 3.1
• The simplest way to avoid STDs is not to have any sort of sexual relationship unless you
are with a long term partner and you each know that the other is not infected or likely
to be sexually active with other people.
• Condoms provide some protection against STDs by preventing the transfer of body
fluids.
• Many people end up with an STD because they lack knowledge. The number of cases
of STDs each year can be reduced by educating people. It is better to avoid becoming
infected even if there is a simple cure.
• HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS stands for acquired immune
deficiency syndrome. HIV attacks the body’s immune system and leaves it deficient or
weakened so that it cannot destroy the germs that cause other diseases. People who
develop AIDS die from a variety of diseases that attack their weakened body.
• People who have HIV are described as HIV positive. There are three main ways in
which a person might acquire the virus:
1. As a result of unprotected sex with someone who has the virus.
2. As a result of receiving contaminated blood. This might happen when drug addicts
share a needle to inject themselves.
3. The virus can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy,
birth or afterwards during breastfeeding.
• There are a number of myths surrounding HIV/AIDS that are the result of ignorance
and fear of the disease. As a result of these, people who are HIV positive sometimes
do not receive the support they need from their community. Support groups can help
people to deal with the practical problems resulting from HIV.
39
Review questions on Communicable
diseases of the reproductive system
1. a) What does the abbreviation STD stand for?
b) State whether each of the following is caused by a bacterium or a virus.
i) HIV
ii) syphilis
iii) chlamydia
iv) genital herpes
2. Which of the following are true about HIV/AIDS and which are false? Write T or F for
each one.
a) AIDS is best described as a syndrome rather than a disease.
b) A person who contracts HIV will show immediate signs of infection.
c) A person can contract AIDS by kissing someone who is infected.
d) AIDS sufferers are sometimes isolated by their communities.
e) HIV is transmitted by a certain kind of mosquito.
f) There is no known cure for HIV/AIDS.
3. The table shows the estimated number of people in Trinidad and Tobago living with
HIV/AIDS in the period 2001 to 2010.
Year Number of people living
with HIV/AIDS
2001 7800
2002 7800
2003 17 000
2004 29 000
2005 29 000
2006 29 000
2007 29 000
2008 29 000
2009 14 000
2010 14 000
TABLE 3.2 (Source Index Mundi)
a) Draw a bar graph to represent this information.
b) Between which two years was the greatest rise in the number of people living
with HIV/AIDS?
c) i) What was the largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS?
ii) For how many years was there that number of people?
4. a) What causes gonorrhoea?
b) What are the symptoms of this disease?
c) What is the treatment for this disease?
d) What complication might occur if gonorrhoea is left untreated?
5. a) Describe what effect the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has on the immune
system.
b) Explain why a person suffering from acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
may become ill and die from a disease that would have little effect on a normal
healthy person.
6. Here is an extract from a newspaper article on STDs and the use of condoms. Read it
carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Fêtes, scantily-clad gyrating women and alcohol galore. But this combination can
lead to a deadly end – HIV and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including the
human papilloma virus (HPV). And despite increased condom-awareness campaigns,
specially targeted for the season, Dr Peter Gentle is warning that the popular latex
contraceptive is far from safe.
“T&T is determined that condom sex is safe sex and that is absolutely stupid,” he said.
“The failure rate of condoms is cumulative, which means the more intercourse one
has, the more chance of being infected.” He said there was a failure rate of between
ten and 25 per cent with condom use in preventing the spread of HIV.
“And with HPV the failure rate is as high as 80 per cent because the virus comes off
your body outside of the area covered by the condom,” he said.
(Trinidad & Tobago Guardian online Monday, April 13 2015)
a) Which sexually transmitted diseases are mentioned?
b) Why does the writer suggest that condoms cannot be relied on to provide totally
safe sex?
c) What is the failure rate for preventing the spread of HIV using a condom?
d) What is likely to increase the failure rate for a person?
41
Form 3
Unit 4: Environmental
impact of human
activities
Environmental impact of human activities
There are many ways in which humans can affect and
change environments. Some of these impacts are outlined
here.
Exploiting natural resources
Environments far from human habitation, that have no
resources worthy of exploitation, are relatively untouched
by humans. Environments that have resources are often
exploited to the extent that few plant and animal
populations remain.
Genetically modified (GM) crops
Genetically modified, or GM, crops may produce higher
food crop yields, but scientists believe they may also create
environmental problems.
Invasive alien species (IAS)
Every area has communities of different plants and animals
linked together in food webs. Numbers are controlled
by such factors as availability of food and the number of
organisms feeding in it. FIG 4.1 In 1979 swarms of Africanised
If a plant or animal is introduced to a new environment honey bees migrated across to Trinidad
from Venezuela and they still continue
where there is unlimited food and no natural enemies, the to fly into Trinidad, threatening
result is a massive increase in its numbers. human lives and livestock
FIG 4.2 Flock of scarlet ibis in the Caroni swamp in

Trinidad, a wetland that provides a variety of habitats
Nature reserves
Nature reserves are areas where human activity is strictly
controlled so the organisms that live there do not become
4.1
endangered or threatened with extinction.
Deforestation
Large areas of forest are being cut down every year to
provide wood and farmland.
Forests provide lots of different habitats. Once these habitats
are lost, the organisms that occupied them are also lost.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of different kinds
of organism in an area. Trinidad and Tobago has the highest
level of biodiversity in the Caribbean. Keeping a high level
of biodiversity requires maintaining and protecting lots of
different habitats.
Threatened species
Although Trinidad and Tobago boasts a high level of
biodiversity, it also has a number of species of plants and Something to think
animals that now exist in small numbers and are threatened about
with extinction if positive action is not taken.
The greenhouse effect and global warming It is impossible for
As a result of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a population of any
some other gases, the surface temperature of the Earth plant or animal to live
is increasing. The increase in temperature is called global in a habitat without
warming. making some sort of
environmental impact.
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable In order to conserve
Natural materials, such as vegetable waste, rot when left in the environment,
the ground. They are described as biodegradable. Materials people must look for
made by humans, such as glass and plastics, are often non- ways of sharing with
biodegradable. The build-up of non-biodegradable waste is other organisms and
a problem that our society must solve. ways of minimising the
impact of their activities
The three Rs on other organisms.
People can take three steps to reduce the amount of waste Is there a place near
that they produce: where you live or in
• Reduce – by eliminating those things that are not really the school compound
necessary. that you think could be
made really interesting
• Reuse – by using articles multiple times before they are by cleaning it up and
thrown away. introducing some
• Recycle – by reusing materials to make new articles. different habitats?
43
Form 3
Effects of human We are learning how to:
activities on the • explain the impact of human activities

• identify ways in which human activity
environment impacts on the environment.
Effects of human activities on the environment

Living on Earth brings about changes to the environment.
FIG 4.3 People have always cleared land for farming and cut
down trees for buildings and firewood
When the number of people was
small, natural processes soon
repaired the damage. Trees
quickly grew, smoke from
fires was diluted many times
in the air and waste materials
that were produced by people
were soon broken down by
decomposer organisms, such as
bacteria and fungi.
What is different now is the
scale of these changes. The
world population has shown a
rapid increase over the past
50 years. Scientists believe it
will reach 10 billion people by
the year 2050. FIG 4.4 The population of Port of Spain is around 60 000
A large population makes large demands on the
environment.
• How much land is needed to build homes for these
4.2
people?
• How much land must be cultivated to feed these
people?
• How much waste gas is released into the air from fires
and vehicles?
• How much waste do these people create? Fun fact
Natural processes alone cannot repair the environmental
damage caused by a large population. We must all find ways In order to predict
of reducing the environmental impact of our way of life. population growth,
scientists take into
Activity 4.1 account factors
such as birth rates,
Problems resulting from a population increase life expectancy and
You should work in a group for this activity. You will not migration into and out
need any equipment or materials. of a country.
Here is what you should do: The population of
Trinidad and Tobago is
The population of Port of Spain more than tripled from expected to go down
3000 in 1792 to 10 422 in 1797. Imagine you lived in Port between 2015 and 2025.
of Spain at that time. Can you suggest why?
1. Discuss in your group how the rapid increase in people
would impact on the environment. Key terms
2. Make a list of the ways in which you think the environment the world
environment may have been damaged. around us
natural processes
Check your understanding processes that take
place in nature without
1. Make a list of the ways in which you have an impact humans taking action
on the environment.
population the number
2. How do you think the estimated increase in of people that live in an
population will impact on the environment? area
45
Form 3
Urbanisation We are learning how to:

• explain the impact of human activities
• appreciate the impact that people
have on the environment as towns
grow.
Urbanisation
Features of a rural environment might
include:
• areas of grassland and forests
• areas that have been cultivated
• lots of different types of plants and
animals
• few buildings and roads
• a low population density (the number
of people per square kilometre) FIG 4.5 A rural environment is what we find in the countryside
• peace and quiet.
Compared to a rural environment, an urban environment
is likely to have:
• fewer areas of grassland and forest
• fewer types of plants and animals
• lots of buildings and roads
• a high population density
• a lot of noise.
Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people in
a country who live in urban environments, that is towns
and cities. As the population grows, the proportion of
people who live in towns increases. People move to towns
for a variety of reasons, such as looking for work or so they
can use facilities that are not available in the countryside.
FIG 4.6 An urban environment is what we

find in towns and cities
a) b)
4.3
FIG 4.7 a) Port of Spain in 1850 b) Port of Spain today

Towns like Port of Spain have changed greatly over the past century as
urbanisation has increased
Activity 4.2
Effects of urbanisation
You should carry out this activity in a small group. You will
not need any equipment or materials.
1. Look at the pictures in Fig 4.7 that show how Port of
Spain has changed over the last century.
2. Make a list of the things that you think will have
increased.
3. Make a list of the things that you think might have
decreased.
4. What effect do you think urbanisation has on the
environment around a town? Fun fact
Urbanisation in Trinidad
Check your understanding and Tobago was
1. Write a sentence to predict how each of the estimated to be
following would change as a town gets bigger. Give 13.7 per cent in 2011, the
one reason to support each prediction. last year in which it was
measured. The degree of
a) The amount of atmospheric pollution urbanisation is likely to
b) The level of noise rise every year as more
c) The area of trees and vegetation people move to the
towns to live and work.
d) The numbers of different plants and animals
e) The amount of food available for wild animals Key terms
rural in the countryside
urban relating to towns
and cities
47
Form 3
Industry We are learning how to:

• appreciate the impact of industry on
the environment.
Industry
Towns and cities are not just places where people live,
but also where they work. Most of the damage to the
environment from urbanisation is a result of increased
industry.
FIG 4.8 Many of the industries that produce electricity, raw

materials and the products needed by modern society also
produce waste gases that pollute the atmosphere
The exhaust gases from car and truck engines also put waste
gases into the air and cause atmospheric pollution.
Materials that are released into the environment, either
accidently or deliberately, may cause severe damage to
plants and animals.
FIG 4.9 An oil spillage at sea may be washed ashore

and will not only kill seaweed and fish, but may also FIG 4.10 A sea duck covered in oil
damage animals such as birds that feed on them from a damaged ship; it is unable to
fly or swim and may die
The populations of some sea animals, such as shrimp and
red snapper, have become greatly depleted as a result of
overfishing, together with pollution and the loss of suitable
4.4
habitats. If stocks of fish fall below a certain level, it is likely
that they will die out completely over time.
The effects of industry are not just felt in the urban
environment. Working practices also produce problems in the
countryside. Farmers use pesticides to protect their crops. This
increases food production but at a cost to the environment.
Fun fact
Water pollution is
widespread in Trinidad
and Tobago. Much
of this is the result of
industry. Industrial
FIG 4.11 Some insecticides are indiscriminate and will kill
all insects whether they damage the crops or not
sources of water
pollution include:
Activity 4.3 wash from quarries,
factory waste, overuse
The drama of human activity of chemicals such as
You should work in a small group for this activity. You will fertilisers and pesticides,
not need any equipment or materials but you will have to and waste oil.
improvise by finding objects to support your role play.
Here is what you should do: Key terms
1. Choose one of the effects industry has on the industry factories and
environment that were described in the lesson, or other places where
choose another you know about. goods are processed or
2. Write a short drama about the consequences this will produced
have on the environment in the long-term if action is atmospheric pollution
not taken now. pollution of the
3. Your drama should be about three minutes long. Be atmosphere by waste
prepared to act it out for the rest of the class. gases produced by
industry and vehicles
Check your understanding overfishing removing
more fish from the sea
1. In order to conserve the environment, people must than can be replaced by
look for ways of sharing with other organisms and natural breeding
ways of minimising the impact of their activities on pesticides chemicals
other organisms. Discuss how the provision of parks used to control pests
and lakes within towns might help to achieve this. such as insects on crops
49
Form 3
Genetically We are learning how to:
modified (GM) • explain the impact of human activities

• evaluate the issues surrounding
crops genetically modified crops.
Genetically modified (GM) crops

The nucleus of a cell contains information that will allow the
cell to copy itself.
This information is found on tiny ribbon-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome contains many genes.
Each gene is responsible for some feature of the organism it
comes from. For example, your chromosomes contain genes
that determine such things as the colour of your eyes.
Scientists can take the gene for a particular feature of one
organism and insert it into the chromosomes of another.
This is called genetic engineering. The technique is used to
alter the characteristics of food crops, producing genetically
modified (GM) crops.
gene that makes
species A
resistant to attack gene for
by insects resistance to
attack by insects
chromosome inserted into
from plant species B
species A
chromosome
from plant
species B
FIG 4.12 Genetic engineering

By modifying the genes of a food crop it may be possible to
do things like:
• make the crop more resistant to disease
• make the crop more resistant to drought
• increase the yield of the crop.
Some scientists have concerns about GM crops. They say that
GM crops could:
• alter the flavour of the food made from them
FIG 4.13 Genetically modified maize
• cross-pollinate with wild species
• lead to the development of superweeds or superpests
that are not killed by herbicides and pesticides
• cause health problems for the organisms that eat them.
4.5
Activity 4.4
Fun fact
Debate on GM foods
You should work in a group for this activity. You will not The world’s leading
need any equipment or materials. producers of GM crops
Here is what you should do: are the United States,
Argentina, Brazil,
Canada, India and China.
The most commonly
grown GM crop in terms
of area under cultivation
is maize, followed
by cotton and then
rapeseed.
Key terms
FIG 4.14 Genetically modified rice chromosomes tiny
ribbon-like structures
Scientists have added a gene to wild rice to make a strain containing information
of rice that produces a substance called beta carotene. that enables a cell to
Beta carotene gives the wild rice a golden colour. It is make an exact copy of
needed by humans in order to make vitamin A. itself
Using whatever resource material is available, find out genes parts of a
more about GM rice. Discuss in your group the possible chromosome that are
advantages and disadvantages of this GM crop. responsible for the
specific features of the
Check your understanding organism they come
from
1. State whether each of the following is a potential genetic engineering
advantage or a disadvantage of GM crops. taking the gene for a
a) The yield of crops will increase. particular feature of one
b) The taste of the modified crop will not be as organism and inserting it
good as the natural crop. into the chromosomes of
another
c) The cost of buying food will be less.
d) Crops can be grown more widely in places that genetically modified
are colder or have less rain. (GM) crop crop
produced by using
e) People might develop new allergies to a genetic engineering to
modified crop. modify its characteristics
51
Form 3
Invasive alien We are learning how to:
species (IAS) • explain the impact of human activities

• become aware of the potential
environmental problems that may arise
by introducing animals and/or plants to
a new environment.
Invasive alien species (IAS)

Sometimes species from one area of the
world are introduced into another. This
might be by accident, such as insects
arriving with imported goods, or it might
be deliberate, such as the introduction of
a new food crop.
Invasive alien species (IAS) are species
that have out-competed native species
and have spread throughout their new
environment.
One major contributor to the success of
an introduced species is a lack of natural FIG 4.15 The pink mealy bug is native to southern Asia and
predators. The populations of many arrived in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1990s
species are controlled by predators, which
eat them. Where there is no natural predator,
the population of a species increases unchecked.
The pink mealy bug is a serious pest to agriculture
because it attacks important crops.
The black wattle acacia tree produces lots of seeds. The
species is out-competing native forest species for resources.
FIG 4.16 The black wattle acacia

tree, which is native to Australia, was
deliberately brought to Trinidad and
Tobago in 1982 for forestry purposes
The red palm mite is so small it can be carried on the wind.
It attacks coconut and other palms such as bananas.
The Asian green mussel has spread from Asia to other parts
4.6
of the world in the ballast water of ships.
FIG 4.17 The red palm mite FIG 4.18 The Asian green mussel is well-established
was first detected in Trinidad around the coasts of Trinidad and Tobago, where it has
and Tobago in 2008 taken over the resources needed by native shellfish
Activity 4.5
The coconut moth Fun fact
Here is what you need: The introduction of a new
• internet and/or other species into a country is
resources. not always a bad thing.
Here is what you should do: For example, sugar
cane is not native to the
Find out what you can about Caribbean but it grows
the coconut moth. For FIG 4.19 The coconut moth is another
IAS found in Trinidad and Tobago here well and causes few
example: problems for indigenous
1. From where did it come to Trinidad and Tobago? species. The type of sugar
cane grown all around
2. When was the coconut moth first observed in our the world is thought to
country? have originally come
3. Why is it considered a pest? from India.
Check your understanding Key terms

1. a) Suggest three ways in which an alien species invasive alien species
might accidently come into a country. Give an (IAS) species that have
example of the sort of organism involved. out-competed native
species and have spread
b) Suggest why countries have very strict rules about throughout their new
people importing animals and plants from abroad. environment
predators species that
eat other species
53
Form 3
Nature reserves We are learning how to:

• understand the role of nature reserves
in maintaining the environment.
Nature reserves
A nature reserve is an area of land that
is protected and managed in order to
preserve the various habitats it contains.
It provides protection for the plants and
animals that are found there.
Nature reserves often contain plants and
animals that are rare or endangered and
are therefore seldom observed elsewhere.
Trinidad and Tobago is blessed with many
protected areas in the form of national
parks, sanctuaries and reserves.
There are over 200 species of tree and
liana in the Matura National Park. The FIG 4.20 The Matura National Park is located in the north west
park provides a home for endangered of Trinidad and covers 9000 hectares, of which around 90 per
cent is undisturbed forest
species such as the pawi and the ocelot.
The Main Ridge Forest Reserve contains many different
types of plant. It is also home to many species of animal,
including the ocellated gecko.
FIG 4.22 The Main Ridge Forest Reserve is

effectively the backbone of Tobago and
consists of around 4000 hectares of highland
and lowland tropical rainforest
FIG 4.21 The ocellated gecko can be found in the Main Ridge Forest Reserve
4.7
Fun fact
The Caroni Swamp, just
south of Port of Spain,
is the largest mangrove
wetland in Trinidad. It
is home to many kinds
of bird, including the
scarlet ibis.
FIG 4.23 The Nariva Swamp is the largest freshwater wetland in
Trinidad and Tobago During the day the
scarlet ibis feed in
The Nariva Swamp is on the east coast of Trinidad and covers Venezuela but at dusk
an area of 6200 hectares. they fly back across
The swamp contains four wetland vegetation types or the sea to roost in the
ecosystems: mangrove swamp forest, palm forest, swamp swamp.
wood and freshwater marsh. It is the home of many animal
species including the West Indian manatee, white-fronted Key terms
capuchin monkeys and numerous species of parrot and
other birds. nature reserve area of
land that is protected
Activity 4.6 and managed in order
to preserve the various
Nature reserves and national parks habitats it contains
All of the class should participate in this activity. habitats places where
1. Where is the nearest nature reserve or national park species live
to where you live? rare low numbers in a
2. Have you ever visited this nature reserve? population
3. Share your experiences with the class. endangered species in
danger of extinction
Check your understanding national parks areas
protected from
1. a) Suggest some benefits plants and animals derive development and other
from nature reserves. damaging human
b) Suggest some benefits people derive from nature activities
reserves. ecosystems ways in
which species live
together
55
Form 3
Deforestation We are learning how to:

• evaluate the impact of deforestation.
Deforestation
FIG 4.24 In 1498, most of Trinidad and Tobago was covered in forest – now only
around 44 per cent of the islands are forested
Deforestation has occurred in Trinidad and Tobago, just as

it has in other areas of the world. Scientists estimate that FIG 4.25 One reason that people cut
80 000 square kilometres of forest are lost from the world down forests is to clear the land to
grow crops or raise cattle
each year.
Forest was cleared in Trinidad to allow sugar to be grown. Fun fact
In Brazil, large areas of rainforest are being cleared to create
cattle ranches. Wood is an important commodity used for About 6.2 per cent or
building lots of things. Another reason why forests are 14 000 hectares of the
cleared is to sell the wood obtained from the trees. forested area of Trinidad
Biodiversity is a measure of how many different species of and Tobago is primary
plant are found in an area. Forests generally show a high forest. This type of
biodiversity because there are a number of different habitats forest has the highest
suitable for different plants and animals. amount of biodiversity.
Cutting down trees does not just
affect the plants and animals that
live in and on them; it also affects
4.8
those that live on the forest floor.
Plants that can only live in shade
are exposed to the strong sunlight
when the trees are removed.
When these plants die, they no
longer provide cover for the
animals that live around them so
the animals are also lost.
Deforestation can also lead to FIG 4.26 Without the protection of plant cover and the roots
other undesirable environmental toeasily hold the particles together, fertile topsoil dries out and is
eroded by wind and heavy rainfall; the lower layers of
effects. It increases the likelihood soil that remain have few nutrients so very little grows in it
of soil erosion during heavy rains.
Burning the trees that have been cut down raises carbon
dioxide levels in the air, and many more species of plants
and animals are lost.
Activity 4.7
Key terms
Conservation or exploitation?
You should work as a class on this activity. You will not deforestation cutting
need any equipment or materials. down trees in forests to
Here is what you should do: clear land for other uses
1. Carry out research into deforestation. Use the biodiversity a measure
information you obtain to take part in a classroom of how many different
debate on forests. species of plant are
2. You must decide whether forests should be conserved found in an area
at all costs or whether the forests should be exploited
to provide for the needs of the people.
These satellite images show deforestation spreading in the Amazon
rainforest around Rondonia in Brazil. The images were taken by
satellite in 1975, 1992 and 2001.
1. a) How has the appearance of the area changed?
b) Suggest why the changes have taken place.
c) Suggest how the biodiversity of the area has changed, if at all,
between 1975 and 2001.
d) What effects of the changes might you expect to see if you FIG 4.27
had observed the land more closely in 2001?
57
Form 3
Biodiversity We are learning how to:

• appreciate the impact of environmental
issues on biodiversity.
Biodiversity
Trinidad and Tobago has a wealth of ecosystems. It has the
highest level of biodiversity in the Caribbean. The biodiversity
of animals includes around: 420 species of bird, 600 species
of butterfly, 95 species of mammal, 85 species of reptile, 30
species of amphibian and 54 species of freshwater fish.
In addition, there are thought to be around 2100 species
of flowering plant. About 400 of these are native to
Trinidad and Tobago.
FIG 4.29 Black-throated mango

hummingbird (Anthracothorax FIG 4.30 Scarlet peacock butterfly
nigricollis) (Anartia amathea)
FIG 4.28 The plant Dicliptera aripoensis is

a native plant found only in the Heights
of Aripo in Trinidad’s Northern Range
The importance of biodiversity was highlighted in 2013 by

governmental approval of the first National Wildlife Policy
for Trinidad and Tobago. This recognises the importance of FIG 4.31 Malachite butterfly (Siproea
wildlife to the country. stelenes)
Since organisms are suited to particular habitats, it follows
that ecosystems that offer the largest variety of habitats will
attract the most species of organism. Anything that alters
an ecosystem by reducing the variety of habitats will reduce
biodiversity.
Urbanisation, industry and deforestation greatly reduce
biodiversity. However, even small-scale changes in land
usage can have a significant effect. FIG 4.32 Common iguana
a) b)
4.9
FIG 4.33 a) The fields are small, separated by hedges, and each contains a different
crop; species of wild plant grow in the hedges
b) The field is large and contains only one crop (monoculture) so there is much less
hedge and far fewer wild plants
A diversity of plants will attract lots of different insects
and other animals. The method of cultivation in Fig 4.33a)
therefore will support a much greater biodiversity than that
in Fig 4.33b).
Activity 4.8
United Nations Decade on Diversity
You should work in a small group on this activity. Fun fact
The years 2011 to 2020 are the United Nations Decade of The golden tree frog
Diversity. Use the internet and any other resources you Phyllodytes auratus
have to find out more about the aims of the Decade of is found only on El
Diversity and how it is hoped these aims will be achieved. Tucuche in the Northern
Explain how you could contribute to achieving these aims. Range. It is not found
anywhere else in the
world. There are other
Check your understanding species of flora and
1. fauna indigenous to
a) Trinidad and Tobago.
b) Species of flora and
fauna (especially fish)
north of the Northern
Range in Trinidad are
different from those
south of the Northern
Range.
FIG 4.34 a) A conifer forest in which only one type of tree grows Key term
b) A mixed forest in which many different types of tree are found
monoculture using land
Which forest is likely to show the higher level of to grow only one crop in
biodiversity? Explain your answer. a large field
59
Form 3
Threatened species We• explain

in Trinidad and the impact of human activities

• identify local species of animal and
Tobago plant that are in danger of extinction.
Threatened species in Trinidad and Tobago

Pawi
FIG 4.35 The pawi is a medium-sized

bird that lives in forests and is the
only bird that is found exclusively on
the island of Trinidad
The pawi is at risk of extinction because of hunting and loss
of habitat. It is now only found in an area of 150 km2 of
forest in the north east of Trinidad.
Ocelot
Ocelots live alone and hunt at night. The ocelot is not
threatened with extinction worldwide as it is found in
some other countries. However, the population of ocelots
in Trinidad is falling due to hunting and loss of habitat.
West Indian manatee
FIG 4.36 Trinidad is the only part of
the Caribbean where the ocelot is
found, and the ocelot is the only wild
cat present on the island
FIG 4.37 The West Indian manatee is

a large aquatic creature that feeds on
vegetation and is found in the waters
surrounding some Caribbean and
American countries
The manatee has no natural
enemies but is under threat
due to the activities of people.
4.10
These include collision with
boats, ingestion of fish hooks
and litter, and entanglement
in fishing nets.
Trinidad white-fronted
capuchin monkey
At the last census of these
monkeys, in 2008, the FIG 4.38 White-fronted capuchin
estimated total population of monkeys are found in a number of
this monkey was only 61. The countries in South America, but the
number is small due mainly to Trinidad white-fronted capuchin
monkey is a sub-species found only
a loss of habitat. in the rainforests of Trinidad
Activity 4.9
Taking action to help a threatened species
Here is what you should do: Fun fact
One of the ways of helping a threatened species is to
make the public more aware of their plight. This might The International
encourage people to do things like: Union for Conservation
• write to the government suggesting that action of Nature places
should be taken threatened plants and
animals into three
• donate money to fund conservation categories.
• take more care when walking or driving in • Vulnerable species
the countryside. have a high risk of
Choose one of the animals described in the lesson and becoming extinct
plan a campaign to make people more aware of its plight. in the wild in the
Your campaign could include things like: medium-term future.
• writing an article for the local newspaper • Endangered species
have a very high risk
• designing a poster to be placed somewhere prominent of becoming extinct
• designing leaflets that can be distributed. in the wild in the
near future.
• Critically endangered
Check your understanding species have an
extremely high risk
1. Using available resources, find out more about the of becoming extinct
white-tailed sabrewing hummingbird and why it is in the wild in the
threatened. immediate future.
61
Form 3
Global warming We are learning how to:

• consider the possible effects of global
warming.
Global warming
The average surface temperature of the Earth has increased
by about 0.8 °C over the last 100 years. Much of this increase
has occurred in the last 30 years. This suggests that the trend
in rising temperature is increasing.
This may not sound like much of an increase, but even this
small rise has caused major changes to the climate in different
parts of the world. This is known as global warming.
FIG 4.39 The North Pole is at the extreme top of the Earth and is a very
cold place, even in the summer
The average winter temperature at the
North Pole is around −34 °C while in the
summer the average is around 0 °C. Scientists
who study the North Pole have been aware
for some time that average temperatures
are increasing. The northern polar ice cap is
slowly getting smaller and the ice is getting
thinner as more ice turns to water.
In some parts of the world the summers
are getting much hotter and drier. Warmer
weather has led to water shortages and
droughts in certain parts of the world.
Water is being used up more quickly than it FIG 4.40 The level of water in reservoirs is lower than it has been
in the past because of increased evaporation and lack of rain
can be replaced by nature.
In areas of the world where there are large forests, the
vegetation is much drier than in the past due to higher
temperatures and lack of rain.
4.11
FIG 4.41 Dry vegetation catches fire very easily and

forest fires have destroyed huge areas of forest
Activity 4.10
The effects of drought
You should work in a small group for this activity.
1. Discuss what effects a drought is likely to have on
people and on wildlife.
2. Imagine there is a drought in your area now. Discuss
what steps you could take to reduce the use of water.
Check your understanding Fun fact

1. Copy and complete the following sentences by There is land beneath
writing either ‘increasing’ or ‘decreasing’. the ice at the South
a) The surface temperature of the Earth has been Pole, but the North Pole
over the last 100 years. consists entirely of ice.
If the northern polar ice
b) The thickness of the ice at the North Pole is cap were to completely
. melt it would be
c) In some parts of the world summers are getting possible to sail over the
hotter and drier. The effects of this are that: North Pole.
i) water levels in lakes and reservoirs are
. Key terms
ii) the risk of forest fires is . global warming rise
iii) the number of wild animals and farm in average surface
animals dying from lack of food and water is temperature of the Earth
. droughts lack of rain
63
Form 3
The greenhouse We are learning how to:
effect • explain the impact of human activities

• explain the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases are gases that can absorb and emit heat
radiation. The main greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
as far as global warming is concerned, are water vapour,
carbon dioxide, methane and ozone.
Many scientists believe that global warming is caused
by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. This increase is the result of human activities.
The increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere is commonly called the greenhouse effect because
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have a similar effect
to the glass roof and sides of a greenhouse. Heat becomes
trapped in the greenhouse causing the temperature to rise.
heat radiation is absorbed
by the layer of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere
heat radiation from

surface of Earth
back out into the
atmosphere
Earth heat from the Sun
Earth
heat radiation
from layer of
greenhouse gases
re-radiated
in all
e directions
at m o s p h er
FIG 4.42 The greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect should more correctly be called the
enhanced greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect has
existed as long as the Earth has had an atmosphere. Without
the greenhouse effect, Earth would never have become
warm enough to support life as we know it.
The problem is that the concentrations of the greenhouse
gases have increased significantly over the past two hundred
years. Now, too much heat is being trapped on the Earth by
4.12
the greenhouse gases and not enough is escaping into space.
400
390
emulov yb noillim rep strap ni
noitartnecnoc edixoid nobrac
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
1960 1970 1980
1990 2000 2010 Fun fact
year
FIG 4.43 Global warming coincides with a slow but steady rise in the Concentration is
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which provides
evidence of the link between global warming and the effect of
sometimes expressed as
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases the number of parts per
million. For example, the
Activity 4.11 concentration of carbon
dioxide is 396 parts per
Tackling global warming million.
You should work in a small group for this activity. This means that for
Here is what you need: every 1 000 000 particles
in the air, 396 of them
• plain paper • coloured pencils or paints. are carbon dioxide. We
Here is what you should do: can also express this as a
percentage:
Global warming is a global problem but that does not 396 = 0.0396
mean individuals cannot take action to reduce it. 1 000 000 100
1. What action can you take as an individual to reduce = 0.0396%
global warming?
2. Design a leaflet informing people about the problems Key terms
of global warming and what they can do to help
reduce it. greenhouse gases gases
that can absorb and emit
Check your understanding heat radiation
atmosphere layer of
1. State whether each of the following increase or gases above the surface
decrease the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. of the Earth
a) Burning fossil fuels like coal and natural gas greenhouse effect the
b) Photosynthesis increase in concentrations
c) Road vehicles that run on petrol and diesel of greenhouse gases in
d) Deforestation the atmosphere
65
Form 3
Biodegradable and We are learning how to:
non-biodegradable • explain the impact of human activities

• identify which materials are
biodegradable and which are not.
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable

Waste is not a good thing for a number of reasons.
• It is ugly and has an unpleasant smell.
• It is expensive to deal with.
• It may contain substances that damage the
environment.
• It provides a breeding ground for pests such as flies.
• It often contains materials that can be recycled.
Some materials decompose when buried in the ground
due to the action of decomposer organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and worms. These materials are described as
biodegradable.
FIG 4.44 One method of disposing of
Other materials are non-biodegradable. They can remain waste is to bury it in the ground as
buried in the ground for many years and remain what is called landfill – this landfill
unchanged. site is in Grenada
Activity 4.12
Finding out what happens when materials are buried
in soil
You will need to do this activity outside. Fun fact
• trowel or spade • empty plastic bottle Scientists are developing
plastics that are
• stale bread • sticks to mark the holes. biodegradable. They
Here is what you should do: will be made from raw
materials such as corn
1. Dig two holes about 10 cm deep close to each other. and potato starch. They
2. In one hole place a piece of stale bread. will also be sustainable,
unlike plastics made
3. In the second hole place an empty plastic bottle. from crude oil, which are
4. Pour some water on each material. not sustainable as the oil
they are made from will
5. Fill the holes with soil. one day run out.
6. Place markers so that you can find where each
material is buried again.
4.13
7. After around two weeks gently remove the soil from
each hole.
8. Carefully examine the stale bread and the plastic
bottle.
9. Describe what has happened, if anything, to the stale
bread and to the plastic bottle.
If vegetable waste is left out in the open or dug into soil,
it will eventually rot away.
Rotted waste from a compost heap provides nutrients
for plants.
Plastics are useful but they have one big disadvantage.
Plastic is not broken down by natural processes and is
therefore non-biodegradable.
FIG 4.45 Vegetable waste can be
described as biodegradable because
it is degraded or broken down by
biological processes
Key terms
waste material that
humans throw away
FIG 4.46 Waste plastic that has been dug into the soil will remain decomposers organisms
unchanged for tens and maybe even hundreds of years such as bacteria,
In general, materials that are made from living things are fungi and worms that
biodegradable, while manmade materials are not. decompose organic waste
biodegradable materials
Check your understanding that decompose when
buried in the ground as
1. Which of these are biodegradable and which are not? a result of decomposers
Make two lists. acting on them
aluminium can cardboard box coffee grounds non-biodegradable
glass jar orange peel paper bag materials that do not
plastic tray porcelain mug stale bread decompose when buried
wooden skewer in the ground
67
Form 3
Reducing demand We are learning how to:
to reduce waste • explain the impact of human activities

• reduce demand in order to reduce
waste.
Reducing demand in order to reduce waste

To decide how best to deal with waste, we need to know
what people throw away.
Activity 4.13
Analysing the contents of a bag of rubbish
For this activity you need to work in a group.
• pair of rubber gloves SAFETY
• bag of rubbish The person handling
the waste materials
• new bin bag must wear rubber
• waste newspaper. gloves.
1. As a group, decide how you are going to divide up
the waste. Aim for six categories, for example: metal,
plastic, glass, waste food and peelings, paper and
card, and other materials.
2. Spread newspaper over the top of your table to
protect it.
3. Open a bin bag so it is ready to receive the waste.
4. Open the bag of rubbish and pour some of it onto
the table.
5. Classify each item under one of your headings and
then put it into the new bin bag.
6. Other members of the group should record each item
in the correct category list. Fun fact
To reduce the waste going to landfill or disposed of in other The use of plastic bags
ways, we can do three things. We call these the 3Rs. is banned in some
• Reduce – some of the things we use may not be countries such as
necessary. Bangladesh and China.
• Reuse – some things can be reused
or repaired rather than thrown
away.
4.14
• Recycle – some things are made
of materials that can be recycled.
People do not eat the skins of some fruits
so why put them in bags? Reduce waste
by reducing the amount of materials used.
Some products are sold in a FIG 4.47 Many foods are already in packets so they
concentrated form. Why do you think do not need to be put in bags
this is done?
The average home receives lots of unwanted mail each year.
FIG 4.48 You use a small amount of a concentrated product FIG 4.49 If the amount of junk mail and circulars was
each time so the product lasts longer and there are fewer reduced this would mean less waste
empty containers

1. Bottled water is often available in different-sized
bottles. Key terms
a) How can buying your bottled water in the largest reduce some of the
size available reduce the amount of waste you things we use that end
create? up as waste may not be
b) Suggest another advantage of buying large packs necessary
of products.
2. Environmentalists want the government to ban the reuse some things can be
use of plastic bags in Trinidad and Tobago. They argue reused or repaired rather
that plastic bags cause all sorts of environmental than thrown away
problems. They maintain that there are alternatives to recycle some things are
plastic bags that do just as good a job. Make a list of made of materials that
arguments for and against a ban on plastic bags. can be recycled
69
Form 3
Reusing to reduce We are learning how to:
waste • explain the impact of human activities

• reuse in order to reduce waste.
Reusing to reduce waste

People can reduce waste by using objects and materials
more than once.
In some shops, goods are placed into disposable plastic bags.
The bags are meant to be used once and thrown away. This
is bad for the environment. The plastic used to make the
bags is non-biodegradable and plastic bags are not easy
to recycle.
FIG 4.50 A shopping bag can be used many times FIG 4.51 Using lunch boxes that can be taken home and washed
before it has to be thrown away; using a shopping each night is much better for the environment than taking food
bag reduces waste and is good for the environment in plastic boxes and bags that are then thrown away; Styrotex
containers are also used a lot
Why not refill a clean empty water bottle with your drink
each day instead of having a drink in a disposable bottle? 4.15
FIG 4.52 Liquid soap dispensers do not need to be thrown away when they
are empty; they can be refilled (one refill pack lasts a long time)
Activity 4.14
Encouraging people to reuse
You should work in a small group for this activity.
• coloured pencils or paints
• large sheet of sugar paper or card.
1. Discuss how people might be encouraged to reuse
things.
2. Design a poster informing people about how reusing
can reduce the amount of waste they generate.
Environmental fact
3. Sketch out your poster on paper.
4. When you are satisfied with it, redraw it on a large Research has shown
sheet of paper or card. that 80 per cent of the
waste floating in the
seas around Trinidad
Check your understanding and Tobago is made
of plastic. This works
1. Some printer ink cartridges are refillable. out at about 15 000
a) Suggest some advantages to having print plastic items per square
cartridges that can be refilled. kilometre. Plastic is non-
biodegradable so this
b) Is it possible to reuse an item for ever? Explain situation is going to get
your answer. worse.
71
Form 3
Recycling to We are learning how to:
reduce waste • explain the impact of human activities

• recycle to reduce waste.
Recycling to reduce waste

Recycling means using materials that are found in waste to
make new things. It reduces:
• the amount of waste that has to be treated by burning
or landfill
• the demand on natural resources
• the amount of energy needed to produce materials.
Materials that can be recycled include metals, glass, some
plastics, paper and cardboard.
In some countries each household is given different bins
that are used for the various types of waste. For example,
a household might have a separate bin for:
• materials that can be recycled such as glass, metals,
plastics and paper
• vegetable and garden waste that can be composted
• waste that cannot be recycled and is therefore
incinerated or buried in the ground. Fun fact
The demand for metals
such as aluminium
increases every year.
By 2020 it is estimated
that 97 million tonnes
of aluminium will be
used each year and, of
that, 31 million tonnes,
almost one third, will
come from recycled
scrap. Recycling works
and it has an important
FIG 4.53 Many countries have recycle points where people can role to play in ensuring
bring waste that can be recycled we do not run out of
essential resources in
Recycle points can be found in places like supermarket car the future.
parks. There is a large bin for each type of material for
recycling.
Activity 4.15
Planning a recycle centre at your school
4.16
1. Discuss how you could encourage fellow students to
recycle their waste.
2. Decide on a suitable position in your school to place a
recycle bank.
3. What are your reasons for choosing this position?
4. Suppose your recycle bank is to have four recycle bins.
What type of recyclable waste would you collect in
each bin?
5. What would you do with the recycled waste you collect?
In addition to reducing waste, recycling may also save
money and energy.
Recycling scrap aluminium such as from empty drink cans
requires only five per cent of the energy used to make new
aluminium from bauxite. Aluminium does not rot so it can
be recycled many times. It is thought that three quarters FIG 4.54 Aluminium cans are melted
of all of the aluminium produced in the USA over the last down to form aluminium ingots
hundred years is still in use today.
1. Fig 4.56 shows some bins used for recycling.
FIG 4.55 Aluminium ingots are

identical to the aluminium made
from bauxite
FIG 4.56 Some bins used for recycling Key term

a) What material is being recycled in these bins? recycle points places
b) How is the material sorted? where people can
c) What proportion of this material can be recycled? bring waste that can be
recycled
73
Form 3
Improving the We are learning how to:
local environment • explain the impact of human activities

• improve the local environment.
Improving the local environment

You might decide to improve a place near where you live, or
it might be an area of your school compound. How can the
area you have chosen be improved?
Litter is often a problem. Once people start to deposit litter
in an area it acts like a magnet and, before long, the pile of
litter grows. The only solution is to clear away the litter.
FIG 4.57 When litter is cleared, provide a litter bin and

place signs to remind people that they should use it
The area will look much better

without litter but it may not look
very interesting. What makes an
area more interesting are plants and
shrubs, and the animals that visit
them.
Here are some ideas to get you
thinking about what you should
plant.
• Flowers attract pollinating
insects and hummingbirds.
• Trees and shrubs provide fruit
and berries for animals.
FIG 4.58 Plants and shrubs
• Ground cover provides places
where small animals can hide.
To get lots of biodiversity you need to provide as many
different habitats as possible. You might:
• dig a small pond to provide a habitat for aquatic plants
4.17
and animals, as well as a place where other animals will
come to drink
• include a few pieces of old tree trunk so that organisms
can feed off the decaying wood and fungi can grow
• build a bug hotel by placing lengths of hollow bamboo
inside an old pipe.
Activity 4.16
Making somewhere better
1. Identify a small area either near where you live or in
your school that you think could be improved.
2. Make a list of the things that you could do to improve
this area. Look at examples from elsewhere to give
you some ideas.
3. Make a list of the tools and materials that you would
need.
4. Research the types of shrubs and plants that would be
best suited to your project.
5. Decide how you would maintain your area. For
example, litter bins do not empty themselves and
plants and shrubs will need watering in the dry season.

1.
Fun fact
Some areas of towns
and cities have
community garden
clubs organised by local
residents.
FIG 4.59 In some cities, small parks are The people within a
built between the buildings community all work
together in order
Make a list of some of the advantages of having small to improve their
parks in cities. environment.
75
Review of Environmental impact
of human activities
• Human activity has an impact on the environment. As the population of the world
increases, the effect humans have on the environment increases.
• Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people in a country who live in
towns and cities. Urbanisation is increasing in many countries as people come to
towns looking for work or for other reasons. As towns and cities grow larger, so does
their impact on the environment.
• As a country develops, its industry grows larger. Industry has an impact on the
environment due to increased use of land for buildings and roads, and the creation of
various types of pollution.
• Genetically modified (GM) crops are food crops that have been modified by adding
favourable genes. This might:
❍ increase the yield
❍ reduce the time until the crop is ready to harvest
❍ make the crop resistant to attack by insects
❍ make the crop resistant to drought.
• GM crops appear to be the answer to world food shortages but some scientists
believe that they may cause damage to the environment in different ways.
• Invasive alien species (IAS) are species of organism that have been transferred from
one area of the world to another, either accidentally or deliberately. Where an
organism has an abundance of food and no natural enemies, its population rapidly
increases at the expense of native species. IAS may also carry diseases that can be
transferred to native organisms. Examples of IAS in Trinidad and Tobago include the
pink mealy bug, the black wattle acacia tree, the red palm mite, the Asian green
mussel and the coconut moth.
• Nature reserves are areas where human activity is strictly controlled. This allows the
organisms that are found there to live in the absence of human activities, which
increases their chances of flourishing. Reserves also provide a haven where people
can observe and study wildlife. There are a number of nature reserves in Trinidad and
Tobago.
• Deforestation is the removal of trees so that land can be used for building or for
farming. The removal of trees destroys many different habitats, both in the trees
and on the ground beneath them. The results of deforestation are the loss of many
species of organism from an area and an increase in soil erosion.
• Biodiversity is the number of different species of organism found in an area.
Biodiversity is high when an area has many different habitats. Trinidad and Tobago
has the highest level of biodiversity in the whole of the Caribbean.
• Urbanisation, industry and deforestation all reduce the level of biodiversity in
an area. Other human activities, such as changes in land usage, also impact on
biodiversity.
• Loss of habitat can leave some species of plants and animals threatened and in
danger of becoming extinct. Examples of threatened species in Trinidad and Tobago
include the pawi, the ocelot, the West Indian manatee, the Trinidad white-fronted
capuchin monkey and the white-tailed sabrewing hummingbird.
• Global warming is the result of a small but significant increase in the average
temperature of the Earth. It is thought to be responsible for such things as changes in
weather patterns around the world, the melting of the polar ice caps, an increase in
forest fires and droughts.
• Global warming is thought to be the result of the greenhouse effect. Some gases,
including carbon dioxide, are described as greenhouse gases because, in the
atmosphere, they trap heat radiation from the Earth and prevent it from passing
out into space. Over the past 200 years the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has slowly risen due to activities like the large-scale burning of fossil fuels.
• Materials can be classified as biodegradable or non-biodegradable on the basis of
whether or not they rot in the ground. Natural materials are generally biodegradable
while synthetic materials, such as glass and plastic, are not. Large amounts of non-
biodegradable waste are a serious threat to the environment.
• People can reduce the amount of waste they create by:
❍ reducing the amount of materials they use
❍ reusing things until they are worn out
❍ recycling materials to make new things.
• A local environment can be improved in a number of ways including:
❍ removing litter and waste materials
❍ providing a litter bin
❍ planting shrubs and plants that will attract insects, birds and other animals
❍ providing a source of water
❍ creating lots of different habitats.
77
Review questions on Environmental
impact of human activities
1. a) What is meant by the term ‘biodegradable’?
b) Give three examples of materials that are:
i) biodegradable
ii) non-biodegradable.
c) Why is non-biodegradable waste a threat to the environment?
2. Copy and complete the following sentences.
a) Biodiversity is a measure of the number of different types of and
.
b) Matura National Park is in the of Trinidad.
c) In a national park human activities are .
d) In a national park the level of is high because organisms are
protected.
e) One of the rare living in the Matura National Park is the ocelot.
3. Copy and complete the following sentences using words from the box.
endangered extinct habitats protected
a) When land is cleared for farms natural are destroyed.
b) When populations of plants and animals fall they are said to be .
c) If something is not done to conserve plants and animals they may become
.
d) In national parks, plants and animals are from the activities of people.
4. Describe ways in which building and operating a sugar factory might harm the local
environment.
5. The pawi is a bird that lives in the canopy of hill forests in Trinidad and Tobago. It
feeds on fruit from the trees and builds its nest high up in them.
a) The pawi is classified as an environmentally sensitive species in Trinidad and Tobago.
What do you think this means?
b) Suggest some reasons why any loss of forest would be detrimental to the
population of pawi.
6. Scientists have developed a genetically modified corn that produces a poison that
kills harmful insects. Decide whether each of the following is an advantage or a
disadvantage of growing this crop.
a) The farmer no longer has to buy insecticides.
b) If insects are exposed to the poison continually, new strains might develop that are
immune to it.
c) The poison produced by the corn may act on other insects that are not pests.
d) The farmer no longer has to spray insecticides over the crop and the surrounding
environment.
e) Poison eaten by insects might enter a food chain.
f) Yields of corn will increase.
7. Here is a short extract from a newspaper article about soya beans.
Farmers who grow soya beans have been suffering from reduced yields for a long
time. The problem is competition from weeds in their fields. A new genetically
engineered variety of soya bean may be the answer to their problem. This new
variety of soya bean can withstand glyphosphate, a herbicide that kills other plants.
Use this information to help you answer the following questions.
a) What would be the result of spraying a field containing the new type of soya beans
and weeds?
b) What would be the benefit to the farmer of growing the new type of soya beans?
Explain your answer.
c) Sometimes crop plants can interbreed with weeds. Suggest one problem that might
arise if the new type of soya beans did this.
8. Some rabbits were accidently introduced to an island upon which there were no
natural predators. Fig 4.60 shows how the population of rabbits increased over a
period of years.
stibbar fo rebmun
time
FIG 4.60 Graph to show rabbit population over time
a) What name is given to a species that, when introduced to an area, increases its
numbers very quickly?
b) Suggest why the number of rabbits reached a constant value even though there
were no natural predators on the island.
79
c) Rabbits eat green plants. What effect would the introduction of rabbits to the
island have on:
i) the plant population?
ii) the populations of other animals that eat plants?
d) What effect would introducing the rabbits have on the level of biodiversity on the
island? Explain your answer.
9. The graphs in Fig 4.61 show how the average summer and winter temperatures in
Western Europe have changed over the past thousand years.
17
)C°( erutarepmet
remmus egareva
16
15
4
)C°( erutarepmet
retniw egareva
0
1000 1500 2000
year
FIG 4.61 Graph to show average temperatures in Europe
over the last thousand years
a) How do winter temperatures compare to summer temperatures?
b) During the period shown in the graphs there was a period of 100 years that people
call the ‘Little Ice Age’. When does the data suggest this was?
c) Some scientists believe that global warming is the result of natural fluctuations in
the Earth’s climate. What period over the past thousand years would support this
view and why?
10. Mayfly nymphs live in fast-flowing streams. They need lots of oxygen dissolved in the
water. A factory uses water from a stream as a coolant. The water returned to the
stream is clean but is warmer by several degrees.
A student carried out a survey in which she counted the number of mayfly nymphs at
different distances from the place where the water is returned from the factory. The
table shows her results.
Distance from where water 10 20 30 40 50 60
returned from the factory (metres)
Number of mayfly nymphs 0 4 7 11 19 18
TABLE 4.1 Mayfly numbers near a factory outlet
a) In what way does the factory pollute the stream?
b) What do the results indicate about how the solubility of oxygen in the water
changes with temperature? Explain your answer.
c) Estimate the distance at which the water in the stream returns to its normal
temperature.
81
Science in practice
Improving your local environment

Are there things about your local
environment you think somebody
should do something about? Maybe that
somebody is you?
People are often appalled by rubbish
dumped in their community but they don’t
know what to do about it. As a scientist
you have analytical skills that can help your
community.
Rubbish doesn’t appear on our streets
by magic. It appears because people are
careless or sometimes just lazy. You are
going to do what you can to improve the FIG 4.62 Litter is unsightly and dangerous
situation in your community.
1. You are going to work in a group of 3 or 4 to reduce rubbish in your community.
It would be best if all of the students in your group live near one another.
The tasks are:
• to identify the areas of your community which are affected by rubbish
• to analyse the rubbish to see what you are dealing with
• to try and identify sources of this rubbish
• to find out what help is available from local authorities
• to take steps to reduce or even eliminate the rubbish on the streets of your
community.
a) Before you can tackle the problem of rubbish on the streets of your community you
need to identify the problem areas. It’s possible that there is rubbish all over the place
but are there particular areas which are always heavily littered? For example, are there
always lots of sweet wrappers in the area around the local sweet shop? You might:
draw a simple map of the area
around your community
grade areas from 1 (seldom much
rubbish) to 5 (badly affected most
of the time).
b) As well as where, you also need to
know what and how much. You
might:
• gather the rubbish from a sample
area and analyse it. You might
separate it into categories like:
paper and cardboard, plastic,
glass, etc.
FIG 4.63 Quantifying the problem
• weigh the amount of rubbish you gather by putting it in
a bin liner and using a spring balance, this will give you Science in practice
some quantitative data
• use your sampling to estimate the size of the problem for
the whole area around your community.
c) Now is the time to do some detective
work. Is it possible to deduce where
the rubbish has come from? For
example you might consider:
• Is there a fast food outlet in your
community that has distinctive
packaging?
• Is there a garage in your
community that provides
distinctive plastic gloves or paper
towels to customers?
• Is there a supermarket with the
name on their plastic bags? FIG 4.64 Fast food packaging
Try and identify the sources of as much of
the rubbish as you can and quantify the
amount from each source that is currently lying around on the streets.
d) Find out whether the local authorities have a legal obligation to deal with rubbish in
your community. It may be that they have but unless somebody contacts them they
don’t know about it. Find out what the procedures are for requesting help with rubbish.
Is there a telephone help line?
e) Now you need to think about contacting those people in charge of those places that
you consider the sources of a significant amount of the rubbish. Before you write
consider the following:
• if you start by accusing people of being responsible for littering the streets of your
community they are likely to go on the defensive and you will get very little help
from them
• if you explain to people what you are doing, give a brief account of what you have
found and invite them to help find a solution to the problem they are far more
likely to respond favourably.
f) If you are invited to discuss the problems of litter with someone make sure you are well
prepared. You should be able to give a clear account of what you have found and if a
person says, ‘How can I help you?’, you should be able to respond with some ideas of
how things can be improved.
g) Prepare an oral report on what you have done. Take photographs during the different
stages of the activity which can be used to illustrate your report. Some pictures of
‘before’ and ‘after’ might give your audience some idea of how successful you were.
83
Form 3
Unit 5: Electricity
Electricity
Conductors and insulators
Electricity is a very common and very convenient form of
energy. We can send it from one place to another along wires.
Insulators are substances that do not conduct electricity.
We connect appliances safely into an electricity supply using
plugs and sockets.
Circuits FIG 5.1 The metal wire is a conductor
and conducts electricity, but around
it there is a plastic sheath that is an
top corner insulator
Da Costa
Jones
left
hander
WALLERFIELD
CIRCUIT right
TRINIDAD
20TH JUNE 2000 hander
LAP LENGTH: 1.6 KM (1ML)

FIG 5.3 Cars race round the Wallerfield circuit
shell bend
(old back ess)
hairpin
FIG 5.2 A circuit, like at Wallerfield International Raceway, is a complete
pathway that things can go around
We can provide a complete pathway or circuit to allow
electricity to flow.
84 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 5: Electricity

Current
An electric current passes around a circuit. We measure
current using an ammeter.
5.1
Something to think
FIG 5.4 When an ammeter is placed in a circuit with a battery and
about
a lamp it measures the amount of current that flows; the current
is the same on both sides of the lamp Long before people
knew anything about
Circuit diagrams electricity, people were
Electrical components can be difficult and time-consuming to aware that certain fish
draw. Scientists use symbols of electrical components instead. were capable of giving
‘electric’ shocks.
As early as 2750 BC,
Ancient Egyptians were
referring to the Nile
A A electric catfish as the
‘Thunderer of the Nile’
and believed it protected
the other fish in the river.
The Ancient Greeks knew
FIG 5.5 Scientists use circuit diagrams to
that the numbing effect
show how the components in a circuit are of the shock travelled
connected together – each component has along some materials
its own symbol (conductors) but not
others (insulators).
Can you guess which component in Fig 5.4 is represented by
each of the symbols in Fig 5.5? Check the symbols shown on
page 96 to see if you are correct.
Series and parallel a) b)
The components of electrical circuits
can be placed both in series and in
parallel. Connecting components
in different ways affects their
properties.
FIG 5.6 a) In a single string of pearls, the pearls are placed in series, one
after another b) When several strings of pearls are placed together, the
strings run parallel with each other
85
Form 3
Conductors and We are learning how to:
insulators • distinguish between electrical

insulators and conductors
• relate flow of current to conduction.

Electricity is a form of energy. It can pass easily through
some materials but not others.
• Materials that allow an electric current to flow through
them are called electrical conductors.
• Materials that prevent the flow of an electric current
are called electrical insulators.
Activity 5.1
Here is what you will need:
• battery of three cells
• lamp
• two crocodile clips
• connecting wires
• samples of materials, e.g. aluminium, copper, plastic,
rubber, wood.
1. Connect the components of the circuit together as
shown in Fig 5.7.
2. Before testing the sample materials, test the circuit by
touching the crocodile clips together. If the circuit is
complete the lamp should light up. If the lamp does
not light up, check all the connections.
lamp
crocodile clips
material
battery
FIG 5.7

3. Take the first sample of material and clip the crocodile
clips to each end of it. If the lamp lights the material is
a conductor. If the bulb does not light the material is
5.2
an insulator.
4. Present your observations in the form of a table. On one
side write the names of the conducting materials, and
on the other write the names of the insulating materials.
Metallic structure
Metals are all excellent conductors of electricity. To
understand why, we need to consider metallic structure.
Metals consist of a matrix of particles surrounded by a
‘sea’ of negatively charged electrons. These electrons are
delocalised and free to move about.
Fun fact
delocalised
electrons The best conductor is the
metal silver, followed by
copper, then gold and
then aluminium. Why
are electric wires made
of copper and not silver?
Key terms
particles
FIG 5.8 Structure of a metal conductors materials
that allow an electric
When a conductor, such as a metal wire, is connected to current to flow through
a battery, electrons flow through the conductor carrying them
electrical charge. Electricity is a flow of electrons. insulators materials that
Insulators, such as plastics and glass, do not have delocalised prevent the flow of an
electrons so they are unable to conduct electricity. electric current
metallic structure a
Check your understanding matrix of particles
1. Arrange the following materials into two lists: surrounded by a ‘sea’
conductors and insulators. of negatively charged
electrons
aluminium copper glass iron electrons negatively
plastic rubber steel wood charged particles
87
Form 3
Electricity We are learning how to:
and safety • distinguish between electrical

insulators and conductors
• use electricity safely.
Electricity and safety

Electricity is potentially
dangerous so we
must learn how to use
it safely.
Some plugs have two
pins and some have three.
Sockets may have caps to
prevent children poking
things into them.
FIG 5.9 An electrical appliance is connected to the mains electricity

supply by a plug, which fits into a socket
Activity 5.2
Examining a plug and socket
• plug • socket.
SAFETY
Even though plugs and sockets are made of plastic, they should never be
touched with wet hands. There is a danger that wetness will pass into the
plug or socket and this can result in an electric shock.
1. Look carefully at the plug and observe where the wires from the appliance will be
connected.
2. Notice that when the plug is placed fully in the socket there are no exposed metal
parts.
3. Look carefully at the socket and where the wires from the supply will be connected.
4. Notice that the holes for the pins of the plug are very small, which prevents people
accidentally pushing something into the holes.
5. Notice also that the plug pins must be fully into the socket before they connect with
the electricity supply. This means that no parts of the plug pins are exposed.
6. From what type of material are the bodies of the plug and socket made?

Two wires are needed to make a circuit. Some plugs have three
pins and three wires. The third wire is called the earth wire. It
protects the user should a fault develop in the appliance.
5.3
If the wires in a metal table lamp came loose and touched
the metal body, anyone touching it would receive an electric
shock. The earth wire is connected to the metal body. Most
of the current will pass through it so the user would only
get a small shock and not come to any harm.
FIG 5.10 Metal-bodied appliances

should be earthed
FIG 5.11 Plastic-bodied

appliances do not need to
be earthed
An electrical appliance that has a plastic body does not need
to be earthed because plastic is an insulator. Such appliances
are described as double insulated.
1. Electricians use a detector
to locate electrical wiring
in walls and floors to
avoid accidentally drilling
through a cable and
getting an electric shock.
Key terms
FIG 5.12 Gabriella’s hairdryer earth wire wire in a
plug that is connected
a) How does Gabriella connect her hairdryer to the to the metal body of the
power supply? appliance to protect the
b) Why should Gabriella not use her hairdryer when user in the event of a
her hands are wet? fault
c) What is the outer casing made of? double insulated an
d) Will Gabriella’s hairdryer have a 2-pin or a 3-pin appliance that has a body
plug? Explain your answer. made of an insulating
material
89
Form 3
Complete circuit We are learning how to:

• construct simple electrical circuits
• identify a complete circuit.
Complete circuit
We use mains electricity to power most appliances in our
homes but it is far too dangerous for building circuits in the
laboratory. Instead we use a cell or a battery. They provide
much less electrical energy than the mains supply.
You might use the words ‘cell’ and ‘battery’ to mean the
same thing in everyday language but in science these terms
have particular meanings. A cell is what is often incorrectly
called a battery, and a battery is a combination of two or
more cells.
Activity 5.3
Building simple circuits FIG 5.13 This is a single cell
• cell in holder
• lamp
• connecting wires.
1. Make the circuit shown in Fig 5.15.
FIG 5.14 When two or more cells are

used together to power an electrical
cell lamp switch device they are called a battery
FIG 5.15
2. Draw the circuit and, alongside, say whether the lamp
lit up or not when the switch was closed.
3. Make up five more different circuits.
4. Make a drawing of each circuit and say whether the
lamp lights or not when the switch is closed.
5. Look at the circuits you made in which the lamp lit up.
Can you see anything similar about them?

A circuit is a complete pathway around which an electric
current can flow. The pathway must be made of a conductor
such as a metal wire.
5.4
Fun fact
You can create electricity
+ – using fruit and rods of
two different metals,
such as zinc and copper.
Juicy fruits such as limes,
oranges or lemons work
best.
LED
– +
FIG 5.16 Direction of conventional current
A cell has a positive (+) terminal and a negative (−) terminal. – + – +– + – +
Conventionally, the direction of the electric current is taken
to flow from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
This is called conventional current flow. lemon
FIG 5.17 A fruit battery
In reality, the current is the result of a flow of electrons. Since
electrons carry a negative charge, they actually flow from the Each lemon is a cell.
negative terminal (where there are a lot of negative charges) When several are
to the positive terminal of the cell (where there are fewer connected together,
negative charges). This is called electron flow and is in the they produce enough
opposite direction to the conventional current. electricity to light a small
device called a light
Check your understanding emitting diode (LED).
1. lamp Key terms
cell electrical power
source often incorrectly
called a battery
battery a combination
switch of two or more cells
circuit a complete
pathway around which an
FIG 5.18 A lamp connected to the mains electric current can flow
electricity supply
conventional current flow
Explain, in terms of flow of current, how the switch is current taken to flow from
able to control the current in the lamp circuit. the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of a cell
electron flow electrons
flow from the negative
terminal to the positive
terminal of a cell
91
Form 3
Cells and lamps We are learning how to:

• observe the effect of using different
numbers of cells and lamps in a circuit.
Cells and lamps
cell
lamp switch
FIG 5.19 A simple lighting circuit
might consist of a cell, a lamp and
a switch
When additional components are added to a circuit, they
can often be added in different ways, with different results.
Activity 5.4
Making circuits with cells, lamps and switches
• two cells • switch
• two lamps • connecting wires.
circuit 1 circuit 2
circuit 3
FIG 5.20

1. Build circuit 1.
2. Reverse the direction of one of the cells in circuit 1.
5.5
Does the lamp still light up?
3. Build circuit 2 and make a note of how brightly the
lamps glow.
4. Build circuit 3.
5. Do the lamps in circuit 3 glow less brightly, as brightly
or more brightly than in circuit 2?
6. Include a switch at some different places in circuit 3.
Do the lamps turn on and off differently according to
the position of the switch?
There is a difference in potential energy (potential
difference) between the terminals of a cell. This is measured
in volts (V). A single cell has a potential difference of 1.5 V,
which is usually written on the side of it.
a) b) +
+ + +
1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V 1.5 V – 1.5 V = 0.0 V
FIG 5.21 a) When two cells are arranged so that their
positive terminals point in the same direction, the overall
potential difference of the battery is the sum of the
potential differences of the cells, i.e. 3.0 V
b) When cells are arranged so that their positive terminals
point in opposite directions, the overall potential
Fun fact
difference of the battery is the difference between the
potential differences of the cells, i.e. 0 V A car battery really is a
battery in the scientific
sense of the word.
It consists of six cells
joined together inside
a tough rubber casing.
lamps in series The potential difference
of each cell is 2.0 V so
the potential difference
of the battery is 2.0 V
added six times, i.e.
lamps in parallel
6 × 2 = 12.0 V.
FIG 5.22 Two lamps can be connected in a circuit in two different ways Key terms
Check your understanding potential difference
difference in potential
1. Draw a circuit containing two cells, two lamps and energy between two
one switch so that both lamps are on when the switch points
is closed and one lamp remains on when the switch volts (V) units of
is open. potential difference
93
Form 3
Measuring current We are learning how to:

• measure current using an ammeter.
Measuring current a)
The amount of current passing in a circuit is measured

using an ammeter. The unit of current is the ampere
(amp, symbol A).
In the activities we carry out in the laboratory, the current
is often less than 1 ampere so we measure current in
milliamperes or mA. There are 1000 milliamperes in 1 ampere.
1 A = 1000 mA
Electric current is measured by an ammeter. There are two b)
types in common use.
An analogue ammeter has a moving pointer and the current
is read from a scale where the pointer stops. A digital
ammeter gives a direct numerical readout. It may be part of
a multimeter, which has many different uses.
Activity 5.5
Measuring the current at different points in a circuit FIG 5.23 a) Analogue ammeter
Here is what you need: b) Digital ammeter
• battery containing • connecting wires
two cells • long length of nichrome
• three lamps wire
• ammeter • crocodile clip.
cell
1. Build the circuit shown in Fig 5.25.
battery
10 20 3
lamp 0
0
ammeter
FIG 5.24 An ammeter is always
crocodile clip connected in series to the
component whose current it is
nichrome wire 10 20 3
0
measuring
0
FIG 5.25 ammeter

2. Connect the ammeter to different points on the
nichrome wire using a crocodile clip.
5.6
3. How does the reading on the ammeter change with
changes in the length of the nichrome wire in the
circuit?
4. Build the circuit shown in Fig 5.26.
A D
B C
FIG 5.26
5. Connect the ammeter at point A in the circuit and
record the current. Fun fact
6. Repeat this at points B, C and D, recording the current
each time. Electrical appliances are
7. What can you say about the current at different points rated according to the
in a series circuit? amount of current that
flows through them.
Appliances that have
Nichrome wire resists the flow of current in a circuit. The small currents include
greater the length of nichrome wire included in a circuit, lights, computers and
the smaller the current that flows through it. televisions. Appliances
When components such as lamps are connected in series in a that have high currents
circuit, the current is the same no matter where in the circuit are those that supply
it is measured. heat in some way such as
irons, kettles and ovens.
1. a) What is the reading Key terms
on the ammeter: 40 60
ammeter instrument
i) in milliamperes? 20 80 used to measure current
ii) in amperes? mA in a circuit
b) Draw a diagram 0 100 ampere (amp, symbol A)
to show how an unit of current
ammeter should be FIG 5.27 The reading on a milliammeter multimeter instrument
placed in a circuit containing a battery of two cells used to measure current
and one lamp, so that the current flowing through and other properties of a
the lamp can be measured. circuit
95
Form 3
Circuit symbols We are learning how to:

• represent simple circuits using
diagrams
• identify components of an electrical
circuit from their symbols.
Circuit symbols
It would be possible to draw all of the components in an
electrical circuit diagram but this would be time-consuming.
It is much easier to draw the circuit using symbols to
represent each of the components.
cell lamp ammeter battery switch
open
A
closed
FIG 5.28 These symbols for components are used and understood by scientists all over the world
Notice that the symbol for a cell has two vertical lines. The
long thin line represents the positive (+) terminal and the
shorter thicker line represents the negative (−) terminal. It is
important that you draw the symbol in the correct direction
in a circuit diagram.
To draw a circuit diagram we draw the appropriate symbols
and then connect them together by lines to represent
connecting wires.
battery
lamp
switch
FIG 5.29 A circuit diagram for a circuit containing a
battery, a lamp and a switch all connected in series

Notice that if a battery is composed of several cells,
repeating the symbol for a cell can be tedious. It is much
easier to join the symbols for two cells by a dashed line.
5.7
9V
FIG 5.30 How to represent a battery composed of six cells
Activity 5.6
Drawing circuit diagrams
You will not need any equipment or materials for this
activity.
1. Look back at Fig 5.24 and redraw the circuit using Fun fact
suitable symbols.
There are two symbols
2. Look back at Fig 5.25 and redraw the circuit using commonly used to
suitable symbols. represent a lamp in
3. Look back at Fig 5.26 and redraw the circuit using circuit diagrams.
suitable symbols.
4. Would you say that it is easier to draw circuits using
symbols than drawing the components? lamp as a
source of light
lamp as an
indicator
5. Would you say that circuits drawn in symbols are FIG 5.31 Symbols for a lamp
easier to understand than circuits in which the
components are drawn? One symbol is used
when the lamp is a
source of light, such as
Check your understanding in a torch circuit. The
1. Name the components in this electrical circuit. other is used when the
lamp is an indicator
b) of some kind, such as
a light that comes on
when an appliance is
in use.
c)
a)
A Key terms
components parts of a
circuit
d) symbols signs used to
FIG 5.32 represent something
circuit diagram diagram
2. Draw a circuit diagram containing a battery of three showing how components
cells, two lamps and a switch connected in series. in a circuit are connected
97
Form 3
Constructing We are learning how to:
circuits from • represent simple circuits using

diagrams
• construct a circuit from a circuit
circuit diagrams diagram.
Constructing circuits from circuit diagrams

To build a circuit we need to examine a circuit diagram in
order to:
• identify the electrical components
• determine how the components are connected
together.
FIG 5.33 The symbols show that the circuit contains:

two cells, two lamps and one switch connected in
series
FIG 5.34 The information from the circuit diagram allows

us to build the actual circuit

Activity 5.7
Building circuits from circuit diagrams
5.8
• three cells
• two lamps
• two switches
• ammeter
A
A
circuit 1 circuit 2 circuit 3

FIG 5.35
1. Select the components you will need to build circuit 1
and connect them together as shown in the diagram.
2. Check your circuit with the circuit diagram to make
sure they are the same.
3. Repeat this for circuit 2 and then circuit 3.

1. Fig 5.36 is a circuit diagram. Sometimes wires may
cross over each other
in a circuit but may not
actually join together.
wires cross wires join

FIG 5.36 FIG 5.37 In order to show the
difference between wires that
What components are needed to build this circuit (not cross and wires that join in a
circuit diagram, we place a dot
including connecting wires)? where wires join
99
Form 3
Connecting We are learning how to:
components • represent simple circuits using

diagrams
• connect components in series in
in series a circuit.
Connecting components in series

The brightness of a lamp is determined by how much
electrical energy is being converted to light (and heat)
energy. The brightness is therefore a good indicator of the
amount of current passing.
Activity 5.8
Investigating bulbs connected in series
• battery containing three cells • ammeter
• four lamps • connecting wires.
1. Connect a single lamp in series with an ammeter in a
circuit.
2. Note the brightness of the lamp and the reading on
the ammeter.
3. Repeat this for two, three and four lamps connected
in series and, in addition, find out what happens
when one lamp is partially unscrewed from its holder
so it goes out.
4. Record your observations in a table.
5. Comment on how the brightness of the lamps changes
as the number of lamps increases.
6. Comment on how the current changes as the number
of lamps increases.
FIG 5.38 What happens when increasing numbers of lamps are connected in series?
As more lamps are added to the circuit, the lamps shine
less brightly. If an ammeter is included in each circuit, it will
show that the current falls as the number of lamps increases.
5.9
Lamps in series are connected by a single circuit. If there
is a break in the circuit, such as will occur if one of the
lamps burns out or is removed, then the circuit is no longer
complete and all the lamps will go out.
0.15 A A A 0.15 A
A A
0.15 A 0.15 A
FIG 5.39 When lamps are connected in series it does not matter where
the ammeter is positioned as the current through the circuit is the same
at all points (in this circuit the current is 0.15 A)
Single components are often connected in series with a
switch to control them. For example, a torch consists of
a lamp in series with a switch to turn it on and off. Many
household appliances are connected in a similar way.
1. Fig 5.40 shows a circuit in which three lamps are When identical cells are
connected in series. The reading on the ammeter is connected in series in
0.12 A. a battery, the potential
difference across the
battery is the sum of the
potential differences of
Z the cells, provided they
0.12 A A are connected in the
same direction.
6 volts
1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 6

X Y
FIG 5.40 FIG 5.41
a) How would the brightness of the lamps change,

if at all, if another lamp was added in series? Key term
b) At which of the points X, Y and Z in the circuit series way of connecting
would the current be 0.12 A? components so that they
c) What would be the reading on the ammeter if one are in one loop in the
of the lamps burned out? Explain your answer. circuit
101
Form 3
Connecting We are learning how to:
components • represent simple circuits using

diagrams
• connect components in parallel in
in parallel a circuit.
Connecting components in parallel

An electric current only flows through a complete circuit.
When two components are connected in parallel there are
effectively two circuits with a part that is common to both
components.
Activity 5.9
Investigating lamps connected in parallel
• battery containing three cells
• four lamps
1. Connect a single lamp in a circuit.
2. Note the brightness of the lamp.
3. Repeat this for two, three and four lamps connected
in parallel and, in addition, find out what happens
when one lamp is partially unscrewed from its holder
so it goes out.
4. Comment on how the brightness of the lamps changes
as the number increases.
Adding lamps in parallel does not alter their brightness.
However, it is not possible to keep on adding more and
more lamps without end. There will come a time when the
battery is unable to provide sufficient electrical energy.
When two lamps are connected in parallel, they are brighter
than they would be if they were connected in series, but they
draw twice as much current from the battery. This means
that the battery will be exhausted more quickly. Two lamps
connected in series will shine less brightly but will continue to FIG 5.42 What happens
shine for longer because the battery will last for longer. when increasing numbers
of lamps are connected in
Components are connected in parallel so they can be parallel?
controlled independently. For example, a hairdryer may
have a variable heater and a variable fan. These are wired in
parallel so the heat and the blow functions can be controlled
separately.
5.10
Components connected in parallel don’t all fail if one
component ceases working. For example, Christmas lights
continue to work even when some of the bulbs burn out
and need replacing.
A 1.2 A
A
0.6 A
A
FIG 5.43 When lamps are connected in parallel, if one breaks, the circuit 0.6 A
containing the second lamp remains complete and so the second lamp FIG 5.44 If ammeters are at different
remains lit positions in the same circuit, the total
current flowing from the battery is equal
to the sum of the currents passing through
Check your understanding each bulb, so here the values are 0.6 A +
0.6 A = 1.2 A
1.
Fun fact
When identical cells are
connected in parallel,
A the potential difference
across them is the
B C same as the potential
difference across one
cell provided they are
D connected in the same
FIG 5.45 Four similar lamps direction.
connected to a battery
Copy and complete the table to show which lamps 1.5 volts
would remain on and which would go off when each 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
of the lamps burned out.
FIG 5.46
Lamp that is Lamp goes out or remains on
burned out A B C D Key term
A off
parallel way of
B off connecting components
C off in a circuit so that the
potential difference
D off is the same across all
TABLE 5.1 branches of the circuit
103
Review of Electricity
• Electricity is a convenient form of energy that is transferred from place to place as an
electric current. A typical household uses many devices that are powered by electricity.
❍ Materials that conduct an electric current are called electrical conductors. All metals
are good conductors.
❍ Materials that do not conduct an electric current are called electrical insulators.
These include plastic, wood, glass, rubber and card.
• Metals are good conductors because they contain delocalised electrons. These particles
carry electrical charge along the metal. Insulating materials do not contain delocalised
electrons.
• Electricity is potentially dangerous so electrical devices must be handled with care. An
electrical appliance is connected to a plug. The plug fits into a socket, which provides
electricity. Electricity users should not:
❍ poke objects into sockets
❍ use appliances that have damaged plugs
❍ handle appliances with wet hands.
• Electrical appliances with metal bodies are connected to an earth wire. This provides
a pathway for the current in the event of wires coming loose and touching the metal
body. This protects the user from a severe electric shock. Electrical appliances with
plastic bodies do not require an earth wire and are said to be double insulated.
• Mains electricity is too dangerous for use in laboratory experiments. A cell is a means
of providing a small and safe amount of energy. A battery is formed when two or
more cells are joined together.
• A cell has a positive (+) terminal and a negative (−) terminal. There is a difference in
potential energy between the terminals of a cell and this is expressed in volts. When
cells are placed together to form a battery, they must all be pointing in the same
direction, that is the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal
of another cell.
• The conventional current in a circuit flows from the positive terminal of a cell or
battery through the circuit to the negative terminal. The flow of electrons, which carry
electrical charge, is in the opposite direction.
• A complete circuit is needed for an electric current to flow. The current stops if there is
a break in the circuit. A switch is a device that can be used to turn a device on and off
by completing or breaking the circuit.
• An electric current can be measured using an ammeter. The unit of current is the
ampere, A, or for smaller currents, the milliampere, mA. There are 1000 milliamperes
in 1 ampere.
• A circuit diagram is a method of representing a circuit by a series of connected
symbols. Each symbol represents a component in the circuit. Circuit diagrams are quick
to draw and are universally understood because scientists around the world use the
same symbols.
• In order to build a circuit from a circuit diagram we must:
❍ identify the electrical components
❍ determine how the components are connected together.
• Components in a circuit can be connected in series or in parallel.

• When lamps are connected in series the more lamps there are, the dimmer they are
and the less current flows in the circuit.
• When lamps are connected in parallel they shine with the brightness of a single lamp
up to the point where the cell or battery cannot provide any more electrical energy.
The current passing through the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the current
passing through each lamp.
• Lamps connected in parallel are brighter than lamps connected in series but they draw
more current from the battery. This means that the battery will be exhausted more
quickly. Lamps connected in series will shine less brightly but will continue to shine for
longer because the battery will last for longer.
105
Review questions on Electricity
1. Redraw the circuit in Fig 5.47 as a circuit diagram, using appropriate symbols for the
components.
V 5.1
V 5.1
FIG 5.47
2. Dante used the circuit shown in Fig 5.48 to test whether materials conduct electricity.
– +
material FIG 5.48

a) How was Dante able to decide whether or not each material conducted electricity?
b) Before testing the materials, Dante connected the two crocodile clips together.
Why did he do this?
c) Here is a list of the materials Dante tested. Arrange them in groups according to
whether or not they conduct electricity.
copper cardboard plastic iron
wood glass steel lead
d) What name is given to a material that does not conduct electricity?
e) Give one common feature of all of the materials that conduct electricity.
3. Fig 5.49 shows the inside of the electric plug fitted to an electric iron.
earth pin plug
cable
FIG 5.49
a) i) How many wires are in the cable?
ii) Which colour wire goes to the earth pin?
b) The cable of a plastic-bodied reading lamp only has two wires.
i) Which wire is missing?
ii) Why is it not needed?
c) Part of the plastic top of the plug has broken off.
piece broken
off here
top of plug
FIG 5.50
Is the plug still safe to use? Explain your answer.
4. Fig 5.51 shows a circuit containing a cell, two lamps and an ammeter.
FIG 5.51
State whether each of the following circuits is equivalent to the above circuit or not.
a) b)
A A
FIG 5.52
FIG 5.53
c) d)
A
A
FIG 5.54 FIG 5.55
107
5. Fig 5.56 shows an experiment using some circuits containing identical lamps.
circuit 1 circuit 2 circuit 3

FIG 5.56
a) If the brightness of the lamp in circuit 1 is ‘normal’, how bright are the lamps in
circuit 2 and circuit 3 compared to circuit 1?
b) If the cells used in these circuits are identical at the start of the experiment,
how long will the cell in circuit 2 and in circuit 3 last compared to the cell in
circuit 1?
c) Explain what will happen if one of the lamps burns out in:
i) circuit 2
ii) circuit 3.
6. Shivana made the following circuits. Look carefully at each one and say whether the
bulb would come on or not when the switch is closed.
a) b)
– + – +
FIG 5.57 FIG 5.58
c)
– +
FIG 5.59
d)
– +
FIG 5.60
e)
+ –
FIG 5.61
109
7. Fareed wants to make a circuit containing two cells, a lamp and a switch so that the
lamp lights up when the switch is closed, but he is having problems.
FIG 5.62
a) There are three problems with Fareed’s circuit. Explain what they are.
b) Redraw the circuit showing the components drawn correctly.
8. Fig 5.63 shows a cell and two lamps connected in different ways.
– + – +
circuit A circuit B
FIG 5.63
a) Redraw the circuits as circuit diagrams.
b) Compared to the brightness of a single lamp connected to a cell, describe the
brightness of:
i) the lamps in circuit A
ii) the lamps in circuit B.
c) What would happen to the second lamp if one lamp were to break in:
i) circuit A?
ii) circuit B?
9. Fig 5.64 shows the components inside a toy car.
light
motor
horn
switch
cell
FIG 5.64
a) Which of the labelled components provides the car with energy?
b) Draw a circuit diagram showing how the components are connected together.
Make up suitable symbols for the horn and the motor.
c) If the horn in the toy car broke, would the lamp still work? Explain your answer.
111
Science in practice
Lighting up a model
doll house
Before you start work on this activity you should recall that
mains electricity is dangerous. You should not remove the tops
from lamps and switches or expose wires in mains lighting
circuits.
Mr Livingston is making a model doll house as a surprise for
his daughter’s birthday.
He wants to make it extra special by having a light in the
ceiling of each room and a switch by the door that can turn it
on and off but he doesn’t know anything about electricity.
1. You are going to work in a group of 3 or 4 to design a
lighting system for Mr Livingston’s doll house, to make
the components and to make a model to show how your
system works. The tasks are: FIG 5.65 The model doll house
Mr Livingston is making
• to research about house lighting
• to design a suitable lighting circuit
• to design and make ‘lamps’ and ‘switches’ to a suitable scale for a doll house
• to build a model of a doll house out of cardboard
• to install your lighting system in your model
• to test your lighting system
• to consider how your lighting system might be modified or extended.
a) Take a look at how the lighting is arranged in your home.
In each room the switch only controls the light for that room.
Use your knowledge of series and parallel circuits to design a suitable lighting circuit for
a doll house that contains four rooms.
b) Even small torch bulbs are too big for a doll
house. You need to find lights which are even
smaller than these.
One possibility is light-emitting diodes. These
are not bulbs but components that shine
when a current passes through them. You
have probably seen red LEDs on electrical
equipment. They are often used to show
something is switched on. They come in three
different sizes: 3 mm, 5 mm and 10 mm, so you
will need to choose which is appropriate for
the scale of your model. FIG 5.66 Room light and switch
If you use LEDs there are two important things you must take
into account: Science in practice
• LEDs cannot be connected directly to cells or they will
burn out instantly. They must be wired in series with
a resistor. You will need to carry out research to
determine the size of the resistor.
• LEDs must be connected in a circuit so that the
longer pin is connected to the positive side of the cell
or battery otherwise they will not work.
Similarly, household switches are far too large for a doll
house so you will have to design and make your own.
The examples of ‘homemade’ switches might give you
some ideas. You will need to make a switch for each room
of the model doll house.
c) Build a model of a doll house using a cardboard box and FIG 5.67 Light-emitting diode or LED
cardboard dividers for the walls.
Your model doesn’t have to be very detailed as
you are only going to use it to demonstrate your
lighting system.
d) Install your lighting system into your model and
test it to make sure the light in each room turns
on and off without affecting the lights in the
other rooms. Use a battery to power your lights.
e) Consider how you might modify or extend your
lighting system. For example:
• you might install two switches in one room so
that the light could be controlled from either
switch; this is the sort of arrangement that
you see in hallways and staircases
• you might install two lights in one room
controlled by only one switch.
f) Prepare a PowerPoint presentation in which you FIG 5.68 ‘Homemade’ switches
will describe your lighting circuit, explain how
you made lights and switches, and demonstrate
the lighting circuit installed on your model. You
should also be ready to discuss how your lighting
circuit could be modified to provide different
arrangements of lights and switches.
FIG 5.69 Model doll house
113
Form 3
Unit 6: Magnetism
Magnetism
People have known about magnetism for thousands of
years. Lodestone is a naturally occurring mineral that is
magnetic. This mineral attracts objects made of iron.
FIG 6.1 If a piece of lodestone is suspended by a thread and spun, when it stops it
is always pointing in the same direction
The name ‘lodestone’ means leading stone. It is an early
form of a compass.
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
Some materials, such as iron, are described as magnetic
because they are attracted to a magnet. Other materials,
such as copper and plastic, are non-magnetic.
114 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 6: Magnetism
6.1
FIG 6.2 Magnetism is used to separate metals in a scrapyard. Metals

such as iron and steel become attached to a magnet while other
metals such as copper and aluminium are left behind
Magnets
Magnets come in all shapes and sizes.
a) b)
FIG 6.3 a) Bar magnet b) Horseshoe magnet

All magnets have two poles, which are traditionally called Something to think
the north pole, N, and the south pole, S. The two poles of a about
magnet look the same so, to help identify them, magnets are
sometimes painted red for the N pole and blue for the S pole. Fig 6.4 is a picture of
Magnets have invisible magnetic field lines surrounding an early Chinese device
them. The poles of two magnets interact in an unusual way, used by travellers.
which we call the law of magnetic poles.
Electromagnets
When a current is passed along a conductor, such as a wire,
a magnetic field is generated.
FIG 6.4 The object that looks like
Magnets created by passing an electric current are called a spoon is made of lodestone and
electromagnets. They have magnetic poles and magnetic is able to turn on the metal disc
underneath
field lines just like other magnets.
115
Form 3
Magnetic and non- We• demonstrate

magnetic materials • forces the effects of magnetic

determine whether a material is
magnetic or not.

Lodestone is an oxide of iron and is also called magnetite.
Materials such as iron and steel, that are attracted to a
magnet, are described as magnetic, while materials such as
brass, copper and aluminium, that are not attracted to a
magnet, are described as non-magnetic.
FIG 6.5 Lodestone, a type of rock, attracts objects made of iron, such as nails
and bolts
Activity 6.1
• magnet
• objects made of different materials, e.g. nail, paper
clip, plastic ruler, eraser.
1. Place one end of the magnet near an object and find
out if the material is attracted to it.
2. Materials that are attracted by a magnet are described
as magnetic materials. 6.2
3. Test each object in turn with the magnet.
4. Display your observations in a table. On one side of
the table list the magnetic materials and on the other
side list the non-magnetic materials.
Permanent magnets
Materials that keep their magnetism for a long time are FIG 6.6 Ceramic magnets can be
called permanent magnets. made in any shape but have the
disadvantage that they are brittle, so
Materials that have permanent magnetism are iron, mild if they are dropped on a hard surface
they will break into pieces
steel, cobalt and nickel. Modern magnets are often made
of special alloys containing these metals such as alnico and
alcomax. Fun fact
Ceramic or ferrite magnets are made by baking iron oxide An alloy is a mixture
and other metal oxides in a ceramic matrix. of a metallic element
with one or more other
elements that may be
metals or non-metals.
Steel is an alloy of iron
and carbon.
Sometimes alloys have
more useful properties
than the elements from
FIG 6.7 The element neodymium forms alloys with which they are formed.
iron and boron that are used to make powerful
permanent magnets
For example, alnico is an
alloy of aluminium, nickel
and cobalt. It makes
Check your understanding more powerful magnets
than the pure metals.
1. Arrange the following metals into two groups: those
that are magnetic and those that are not magnetic. Key terms
cobalt copper gold iron
magnesium nickel steel zinc magnetic materials such
as iron and steel that are
attracted to a magnet
non-magnetic materials
such as brass, copper and
aluminium that are not
attracted to a magnet
117
Form 3
Law of magnetic We are learning how to:
poles • demonstrate the effects of magnetic

forces
• predict whether two magnetic poles
will attract or repel each other.
Law of magnetic poles

A magnet has two poles: a north pole and a south pole. The a) S b)
north and south poles are usually represented by the letters
‘N’ and ‘S’.
Forces exist between magnets and are concentrated at the
poles. The interaction between two magnets depends on N S N
the nature of the poles that are brought together. bar magnet horseshoe magnet
FIG 6.8 a) Bar magnets are commonly
Activity 6.2 used in the laboratory
b) A horseshoe magnet is simply a bar
Law of magnetic poles magnet that has been bent into the
shape of a horseshoe
• two cotton loops • pencil
• two bar magnets • heavy book.
1. Place a heavy book on top of a pencil so that the
pencil is sticking out from the table.
2. Suspend a bar magnet from the pencil using loops of
cotton so that it can turn freely.
b) heavy book
a) heavy book
cotton
cotton loops
loops S
N N
S
S N S
N
FIG 6.9 a) Unlike poles b) Like poles

3. Bring the N pole of the second magnet towards the
N pole of the suspended magnet and record what
happens.
4. Bring the N pole of the second magnet towards the
S pole of the suspended magnet and record what
happens.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 but using the S pole of the
second magnet. 6.3
6. What deductions are you able to make about magnets
from your observations?
If one magnet is suspended so it is free to rotate and a
second magnet is brought near it:
• if they are unlike poles, that is N and S or S and N,
the magnets will attract (move towards each other)
• if they are like poles, that is N and N or S and S, the
magnets will repel (move away from each other).
1. A compass needle is a magnet. The north
pole of the compass always points towards
the Earth’s magnetic north pole, and the
south pole of the compass points towards
the Earth’s magnetic south pole.
What is the polarity of each
of the Earth’s magnetic poles?
FIG 6.10 Compass
Fun fact
It is impossible to say if an iron bar is magnetic or not on
the basis of whether it is attracted by a magnet.
S N
Key terms
S N S N pole the end of the
magnet
FIG 6.11 A magnet would attract an iron bar even if the iron bar were
not itself a magnet unlike poles two poles
that are different, for
S N N S example, north and
south
FIG 6.12 Repulsion proves an iron bar is a magnet
like poles two poles
To test whether an iron bar is a magnet, both ends must that are the same, for
be placed near the same magnetic pole of a magnet. If example, north and
one end is repelled, this proves that the bar is a magnet. north
119
Form 3
Magnetic fields We are learning how to:

• demonstrate the effects of magnetic
forces
• draw the magnetic field around a
bar magnet.
Magnetic fields
A magnet is surrounded by a pattern of invisible magnetic
field lines. We can investigate the nature of the field lines
using a small plotting compass.
Activity 6.3
Magnetic field around a bar magnet
• bar magnet
• plotting compass
• plain paper.
1. Place a bar magnet at the centre of a piece of plain paper and draw around it.
2. Remove the magnet and mark the N and S poles on the outline.
3. Place the magnet back on the outline.
4. Place the plotting compass near the north pole of the magnet. Mark two dots on
the paper corresponding to the ends of the plotting compass needle.
5. Move the compass a little bit away towards the south pole and repeat drawing
the dots.
6. Repeat this procedure until a circle is formed around the magnet.
a) b)
plotting compass
N S N S
bar magnet
FIG 6.13
7. Connect all the dots with a smooth curve. This curve is one magnetic field line. Try to
obtain four curves on each side of the magnet.
6.4
N S
Fun fact
When two like poles
are brought together,
the field lines from
each magnet run away
FIG 6.14 The magnetic field around a magnet can be represented by from each other. At the
a set of magnetic field lines centre of the combined
magnetic fields is a null
Magnetic field lines are conventionally shown moving away point at which there is
from a north pole and towards a south pole and arrows are no net magnetic field.
placed on the lines to show the direction of the field. When
drawing or interpreting the magnetic field around a magnet
you should remember that:
• magnetic field lines never cross over each other
N N
• the magnetic field strength is shown by the null
concentration of field lines and is strongest where the point
field lines are most dense (at the poles)
• the magnetic force of a magnet decreases with distance
from the poles. FIG 6.15 Magnetic field
lines for unlike poles
The pattern of magnetic
field lines for two S
poles is the same as
Fig 6.15, but the field
lines run in the opposite
direction.
Key terms
magnetic field lines a
pattern of invisible lines
that shows how the
FIG 6.16 The magnetic field lines around this bar magnet are also
shown by the iron filings around the magnet strength and direction of
the magnetic field varies
Check your understanding around a magnet
magnetic field strength
1. Use what you have learned about the magnetic field how strong the magnetic
lines around a bar magnet to draw the magnetic field field is at a particular
between the two poles of a horseshoe magnet. point
121
Form 3
Magnetic effect of We are learning how to:
an electric current • describe the magnetic effect of current

• make an electromagnet.
Magnetic effect of an electric current

When a compass needle is current direction
placed close to a wire, and compass
S
N
then a current is passed needle
through the wire, the
compass needle is deflected. to low voltage
This is called the magnetic high current supply
effect of a current.
FIG 6.17 The magnetic effect of an
electric current
Activity 6.4
Magnetic field around a wire carrying a current
• thick resistance wire
• plotting compass
• plain card
• DC power source.
1. Make a small hole in the middle of a piece of card and
push the wire through it.
2. Connect the wire to a DC power source. This has a
positive (+) terminal and a negative (−) terminal.
wire
plotting compass
DC power
card source
FIG 6.18
3. Place a plotting compass near the wire and show the
direction that the compass points in by drawing an
arrow.
6.5
4. Repeat this, placing the plotting compass in different
positions until you have built up a map of the field
lines around the wire.
5. Reverse the direction of the current through the wire
by connecting the wire to the opposite terminals of
the power source.
6. Observe if this affects the shape of the magnetic Fun fact
field lines around the wire and the direction of the
magnetic field. A solenoid is a coil
consisting of a number
Passing a current through a conductor such as a wire creates of loops of wire.
a magnetic field consisting of a series of concentric circles. solenoid field line
The circles are closer together nearer the wire where the
magnetic field is strongest.
wire wire
direction direction
of current of current
current direction
FIG 6.20 Magnetic field lines
around a solenoid
magnetic field lines The magnetic field
around the solenoid is
similar in shape to the
FIG 6.19 Magnetic field around a wire carrying an electric
current
magnetic field around a
bar magnet.
Reversing the direction of the current in the wire does not
alter the shape of the magnetic field, but it does alter the Key term
direction of the field lines.
magnetic effect of
Check your understanding a current a compass
needle is deflected when
1. Draw a diagram showing the magnetic field around a it is placed close to a
wire carrying a current viewed as if you were looking wire carrying an electric
along the wire. current
123
Form 3
Making an We are learning how to:
electromagnet • describe the magnetic effect of current

• make an electromagnet.
Making an electromagnet
To make an electromagnet of any useful strength, you need
to combine the magnetic field around many turns of wire by
making a coil or solenoid.
The coils of wire on their own are magnetic when a current
passes through them. However, if they are wrapped around
a steel nail they make an even stronger magnet.
Activity 6.5
Making an electromagnet
• steel nail • paper clips
• plastic-coated wire • plotting compass.
• DC power source
1. Take a length of wire that is coated in plastic
insulation and coil it around a steel nail.
2. Make between 15 and 20 coils of wire around the nail,
depending on the length of the wire.
coil of wire steel nail
FIG 6.21
3. Connect your coil to a DC power source.
4. Check that you have made an electromagnet by
seeing if metal paper clips are attracted to it.
5. Place a plotting compass at different points around
your electromagnet and use the direction the compass
points to each time to draw a diagram of the magnetic
field lines around your electromagnet.
Electromagnetism is sometimes described as temporary
magnetism. An electromagnet is only magnetic while a
current flows through it. If the current is turned off, the
6.6
electromagnet ceases to be magnetic.
Fun fact
William Sturgeon made
the first electromagnet
in 1824.
FIG 6.22 A practical electromagnet
Electromagnets used in devices such as electric bells consist

of many coils of thin copper wire. At first glance the wire FIG 6.23 William Sturgeon’s
might not appear to be insulated, but it is. The wire is first electromagnet consisted of
about 18 turns of varnished wire
covered in a layer of lacquer, which is far less bulky than a wrapped around a piece of iron
plastic coating. in the shape of a horseshoe
Check your understanding Key term

1. Explain why a coil of wire can only attract paper clips
when an electric current is passing through it. electromagnet a magnet
produced when a current
is passed through a wire
or coil of wire
125
Form 3
Strength of an We are learning how to:
electromagnet • describe the magnetic effect of current

• compare the strengths of different
electromagnets.
Strength of an electromagnet
An electromagnet is a coil of wire through which an electric
current is passed. What determines the strength of an
electromagnet?
• Would wrapping the coil around a piece of wooden
dowel be just as good as wrapping it around a steel nail?
• Does it matter how many turns of wire are in the coil?
• Does it matter how much current you pass through
the coil?
Activity 6.6
Investigating the strength of electromagnets
• steel nail • DC power source
• wooden dowel • paper clips.
• plastic-coated wire
1. Take a length of wire that is coated in plastic
insulation and coil it around a steel nail.
2. Make 20 coils of wire around the nail.
3. Connect your electromagnet to a DC power supply and
count how many paper clips it will lift off the desk.
nail
wire
paper clips
FIG 6.24
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 but use a wooden dowel in place
of a steel nail. 6.7
5. Now make 10 coils of wire around a steel nail.
6. Connect your electromagnet to a DC power supply
and count how many paper clips it will lift off the
desk.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6, but this time only use half of the
current used previously.
8. From your observations, deduce what factors
determine the strength of an electromagnet.
The strength of an electromagnet is increased by:
• wrapping the coils of wire around a core of a magnetic
metal such as iron or steel
• increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil
• increasing the amount of current passing through the coil.
1. Say whether each coil of wire iron nail
of the following
statements is true Fun fact
or false.
Credit and debit cards
a) Reversing the have a magnetic strip
battery will containing information
reduce the about the cardholder’s
strength of the FIG 6.25 An electromagnet made by account.
electromagnet. wrapping wire around an iron nail and
b) The iron nail connecting it to a battery
would still be a
strong magnet even if the battery was removed.
c) Decreasing the number of turns of wire on
the coil would reduce the strength of the
electromagnet.
d) The electromagnet would be stronger if the iron
nail was removed.
e) Wrapping the wire around two iron nails would FIG 6.26 If a card with a
make the electromagnet twice as strong. magnetic strip is placed too
near to another magnet, the
f) Connecting the coil to a battery with a higher magnetic field will corrupt the
information and the card will
voltage would make the electromagnet stronger. no longer be of any use
127
Form 3
Uses of permanent We are learning how to:
magnets and • describe the magnetic effect of current

• explain the uses of permanent magnets
and electromagnets.
electromagnets
Uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets
Permanent magnets and electromagnets have many
applications.
Electric bell
Activity 6.7
Investigating how an electric bell works
• electric bell
• power source
• screwdriver.
1. Remove the cover from the outside of the bell so
you can examine the parts.
2. Identify the electromagnet.
3. Turn the bell on and off and observe the effect this
has on the components.
4. Use your knowledge of electric circuits and
magnets to explain how the bell works.
bell push
When the bell switch is pushed the circuit is complete springy
and the following happens: metal strip
• The electromagnet becomes magnetic. soft iron
• The electromagnet attracts the soft iron armature armature
and the hammer strikes the gong.
• As the soft iron armature moves, the circuit is C contact
broken and the electromagnet loses its magnetism. screw
• The springy metal strip moves the armature back electromagnet
to its starting position and the cycle repeats for as hammer
long as the switch is pushed. gong
FIG 6.27 The structure of an electric doorbell
Relay
A relay is a switch that is operated by an electromagnet. spring
insulator metal
6.8
When a current passes between A and B, the soft iron D
core becomes an electromagnet. The iron armature is E
C pivot
attracted to the electromagnet and turns on the pivot. iron
The springy metal contacts at C are closed, completing armature
the circuit connected across D and E. A
A relay allows a circuit carrying a large current to be
controlled by a second circuit carrying a small current. B
coil soft iron core
For example, a large current is needed to start a car FIG 6.28 A relay allows one circuit to be
engine. It is activated by the ignition switch in the car, controlled by another
which only carries a small current. This means that only
thin wires are needed for the ignition circuit.
Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is a device that prevents the flow of current
in a circuit in the event of a malfunction or fault. Fun fact
iron armature Circuit breakers are
springy copper strip solenoid frequently used in place
iron core of fuses to protect
domestic mains electricity
circuits. They work much
faster than fuses and
A pivot B
can be reset simply by
FIG 6.29 A simple circuit breaker connected to
pushing a switch once
a circuit at points A and B the fault has been found
and rectified.
In the event of a fault in the circuit, the current passing
through the solenoid increases. This increases the strength
of the magnetic field around the solenoid enough for it to
pull the iron armature towards it. When the iron armature
moves towards the solenoid, the springy copper strip is Key terms
released and the circuit is broken.
relay a switch that
Check your understanding is operated by an
electromagnet
1. Explain how an electromagnet is used in an electric bell. circuit breaker a device
that prevents the flow of
current in a circuit in the
event of a fault
solenoid a cylindrical
wire coil with a soft iron
core inside
armature a metal part
that can move to open
FIG 6.30 or close a circuit
129
Review of Magnetism
• Lodestone or magnetite is a mineral composed of iron oxide that attracts objects
made of iron. It is a naturally-occurring magnet.
• Materials that are attracted to a magnet, such as iron and steel, are described as
magnetic.
• Materials such as brass, copper and aluminium, that are not attracted to a magnet,
are non-magnetic.
• Materials that keep their magnetism for a long time are called permanent magnets.
Examples of materials that have permanent magnetism are iron, mild steel, cobalt,
nickel and special alloys containing these metals, such as alnico and alcomax.
• The law of magnetic poles states that:
❍ like poles repel each other, that is N and N or S and S
❍ unlike poles attract each other, that is N and S or S and N.
• It is impossible to say if an iron bar is magnetic or not on the basis of whether it is
attracted by another magnet. If it is magnetic, one end should be repelled by one end
of another magnet.
• A magnet is surrounded by a pattern of invisible magnetic field lines.
❍ Magnetic field lines are conventionally shown to move away from a north pole and
towards a south pole.
❍ Magnetic field lines never cross over each other.
❍ The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the concentration of field lines and
is strongest where the field lines are most dense (at the poles).
❍ The magnetic force of a magnet decreases with distance from the poles.
• When a current passes through a wire, a magnetic field is generated around the wire.
This can be shown by placing a plotting compass near the wire. When a current is
passed through the wire, the compass needle is deflected.
• The magnetic field around a wire carrying a current consists of a series of concentric
circles that gradually increase in distance between each other as you move away from
the wire.
• Reversing the direction of the current through a wire does not alter the shape of the
magnetic field around it but it does reverse the direction of the magnetic field lines.
• An electromagnet consists of many turns of wire making a coil or solenoid.
• Electromagnetism is sometimes described as temporary magnetism because an
electromagnet is only magnetic while a current flows through it. If the current is
turned off, the electromagnet ceases to be magnetic.
• The strengths of different magnets can be compared by finding out how many small
magnetic items, such as nails, each can lift.
• The strength of an electromagnet is increased by:
❍ wrapping the coils of wire around a core of a magnetic metal such as iron or steel
❍ increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil
❍ increasing the amount of current passing through the coil.
• An electric bell, a relay and a circuit breaker are all common devices that contain an
electromagnet.
• An electromagnet can be used to separate iron and steel from other metals in a
scrapyard or recycling plant.
131
Review questions on Magnetism
1. N S
FIG 6.31 A bar magnet
Copy Fig 6.31 and draw the magnetic field lines around it. Show the direction of these
field lines.
2. A bar magnet was broken into two pieces.
N S
FIG 6.32
a) Copy the lower part of the diagram and show the polarity of the new ends formed.
b) Without using any other apparatus or materials, explain how you could show that
both parts of the broken bar magnet have themselves become magnets.
3. Johanna was given four magnets. Her task was to compare how strong they were by
counting how many small nails each could lift. Her results are shown in the table.
Magnet Number of nails
bar magnet 3
C-shaped magnet 6
electromagnet 4
horseshoe magnet 7
TABLE 6.1
a) Which magnet was the strongest?
b) i) Which magnet could be described as a temporary magnet?
ii) Explain why.
4. Say whether each of the following will make the electromagnet stronger, weaker or
have no effect.
a) Increasing the number of turns of wire
b) Decreasing the current passing through the wire
c) Putting the nail into the coil from the opposite direction
iron nail
FIG 6.33 An electromagnet
5. An investigation was carried out in which bars of three different metals, aluminium,
copper and magnetised iron, were hung by a nylon thread so they could rotate
freely.
nylon thread
cardboard
metal bar
FIG 6.34
The bar was spun and then allowed to rest. Its position was then recorded. This was
repeated ten times for each bar. The results are shown in Fig 6.34.
aluminium copper magnetised

bar bar iron bar
FIG 6.35
a) Describe the pattern shown by the results.
b) Explain the results.
6. Here are some statements about magnetic field lines. State whether each statement is
true or false.
a) The closer together they are, the stronger the magnetic field.
b) They sometimes cross over each other.
c) They come away from a north pole and towards a south pole.
d) They are always straight lines.
e) They are not produced by electromagnets.
7. A student is given three iron bars. The ends of the bars are marked A to F.
A B C D E F
FIG 6.36
Two of the bars are known to be magnets and the third one is not. Explain how the
student can identify which bar is not a magnet using only the three bars.
133
8. Fig 6.38 shows an electromagnet in a circuit with three bulbs: X, Y and Z.
switch
Y
soft iron hammer
iron nail
X springy metal Z
FIG 6.37
a) Copy and complete the table by indicating whether each bulb is ‘off’ or ‘on’ when
the switch is open and when it is closed.
Switch Bulb X Bulb Y Bulb Z
open
closed
b) The iron nail in the circuit is replaced by a length of wooden dowel of the same
diameter.
Y
soft iron hammer
wooden dowel
X springy metal Z
FIG 6.38
State whether each of the three bulbs will be on or off when the switch is closed.
9. In a scrapyard, an electromagnet is used to separate metals.
FIG 6.39
Name one metal being loaded on the truck and one that will remain on the ground.
135
Form 3
Unit 7: Light
Light
Light rays
Light is a form of energy. It travels from place to place very
quickly as a beam made up of many light rays.
At night, people light up their homes using candles, paraffin
lamps and electric lightbulbs.
FIG 7.1 During the day the world is lit

up by light from the Sun
FIG 7.2 In towns and cities, streets and shop fronts may also
be lit at night
Transparent, translucent and opaque
Materials behave differently when light shines on them. This
is sometimes important in building design.
FIG 7.3 Windows are transparent because they allow light

to pass through them; walls do not allow light to pass
through them and they are therefore opaque
136 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 7: Light
Materials such as fabrics, that let some light through, are
described as translucent.
Shadows and eclipses
7.1
When an opaque object is illuminated on one side by a light
source, a shadow forms on the opposite side. The shadow is
an area that receives no light. The light cannot bend around
the object because it only travels in straight lines.
FIG 7.4 Huge shadows, called eclipses, are cast when the Moon
passes between the Sun and the Earth, or when the Earth passes
between the Sun and the Moon
Reflection
We can see objects because they reflect light rays into our
eyes. Reflection causes a ray of light to change direction.
Refraction
Light always travels very quickly but it travels at slightly
different speeds in different materials. When a ray of light
travels from one material into another, the change of
speed causes a change of direction. This behaviour is called
refraction.
When we look at objects in water, they appear nearer the Something to think
surface than they actually are. The difference between about
their real depth and their apparent depth is the result of
refraction. Light rays travel at a
speed of 300 000 km
Dispersion per second through the
Light from the Sun is actually composed of rays of many vacuum of space.
different colours that combine together to form ‘white Although this is very fast,
light’. When white light passes through a glass prism, the Sun is so far away
the different colours are refracted by different amounts, from the Earth that if the
forming a spectrum. This behaviour is called dispersion. Sun suddenly stopped
A rainbow is caused by the dispersion of sunlight by millions shining it would be eight
of tiny water droplets in the atmosphere. Rainbows often and a half minutes before
occur when it is raining. it all went dark on Earth.
137
Form 3
Light rays We are learning how to:

• investigate the transmission of light
in different media
• describe simple properties of
light rays.
Light rays
A collection of light rays is called a beam. The light rays in a
beam might or might not all be travelling in the same direction.
a) parallel rays b) converging rays c) diverging rays

FIG 7.5 A beam of a) parallel rays b) converging rays c) diverging rays
A beam might contain light rays that are parallel, that
converge to a point or that diverge from a point.
Activity 7.1
Investigating whether light waves can bend around objects
• three pieces of card with a hole in the middle
• torch or candle
• modelling clay.
1. Place the cards on the table in a line and support them with modelling clay.
2. Place the torch at one side and look through the hole in the card on the
other side.
3. Move the cards until the three holes are lined up. Can you see the light
from the torch?
4. Move the middle card a short way to the side. Can you still see the light
from the torch?
5. What can you deduce about the way in which light waves move?
card 7.2
torch
observer
modelling
clay
FIG 7.6
Light travels in straight lines. This is sometimes described as Fun fact

rectilinear propagation. Light waves cannot normally bend
around an object. The gravitational field
(the field due to the
Check your understanding force of gravity) around
a massive object like the
1. Fig 7.7 shows the positions of four girls around a hut, Sun causes light rays to
as seen from above. bend.
apparent
Danielle direction
of star
Amy actual
direction
of star
Sun
arthh
Earth
roof of the hut
FIG 7.8 The light from a star
bends around the Sun so it
appears to be coming from a
Kasi different place from where it is
actually coming from
Nana
FIG 7.7 Key terms
a) Copy and complete the table to show which of the rays straight lines of light
other girls each girl can see. beam a collection of
light rays
Amy Danielle Kasi Nana parallel rays that are the
Amy same distance apart all
Danielle the time
converge rays that meet
Kasi at a point
Nana diverge rays that move
out from a point
b) Explain how you can predict this. rectilinear propagation
travelling in straight lines
139
Form 3
Pinhole camera We are learning how to:

• investigate the transmission of light in
different media
• build and investigate a pinhole camera.
Pinhole camera
A pinhole camera is a simple camera that has no lens or
photographic film. The image formed can be seen on the
screen at the back of the camera.
Activity 7.2
Making a pinhole camera
• can or small cardboard box painted matt black inside with a small hole at the base
• greaseproof paper or parchment
• elastic band SAFETY
• small candle. Take care with a lit candle.
1. Carefully stretch the greaseproof paper over the open top of the can.
2. Hold the greaseproof paper in place using an elastic band.
3. Place the can sideways on your table. Make sure it does not roll off.
4. Light the candle and place it in front of the end of the can that has the small hole.
elastic band
greaseproof
paper
there is a small hole in
the centre of the base
candle
FIG 7.9 can
5. Look carefully at the image of the candle on the greaseproof paper at the other end
of the can.
6. Draw the image exactly as you see it. (You may need to do this in a darkened room if
it is a very bright day.)
7. Describe what is unusual about the image.
8. Explain why the image is this way.
The image of the object, in this case the candle, is inverted
because light travels in straight lines. 7.3
Activity 7.3
Investigating the height of the image formed by a
pinhole camera
• pinhole camera • candle • ruler.
1. Place the lit candle 140 mm SAFETY
from the pinhole end of Take care with
the camera. a lit candle.
2. Measure the height of the image at the back of
the camera.
3. Copy this table and write in the value.
Distance from the candle Height of the image at
to the pinhole the back of the camera
140 mm
120 mm
100 mm
80 mm
60 mm
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3, placing the candle 120 mm, 100
mm, 80 mm and 60 mm from the pinhole. Enter your
results in the table.
5. Describe what happens to the height of the image as Fun fact
the candle is brought nearer to the pinhole. The famous Arabian
scientist Ibn Al-Haythan
Check your understanding (Alhazen) is credited
with inventing the first
1. Copy and complete the following sentences. pinhole camera over a
a) Light only travels in _______________ thousand years ago.
______________.
b) A pinhole camera has no ______ but it can form Key terms
an _______ on a screen.
c) The image of a pinhole camera is image picture of an
_______________________. object
d) If the object in front of a pinhole camera object item pictured by
is moved away from the pinhole it stays the camera
________________ but it becomes _____________. inverted upside down
141
Form 3
Transparent, We are learning how to:
translucent • investigate the transmission of light in

different media
• describe what happens when light
and opaque strikes a material.
Transparent, translucent and opaque

When light strikes an object it is absorbed, reflected or
refracted.
We can put materials into groups according to how much
light they absorb and how much light passes through them.
A transparent material lets most of the light pass through it.
A translucent material absorbs some light and also lets some
light pass through it.
An opaque material absorbs all the light and lets none pass
through it.
a) b) c)
FIG 7.10 a) Glass is a transparent b) Cotton is a translucent material c) Wood is an opaque material
material
Activity 7.4
Transparent, translucent and opaque materials
• different materials • torch • modelling clay.
1. Place a torch on a book at one end of your table.
2. Look from the other end of the table.
3. Hold the material between the torch and your eye or
stand it on the table using modelling clay.
material
7.4
torch
modelling clay
FIG 7.11
4. Look at how much light is passing through the material.
You must ignore any light shining on it from other
sources. Fun fact
5. Copy and complete the table to record what you have
found by ticking the appropriate box for each material. The surface of glass can
Name of Transparent Translucent Opaque be ‘frosted’ so that it is
material no longer transparent
but translucent. You can
still see through it but
the image is blurred.

1. a) Is this window best
described as transparent,
translucent or opaque?
b) State two differences in FIG 7.13 Frosted glass is often
the light passing out of used for bathroom windows
the window compared where we need both light and
with the light passing privacy
into the window.
Key term
FIG 7.12 This window is made
of coloured glass absorb take in
143
Form 3
Shadows We are learning how to:

different media
• explain why shadows form.
Shadows
An opaque object does not allow light to pass through it.
Such an object casts a shadow on the side opposite from
where it is illuminated. A shadow is a shape formed when
the path of light is blocked by an opaque object.
FIG 7.14 Shadows form because light travels in straight lines

(if light was able to bend around an object, the object would
not cast a shadow)
Activity 7.5
Investigating shadows
• torch with lens covered by a card with a hole in it
• cardboard star shape
• screen or area of lightly-coloured wall
• ruler
• modelling clay.
1. Place a torch on some books a metre or so in front of
a screen.
2. Fix a star shape 10 cm from the screen using modelling
clay.
shadow
7.5
torch object
distance
FIG 7.15
3. Measure the height of the star.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 four more times but moving
the star away from the screen by an additional 10 cm Fun fact
each time.
5. Record the distance from the screen to the object and Shadow puppets are
the height of the shadow each time in a table. a popular form of
entertainment in some
parts of the world.
Check your understanding Some skilled artists are
1. Fig 7.16 shows an opaque object between a light able to arrange their
source and a screen. hands in such a way as
to create shadows that
resemble animals and
other shapes.
Try some of these:
object
light source
screen
FIG 7.17 Shadow puppets
FIG 7.16
a) Copy Fig 7.16 and draw straight lines from the Key term
light source through the corners of the object to shadow a shape formed
show the shadow that is formed on the screen. when the path of light
b) State one similarity and one difference between is blocked by an opaque
the object and its shadow. object
145
Form 3
Partial and full We are learning how to:
shadow • investigate the transmission of light in

different media
• explain why areas of partial shadow
and areas of full shadow may form.
Partial and full shadow

A point light source creates a single area of shadow behind
the object.
area of shadow
point light
source object
screen
FIG 7.18 Shadow created by a point light source
When a large or extended light source is used, two different
areas of shadow are created. This is possible because each
side of the extended light source sends rays of light both
above and below the object.
area of partial
shadow or penumbra
extended
light source object
area of full
shadow or umbra
screen
FIG 7.19 Shadow created by an extended light source
An area of full shadow, called the umbra, is created
immediately behind the object. Surrounding the umbra
there is an area of partial shadow called the penumbra.
Activity 7.6
Investigating the shadow formed by an extended
7.6
light source
• torch • screen or area of lightly-
• cardboard circle coloured wall
shape • ruler
• modelling clay.
1. Place a torch on some books a metre or so in front of a
screen.
2. Hold a circular shape about 10 cm from the screen.
3. Move the object back and forth until you can see an area
of full shadow and an area of partial shadow surrounding
it. Fix the object in place using modelling clay. Fun fact
Objects often cast areas
torch object shadow of full and partial shadow
when illuminated by
everyday light sources
such as lamps.
However, we are often
not aware of them
FIG 7.20 because the area of
4. Measure the diameter of the area of full shadow. partial shadow appears
5. Measure the width of the band of partial shadow. as no more than a fuzzy
border around the area
6. Make a labelled diagram of the shadow cast by the of full shadow.
object.
1. A student is sitting under a point light source source
small lamp. He is finding it of light that creates a
difficult to read a book. Answer single area of shadow
the following questions in behind an object
terms of the shadows formed. extended light
a) Explain why, in terms of source source of
light and the formation light that creates two
of shadows, the student is different areas of
finding it difficult to read. shadow
b) What difference would umbra area of full
it make if the small lamp shadow
was replaced by a long FIG 7.21 penumbra area of
fluorescent strip light? partial shadow
147
Form 3
Solar eclipse We are learning how to:

different media
• explain why solar eclipses take place.
Solar eclipse
The Sun acts as an extended source of light. The Earth orbits
the Sun and the Moon orbits the Earth. Sometimes the Sun,
the Earth and the Moon line up in a straight line.
A solar eclipse takes place when the Moon passes between
the Sun and the Earth. The eclipse is the result of the
shadow cast by the Moon passing over the Earth.
Activity 7.7
Modelling a solar eclipse Fun fact
You should carry out this activity in a small group. The diameter of the Sun
Here is what you need: is about 400 times the
• torch • small ball diameter of the Moon
and the Sun is about 400
• large ball • marker. times further from the
The torch represents the Sun, the large ball the Earth and Earth than the Moon.
the small ball the Moon. Different members of the group
will hold each one.
1. Draw an ‘X’ on the large ball to represent the position
of Trinidad and Tobago.
FIG 7.22 The Sun and Moon
appear to be similar in size when
viewed from the Earth
Trinidad and
Tobago This is why the Sun and
the Moon look to be
Sun very similar in size when
we see them in the sky.
Earth
Key term
solar eclipse when the
FIG 7.23 Moon passes between
the Sun and the Earth,
2. Place the Earth about 2 m from the Sun. the Moon casts a shadow
3. Bear in mind that the Moon is much nearer to the as it passes across the
Earth than it is to the Sun. Earth
4. Place the Moon in different positions between the
Earth and the Sun until you find a place where the
Moon casts a shadow on Trinidad and Tobago.
7.7
5. Redraw Fig 7.23 showing the position of the Moon.
During a solar eclipse the
Moon passes in front of the
Sun.
umbra or
The Sun is so large compared full shadow
to the Moon that the Moon
casts a region of full shadow, Earth Sun
called the umbra, and a region
of partial shadow called the
penumbra on the Earth. Moon
What people see on Earth penumbra or
during a solar eclipse depends partial shadow
on where they are:
• people in the umbra will FIG 7.24 Solar eclipse
see a total eclipse a) b)
• people in the penumbra
will see a partial eclipse
• people outside the penumbra
will not see any eclipse.
FIG 7.25 a) Partial eclipse of the Sun b) Total eclipse of the Sun
1. Fig 7.26 shows the Sun, the Moon and the Earth.
Sun Moon Earth

FIG 7.26
7 26
a) Which eclipse takes place when the three bodies
are in this position?
b) Copy and complete Fig 7.26 by drawing lines to
show the shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth.
c) Label the umbra and the penumbra.
149
Form 3
Lunar eclipse We are learning how to:

different media
• explain why lunar eclipses take place.
Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes into the shadow
produced by the Earth, on the side facing away from the Sun.
Activity 7.8
Modelling a lunar eclipse
You should carry out this activity in a small group.
• torch • small ball
• large ball • marker.
The torch represents the Sun, the large ball the Earth and
the small ball the Moon. Different members of the group
will hold each one.
1. Draw an ‘X’ on the large ball to represent the position
of Trinidad and Tobago.
Trinidad and
Tobago
Sun
Earth
Key term
FIG 7.27
lunar eclipse when the
2. Place the Earth about 2 m from the Sun. Moon passes into the
3. Bear in mind that the Moon is much nearer to the shadow produced by
Earth than it is to the Sun. the Earth
4. Place the Moon in different positions around the
Earth until you find a place where the Moon is in
the shadow of the Earth and could not be seen from
7.8
Trinidad and Tobago.
5. Redraw Fig 7.27 showing the position of the Moon.
During a lunar eclipse the
Moon passes into the Earth’s
shadow. As the Moon does
not produce its own light,
it looks even darker in the
Earth’s shadow during a penumbra
lunar eclipse. Sun Earth umbra
The Moon may pass through Moon
a region of partial or a
region of full shadow:
• when the Moon passes not to scale
through the Earth’s
penumbra we see a FIG 7.28 Lunar eclipse
partial eclipse
• when the Moon passes a) b)
through the Earth’s
umbra we see a total
eclipse.
In fact, the Moon never
becomes totally invisible.
This is because some light is
refracted towards it by the
Earth’s atmosphere. During a
total lunar eclipse the Moon FIG 7.29 a) Partial eclipse of the Moon b) Total eclipse of the Moon
often looks red as a result of
this refracted light.
Fun fact
Islamic astronomers
1. a) Draw a diagram to show the positions of the Sun, living over a thousand
Earth and Moon during a lunar eclipse. years ago knew enough
b) Explain why the appearance of the Moon, as seen about the movement of
from Earth, becomes much darker during a lunar the Earth and the Moon
eclipse. to be able to predict
accurately when eclipses
would happen.
151
Form 3
Reflection We are learning how to:

different media
• explain how light is reflected by
mirrors.
Reflection Fun fact

Most surfaces reflect some light. When light is reflected it Emergency vehicles like
changes direction. ambulances have their
names written back to
front on the front of the
vehicle. When the vehicle
comes up behind another
light rays vehicle the driver will
see the laterally inverted
image in his mirror.
FIG 7.30 The reason people are able to see an object is

because light is reflected off the object into their eyes
Activity 7.9
Measuring the angle of a reflected ray of light FIG 7.31 In the mirror image
Here is what you need: of this ambulance, the word
‘AMBULANCE’ will appear to be
• single beam light source • ruler written the correct way around
• sheet of paper • plane (flat) mirror Key terms
• protractor • modelling clay.
Here is what you should do: reflect light changes
1. Draw a line along the long side of the paper a few direction when it arrives
centimetres in from the edge. at a reflecting surface
2. Place the protractor at the centre of the line and mark angle of incidence angle
out the 180° in 10° divisions. Use your ruler to extend at which light arrives at
the lines. Don’t forget to label them. a reflecting surface
light plane mirror angle of reflection angle
source at which light leaves a
10° 170° reflecting surface
20° 160°
30° 150° lateral inversion when
40° 140° an image is formed in a
50° 130° plane mirror, the top
60° 70° 120°
80° 90° 100° 110° and bottom remain the
FIG 7.32
same but right and left
change over
3. Place the mirror at the centre of the line using
modelling clay to hold it. 7.9
4. The ray from the light source to the mirror is called
the incident ray and the ray leaving the mirror is
called the reflected ray.
5. Put the light source at an angle of 10° to the mirror
and record the angle between the incident ray and
the line at 90°.
6. Record the angle between the reflected ray and the
line at 90°.
7. Repeat this for angles up to 90° in 10° intervals.
8. What is the relationship between the angles made by
the incident ray and the reflected ray?
There are two laws of reflection.
plane mirror
angle of angle of
incidence reflection
incident ray normal reflected ray

FIG 7.33 Ray of light reflected by a plane mirror
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal (a line
perpendicular to the mirror) all lie in the same plane.
The reflection of an object is called its image. The image
formed by a plane mirror looks identical to the object.
However, it has one important difference. The man in
figure 7.34 has the razor in his left hand but in the image
it is in his right hand.
This effect is called lateral inversion. FIG 7.34 Lateral inversion

1. a) Draw a diagram to show a ray of light being
reflected by a plane mirror.
b) State a rule about the angle of incidence and the
angle of reflection.
153
Form 3
Refraction We are learning how to:

different media
• explain how light is refracted when it
passes from one medium into another.
a)
Refraction normal
The speed of light varies a little in different media. For
example, it moves at slightly different speeds in air, in
water and in glass. These materials each have a different
optical density and refractive index. glass
block
When a ray of light passes from air into glass, the change
of speed causes the ray to bend slightly towards the angle of
normal where it enters the glass. This bending of light is refraction
called refraction. As the ray leaves the glass it bends away
from the normal by an equal amount. The only time that glass
the ray of light is not refracted is if it enters the glass
block at an angle of 90°, that is along the normal. air
Activity 7.10 normal

angle
of
Measuring angle of incidence and angle incidence
of refraction
• single beam light source • ruler b)
• sheet of paper • glass block.
• protractor
1. Place the glass block on the paper and draw glass
block
around it.
sheet
of paper
glass
normal
air
normal
light source glass block
FIG 7.35 a) Refraction

FIG 7.36 b) Light entering the block of glass along
the normal shows no refraction
2. Draw a normal to one of the long sides of the
block. 7.10
3. Shine a ray of light at an angle to the glass block
so it strikes the glass block at the normal.
4. Make a couple of marks along the ray of light and Fun fact
mark where the ray leaves the glass block.
5. Remove the glass block and draw in the incident A ray of light entering a
ray and the refracted ray. triangular prism at right
6. Mark and measure the angle of incidence and the angles to one side is not
angle of refraction. refracted but is reflected
inside the prism. The
Lenses are optical devices that cause rays of light to bend. prism acts like a mirror.
Parallel rays of light either converge or diverge depending glass prism
on the shape of the lens. reflection
a) b) inside
light the prism
ray
FIG 7.37 Prisms like this are used

in prismatic binoculars and other
converging lens diverging lens optical instruments because they
FIG 7.38 a) Converging lens b) Diverging lens are more robust than mirrors

1. Fig 7.39 shows a drinking optical density a
straw in a glass of water. measure of the extent
a) What is unusual about to which a material
the appearance of the transmits light
straw? refractive index ratio
b) Explain why it appears of the speed of light in
this way. one medium compared
to the speed of light in
another medium
refraction bending of
light as it travels from
FIG 7.39 one medium to another
155
Form 3
Real and apparent We are learning how to:
depth • investigate the transmission of light in

different media
• explain why objects under water
appear nearer to the surface than they
actually are.
Real and apparent depth

Light is refracted when it passes between air and water.
Objects in the water appear closer to the surface than they
really are. If a coin is placed in a dish of water and viewed
from the side, its apparent depth is less than its real depth.
apparent depth
real depth
coin
FIG 7.40 The light rays from the coin bend as they pass from water to
air and make it look as though they are coming from a different place
nearer the surface than they actually are
Activity 7.11
Investigating real and apparent depth
• glass block • cork
• board • ruler. Key terms
• two pins apparent depth depth
Here is what you should do: object appears to be at
1. Place a glass block on a board. when viewed from above
2. Stick a pin at one end of the length of the glass block real depth depth object
and observe it from the opposite end. actually is
3. Put a second pin
in a piece of cork apparent cork
depth
7.11
and place this on epth
the block between rea
l d
Fun fact
you and the first
pin so you cannot glass block
To spear a fish under
see the top of the water, a fisherman must
first pin. aim a little below the
4. Move the cork along FIG 7.41 fish and not directly
the glass block until at it.
the top of the second pin appears to sit on the bottom
of the first pin and they remain the same, even when
you move your head to the left and right. air
5. Measure the distance from the front of the block to real
position
water
the first pin (real depth) and from the front of the of fish
glass block to the second pin (apparent depth). apparent position of fish
FIG 7.42
The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in one Light rays reflected by
medium compared with another. You can use the results of the fish are refracted as
the activity to find the refractive index of glass/air using the they pass from water into
equation: air. So, to the fisherman,
real depth
refractive index = apparent the fish appears to be in
depth a different position from
where it really is.
1. Light rays change direction as they leave a jar of water.
a) What causes the light rays to change direction as they
pass from water to air?
b) A boy looks at the coin from above the jar of water.
Show the position of the image of the coin and label
it ‘I’.
c) Using a ruler measure: water
i) the distance from the surface of the water to I.
ii) the distance from the surface of the water to the
coin.
coin
d) The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light
in two different media such as water and air. Use
the equation below to calculate this ratio for air and
water. real depth
FIG 7.43
refractive index = apparent depth
157
Form 3
Dispersion We are learning how to:

different media
• describe how white light is dispersed
as a result of refraction.
Dispersion
The light we receive from the Sun is
called white light. It is not a single colour red
but a mixture of many different colours. orange
yellow
Light is refracted when it passes from green
blue
one medium into another. The different white light indigo
colours of light in white light are glass prism
violet
refracted by slightly different amounts
when they pass between air and glass or FIG 7.44 The result of dispersion is a spectrum of coloured light
plastic. This provides a way of separating running from red through to violet
them. This effect is called dispersion.
This is sometimes called a visible
spectrum. Red light is refracted least while violet light is
refracted most.
Activity 7.12
Creating a spectrum
• glass prism
• converging lens
• ray box or source of narrow beam of light
• screen.
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig 7.45.
ight
white l
R
prism
ray box lens
V
spectrum on
the screen
FIG 7.45
2. Move the screen and/or the lens until the colours of the
spectrum do not overlap and a sharp image is formed.
If two prisms are placed in opposite orientations, the light
that is separated into colours due to refraction by the first
prism is refracted in the opposite way by the second.
7.12
Fun fact
white spot
Sir Isaac Newton is
credited with first
suggesting that sunlight
is composed of lights
beam of coloured of different colours. He
white light light identified seven colours:
FIG 7.46 The result of putting white light through two prisms in opposite orientations red, orange, yellow,
is that the coloured lights recombine to form white light green, blue, indigo
and violet.
Check your understanding However, some scientists
argue that Newton
1. Fig 7.47 shows white light being separated into chose seven because it
different colours. happened to coincide
white
with the number of
screen days in the week and
the number of objects
known in the Solar
Y
System at that time, and
he thought that would
make the result more
group of important. They suggest
ray of
colours that indigo should not
white light be regarded as a colour
X in its own right but
merely a shade of blue
FIG 7.47 or violet, thus making
a) What is the name of: only six colours.
i) the triangular piece of glass marked X?
ii) the group of coloured bands that appear on Key terms
the screen? white light light that
iii) the process that separates white light into is not a single colour
bands of different colours? but a mixture of many
different colours
b) i) What colour appears at Y?
ii) Which colour of light is refracted the most? dispersion separating
white light into different
colours
visible spectrum a group
of different colours of
light running from red
through to violet
159
Form 3
Rainbows We are learning how to:

different media
• explain the formation of rainbows.
Rainbows
The visible spectrum obtained by the dispersion
of white light might have reminded you of a
rainbow.
When a rainbow is observed, the Sun is actually
behind the observer, who is looking up at an
angle of about 45° to the ground. Each droplet
of water in the air acts like a tiny prism that both
refracts and reflects the sunlight.
There are many different paths that a ray of light FIG 7.48 Rainbows form as a result of the refraction of
can take as it passes through a water droplet. As sunlight by droplets of water in the atmosphere
far as the formation of a rainbow is concerned,
the path needed is one in which sunlight is refracted
entering the droplet, reflected while inside the droplet,
and refracted again as it leaves the droplet.
light
from Sun
refraction
internal
reflection
refraction
FIG 7.49
You generally see a rainbow as a circular arc across the sky.
The colour bands begin at the top with red, followed by
the other colours of the spectrum, ending in violet. The
reason why red is at the top and violet is at the bottom is to
do with the angles at which the different colours leave the
water droplets.
Different bands of colour in a rainbow are formed by
different bands of water droplets. Fig 7.50 shows only the
water droplets at the top and at the bottom of a rainbow.
red band
7.13
orange band
remaining colours pass yellow band
over observer green band
blue band
indigo band
violet band
remaining colours fall

short of observer
FIG 7.50 Formation of a rainbow
At the top of the rainbow, the red light is refracted at a
steep enough angle to pass to your eye. All the other colours
from these droplets are refracted at shallower angles and
pass over your head. At the bottom of the rainbow the violet
light is refracted at a suitably shallow angle to reach your
eye. The remaining colours from these droplets are refracted
at steeper angles and fall to the ground in front of you.
Activity 7.13
Remembering the colours of the rainbow in order
You should work in a group for this activity. You will not
need any equipment or materials.
A mnemonic is a device that helps you to remember Fun fact
something. Here is one example:
Mr Roy G Biv Sometimes double
rainbows appear
The letters R-O-Y G B-I-V are the same as the first letter of when conditions are
each colour in the spectrum in the correct order. favourable.
Your task is to devise a similar mnemonic that will help you
remember the colours of the rainbow in their correct order.
It should be something that refers to Trinidad and Tobago
or to the Caribbean.

FIG 7.51 Double rainbow
1. a) Draw a diagram to show how a rainbow would What do you notice
appear in the sky and label the red and violet parts. about the order of the
b) Suggest why rainbows are often seen after it has colours in the two parts
been raining. of the rainbow?
161
Review of Light
• A beam of light consists of two or more light rays. Light rays can be:
❍ parallel
❍ converging to a point
❍ diverging from a point.
• Light normally travels in straight lines. This is called rectilinear propagation.

• A pinhole camera is a simple optical device that contains no lens or photographic film.
An image is formed at the rear of the camera.
• The image of a pinhole camera is always inverted. Its size depends on:
❍ the distance between the object and the pinhole
❍ the distance between the pinhole and the image.
• Materials can be classified as:

❍ transparent if they allow most light to pass through them
❍ translucent if they allow some light to pass through them
❍ opaque if they do not allow any light to pass through them.
• A shadow is formed by an opaque object on the opposite side from a source of light
that illuminates it. A shadow is an area that does not receive light. The formation of
shadows is proof that light travels in straight lines.
• When an object is illuminated by an extended light source it forms:
❍ an area of full shadow called the umbra
❍ an area of partial shadow called the penumbra.
• A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is positioned exactly between the Sun and
the Earth.
• A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is positioned exactly between the Sun and
the Moon.
• Solar eclipses and lunar eclipses may be full or partial depending on where they are
viewed from on Earth.
• The reason why we can see objects is because they reflect light into our eyes. A light
ray striking an object is called the incident ray, and the ray leaving an object is called
the reflected ray.
• A normal is a line perpendicular to a reflecting surface such as a mirror. The angle
made by the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence. The angle
made by the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection.
• The two laws of reflection are:
1. angle of incidence = angle of reflection
2. the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray are all in the same plane.
• When a light ray passes from one medium into another, the speed of the ray changes
by a small amount. This small change causes the light ray to bend or be refracted.
• The optical density of a substance is the amount it resists the passage of light rays
through it. Different materials have different optical densities.
• The refraction of light passing from water to air causes objects in the water to
appear closer to the surface than they actually are. An object has a real depth and an
apparent depth.
• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in one material compared with
another. The refractive index for water/air can be found using the equation:
refractive index = real depth
apparent depth
• Sunlight can be described as white light. It is a mixture of different coloured lights.
When sunlight passes through a glass prism it is dispersed. The different coloured
lights are separated because they are all refracted by slightly different amounts.
• The dispersion of sunlight produces a spectrum containing seven different colours: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
• A rainbow is formed when tiny droplets of water in the atmosphere act like prisms and
separate sunlight into bands of different colours.
163
Review questions on Light
1. A truck driver sees a fire engine in his wing mirror.
D
C
A B
FIG 7.52
a) In which position, A, B, C or D, is the front of the fire engine?
b) The driver sees the word ‘FIRE’ in his mirror. How is the word written on the front
of the fire engine?
2. Fig 7.53 shows a ray of light passing from air into a glass block.
p
q
b c
a
d
f
e
r glass block
FIG 7.53
a) Which is the incident ray?
b) What name is given to line q?
c) Which of the angles marked are right angles?
d) Which is the:
i) angle of refraction?
ii) angle of incidence?
e) In what way would the diagram be different if it was drawn to show a light ray
passing from the glass block into air?
3. a) What is the difference between an umbra and a penumbra?
b) Copy and complete the following sentences using the words ‘Earth’ or ‘Moon’ in
each gap.
i) A lunar eclipse occurs when the passes between the
and the Sun.
ii) A solar eclipse occurs when the passes between the Sun
and the .
c) The Moon completes an orbit of the Earth every 28 days but we do not see a solar
eclipse on the Earth every 28 days. Explain why.
4. A man has fitted a mirror at the end of his driveway so he can see what traffic is
approaching as he drives out into the road. The driveway is at right angles to the road.
X mirror
driveway
road
traffic
FIG 7.54
a) Approximately what should the value of angle X be to give the man the best view
down the road?
b) A van comes up the road with the name ‘BISWAS’ written in large letters on the
front of it. How would the name appear to the man sitting in his car in the driveway
and looking at the mirror?
c) What phrase describes the changes observed when an object is viewed in a
plane mirror?
5. a) Explain the difference between a transparent, a translucent and an opaque
material. Give one example of each type of material.
b) Which type of material would be best for a bathroom window? Explain your
answer.
165
6. Fig 7.55 shows a ray of light reflected by a plane mirror.
plane mirror
FIG 7.55
a) Redraw Fig 7.55, adding and labelling the normal, the angle of incidence and the
angle of reflection.
b) State the two laws of reflection.
7. Fig 7.56 shows a pinhole camera.
matt black
translucent
pinhole screen
candle
FIG 7.56
a) Why does the pinhole need to be small?
b) Why is the inside of the camera matt black?
c) i) Why is the screen made of a translucent material and not an opaque material?
ii) Suggest a suitable material for the translucent screen.
d) Draw the image as it would appear on the screen.
e) How would the image change, if at all, if the candle was moved closer to the
pinhole?
8. a) Explain the difference between a partial solar eclipse and a total solar eclipse.
b) With the help of a suitable diagram, explain how it is possible for people at
different locations on the Earth so see a full solar eclipse, a partial solar eclipse or
no solar eclipse at the same time.
9. a) What is the process in which white light is separated into light of different colours
when passed through a glass prism?
b) Why does this separation take place?
c) Give the names of the different coloured lights in order, starting with red.
d) Briefly explain how rain droplets in the atmosphere are responsible for producing
a rainbow.
10. Fig 7.57 shows a ray of light hitting a glass block.
air glass
normal
ray of
light
FIG 7.57
a) Copy Fig 7.57 and then:
i) show the path of the ray through the block and out into the air
ii) mark the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of refraction (r) where the light
ray enters the block.
b) At the point where the light ray leaves the glass block, is the angle of incidence
less than, the same as or greater than the angle of refraction?
c) In an activity, a student shone a ray of light into the glass block at different angles
of incidence and measured the angle of refraction each time. The results are given
in the table.
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction
0° 0°
15° 10°
30° 19°
45° 28°
60° 35°
75° 40°
TABLE 7.1
i) Draw a graph of angle of incidence against angle of refraction.
ii) Are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction always in the same ratio?
How can you tell this from your graph?
iii) Use your graph to estimate the angle of refraction when the angle of incidence
is 50°.
iv) At what angle of incidence is the ray of light not refracted?
v) What happens to a ray of light striking the glass block at this angle?
167
Form 3
Unit 8: Chemical
bonding
Chemical bonding
Electron configuration
For the first 20 elements, the maximum number of electrons
for each shell is as follows:
1st shell – 2
2nd shell – 8
3rd shell – 8
The atoms of helium, neon and argon have a full outer shell.
This is called full electron configuration because they have
the maximum number of electrons in all of their electron
shells. Atoms with full electron configuration are stable.
a) b)
c)
FIG 8.1 Uses of a) helium b) neon and c) argon
168 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 8: Chemical bonding
Chemical bonding
Atoms of the other elements have unstable electron
configurations. Atoms of elements combine in different
8.1
ways to form stable molecules.
FIG 8.2 The chemical name of table salt is sodium

chloride and it is made from two elements,
sodium and chlorine
Sodium and chlorine bond together by a process called ionic
bonding.
Water is the result of bonding hydrogen with oxygen,
although its name gives no hint about the atoms it is
composed of. The bonding between hydrogen and oxygen
in water is a different type of bonding from that between
sodium and chlorine in table salt.
Oxygen is the gas that we breathe. An atom of oxygen is
not useful as a gas. It takes two atoms to bond to give us
the air that we need for survival.
FIG 8.3 Bonding in metals is another type of bonding
The atoms in pure metal elements are also bonded together,

but in a different way called metallic bonding.
In this unit, you will learn about the different types of
chemical bonding.
169
Form 3
Formation of ions We are learning how to:

• explain how ionic bonding occurs
• illustrate how transfer of electrons
occurs when the number of electrons
gained by one atom is the same as the
number of electrons lost by the other.
Gaining and losing the same number of electrons

If the outermost shell of an atom does not contain as many
electrons as it can, then the atom will combine with other
atoms. The outermost shell is therefore the one that we
need to look at when we talk about different types of
bonding.
Activity 8.1
Ionic bonding
In this activity you will be exploring the bonding that
forms kitchen salt. You will use bangles to represent the
outermost shell of each atom.
• bangles
• modelling clay in two colours.
1. Use one colour of modelling clay to create the
electrons for the outer shell of the sodium atom and
the other colour to create the electrons for the outer
shell of the chlorine atom.
2. How many does each shell need to be stable?
3. Suggest what could be done for each atom to be stable.
4. If sodium loses the electron in its outer shell, would it
lose that shell also?
5. So which shell would be the outermost? How many
electrons are there in that shell?
6. Since an atom is satisfied when the last shell is
filled, can we say that both sodium and chlorine are
satisfied?
7. Draw the electron configuration of a sodium atom
and a chlorine atom and explain what happens when
bonding occurs.
The bonding of sodium and chlorine is called ionic bonding.
The electron on the outermost shell of the sodium atom is
transferred to the outer shell of chlorine. This means that,
8.2
as sodium loses an electron, chlorine gains the electron.
Sodium also loses that outer (valence) shell. Its
second shell, containing eight electrons, now
becomes its outermost.
With eight electrons on the outermost shell, both
sodium and chlorine will have full outer shells. They Na + Cl
have formed stable ions. An ion is a particle with
fewer or more electrons than the neutral atom.
The bonding is termed ionic because it involves the
transfer of electrons and the formation of ions. The
new substance is called a compound.
Na+ Cl–
ionic bond
Mg + O FIG 8.4 Ionic bonding of sodium chloride
Fun fact
Ionic bonding cannot
Mg2+ O2– occur between two
metals.
ionic bond
FIG 8.5 In the bonding of magnesium and oxygen, two
electrons of magnesium are transferred to oxygen so,
Key terms
as magnesium loses two electrons, oxygen gains two
electrons and both magnesium and oxygen become stable ionic bonding bonding
where electrons on the
Check your understanding outermost shell of one
atom are transferred
1. Follow the steps in the activity above to bond these: to the outer shell of
another atom
a) potassium (2, 8, 8, 1) and fluorine (2, 7) stable atoms atoms that
b) magnesium (2, 8, 2) and oxygen (2, 6) have a full outer shell of
c) calcium (2, 8, 8, 2) and sulfur (2, 8, 6) electrons
171
Form 3
Formation of ions 2 We• explain

how atoms become ions
• write the ions in chemical bonding
• give the name of a compound.
The formation of ions

Atoms forming ions may lose one, two or more electrons.
Other atoms can gain one, two or more electrons.
Activity 8.2
The charges on ions
Diagrams of ionic bonding that you completed in the
previous lessons.
1. On the left-hand side of your notebook page, draw
the nucleus of a sodium atom with a diameter of
about 2 cm.
2. Use ⊕ to represent each proton in the nucleus.
3. Use to represent each electron and complete the
configuration.
4. In the same way, draw an atom of chlorine next to
sodium. Is each atom neutral? Why?
5. Below your diagrams, draw how bonding occurs.
6. Write the numbers of protons and electrons that are
in each atom.
7. Are the numbers of protons and electrons equal as
they were before?
8. Do you think that sodium and chlorine are still neutral?
9. Which charge would you give to each one? Why?
When an atom loses electrons, the number of protons
becomes greater than the number of remaining electrons.
The new resulting particle is positively charged and is called
a positively charged ion. Conversely, when an atom gains
electrons, it becomes negatively charged as the number of
electrons is greater than the number of protons. The new
particle is called a negatively charged ion.
The bonding of sodium with chlorine forms an Na+ ion and a
Cl– ion.
Naming compounds
8.3
To name a compound, the positively charged ion is normally
written first. So, the compound formed from sodium and
chlorine is sodium chloride, NaCl. The charges are not
included in the name because in bonding the charges cancel
each other out.
Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Na atom Cl atom Na+ ion Cl– ion

FIG 8.6 Sodium and chloride ions forming sodium chloride
What happens when the loss or gain is two?

When magnesium bonds with oxygen, each atom of
magnesium loses two electrons. The number of protons is Fun fact
two more than the number of electrons and it becomes an
Mg2+ ion. Also, each atom of oxygen gains two electrons In chlorinated swimming
and it becomes an O2– ion. The compound formed is MgO. pools, positively charged
When the name of a compound is written using symbols, it copper ions interact
is referred to as a chemical formula because more than one with negatively charged
chemical symbol is written. hair to make blonde hair
turn green.
1. Follow the steps in the activity to form ions and then Key terms
the compound from: ion a particle that has
a) potassium (2, 8, 8, 1) and fluorine (2, 7). an electric charge
b) lithium (2, 1) and chlorine (2, 8, 7). chemical formula the
2. Show the compound formed when calcium (2, 8, 2) name of a compound
and sulfur (2, 8, 6) bond. written using symbols
173
Form 3
Gaining and losing We are learning how to:
different numbers • describe ionic bonding

• illustrate how the transfer of electrons
occurs when the number of electrons
of electrons gained by one atom and the number
of electrons lost by the other atom are
different.
Gaining and losing different numbers of electrons

Activity 8.3
Ionic bonding
In this activity, you will be exploring the bonding of sodium
oxide, a chemical used to make glass. You will again use
bangles to represent the outermost shell of the atoms.
• bangles
1. Use one colour of modelling clay to create the outer
electron for the sodium atom and another colour to
create the outer electrons for the oxygen atom.
2. How many does each shell need to be stable?
3. Look at the shells and suggest what should be done so
that each atom would be stable.
4. If sodium loses its one electron, will oxygen gain it?
5. Will both sodium and oxygen then have full electron
configuration?
6. How many electrons does oxygen still need?
7. Would another sodium atom be needed to give
oxygen a full electron configuration?
8. Draw the electron configuration of sodium and
oxygen atoms.
9. Show what happens when bonding occurs.
electron
transfer
8.4
Na O Na
electron
transfer
FIG 8.7 When sodium and oxygen bond, the electron on the outermost shell of
the sodium atom is transferred to the outer shell of oxygen, but oxygen needs
two electrons to become stable, so it takes two sodium atoms to fill the outer
shell of one oxygen atom
–
Cl
– 3+ –
Cl Al Cl
electron pairs pulled back
towards the aluminium
FIG 8.8 Aluminium (2, 8, 3) needs three
chlorine (2, 8, 7) atoms to become stable
Fun fact
The number of atoms taking part in ionic bonding
depends on: Ionic compounds often
• the number of electrons to be lost from one atom form crystalline solids.
Sodium chloride is an
• the number of electrons to be gained by one atom. example.
Ionic bonding occurs when the number of electrons in the
valence shell is lower than four. These electrons are gained
by atoms that have more than four electrons in their valence
shell.
1. Follow the steps in the activity to bond these:
a) lithium (2, 1) and oxygen (2, 6)
b) magnesium (2, 8, 2) and chlorine (2, 8, 7) FIG 8.9 Sodium chloride crystals
175
Form 3
Ions where We are learning how to:
electron loss and • describe how atoms combine to form

molecules
• write the ions in chemical bonding
gain are different where the numbers of electrons lost
and gained are different
• write the compound formed where
the numbers of electrons lost and
gained are different.
Ions where electron loss and gain are different

Activity 8.4
Bonding of lithium and oxygen
All the diagrams of ionic bonding that you completed in the
previous lessons – you may need to refer to them.
1. On the left-hand side of your notebook page, draw a
lithium atom (2, 1) showing its electrons.
2. On the right, draw an oxygen atom (2, 6) showing its
electrons.
3. Is each atom that you have drawn neutral?
4. How many electrons does lithium need to lose?
5. How many electrons does oxygen need?
6. How many lithium atoms are needed to make one
oxygen atom stable?
7. Suggest how the formula for the compound should
be written.
Li + O + Li
Li+ O2– Li+
FIG 8.10 When lithium and oxygen bond, two lithium

atoms are needed to satisfy one oxygen atom so the
formula for the compound formed is Li2O.
The number 2 in the formula Li2O is called a subscript and is
placed after the atom symbol. It shows the number of atoms
of that element required to form the compound.
8.5
Cl + Mg + Cl
Cl– Mg2+ Cl–
FIG 8.11 When magnesium bonds with chlorine, two chlorine atoms are needed to
satisfy a magnesium atom so the formula for the compound formed is MgCl2 (the
subscript 2 is placed after the Cl symbol to indicate the number of ions of chlorine that
have an equal and opposite charge to the magnesium ion)
FIG 8.12 Crystals of magnesium chloride

1. Show the compound formed when the following
pairs of atoms bond:
a) calcium (2, 8, 8, 2) and chlorine (2, 8, 7) Fun fact
b) potassium (2, 8, 1) and sulfur (2, 8, 6) When ionic compounds
2. What would the formula of an ionic compound dissolve in water, they
of aluminium and fluorine be? Draw an electron become able to conduct
structure for it similar to the one in Fig 8.11. electricity.
177
Form 3
Valency We are learning how to:

• describe how atoms combine to form
molecules
• use the charge of an atom to write its
formula.
Valency
Activity 8.5
How charges help with writing formulae
Work completed in the previous lesson.
1. Write each of the following pairs of atoms, allowing
some space between the two symbols in each pair.
Leave three lines between each pair.
a) K + O b) Mg + O c) Li + O
d) Mg + Cl e) Al + F f) Al + O
2. Write the charge that each atom has when it becomes
an ion as a superscript (e.g. K+ and O2–).
3. Look at a). Draw an arrow from the superscript of K to
where the subscript of O should be placed.
4. In the same way, draw an arrow from the superscript
of O to where the subscript of K should be placed.
5. On the next line, write the formula for K and O with
the numbers in the positions shown by the arrows.
6. Compare the result with the answer you had from the
previous lesson. Are they the same?
7. Follow steps 3 to 6 to complete b) to f).
The method of switching charges is called the valence or
crisscross method.
The lithium ion is written as Li+ and the oxygen as O2–
indicating that Li loses one electron and O gains two. The
charge that each ion carries is called its valency.
The formula for the compound formed when lithium
combines with oxygen is written Li2O since it takes two
lithium atoms to satisfy one oxygen atom.
This is how the valence or crisscross method works.
8.6
Li+ + O2– Li2O
Na+ + Cl– NaCl
FIG 8.13 How the valence or crisscross method works
Three points to remember when using the valence or
crisscross method:
• when the subscript is 1, it is not necessary to write it
• when both subscripts are the same, it is not necessary to
write them
• when the formula is written, the charges disappear
because bonding occurs between an equal number
of positive and negative charges, each cancelling out
the other.
The advantage of this method is that, as long as you know
the valence of the ions, it is easy to write a formula simply
by crisscrossing the value of charges.
1. Use the valence method to show the result of the
bonding between the following pairs of atoms:
a) Mg (2, 8, 2) + Cl (2, 8, 7)
b) Na (2, 8, 1) + S (2, 8, 6)
c) Ca (2, 8, 8, 2) + Cl (2, 8, 7) Key term
d) Na (2, 8, 1) + O (2, 6) valency charge that each
e) Mg (2, 8, 2) + F (2, 7) ion carries
179
Form 3
Different atoms We are learning how to:
sharing electrons • describe how atoms combine to form

molecules
• illustrate covalent bonding in atoms
of different types
• write the chemical formula representing
the bonding.
Different atoms sharing electrons

Covalent bonding occurs mostly between two non-metals.
It is a method of bonding that involves sharing electrons in
order to achieve full outer electron shells.
Activity 8.6
Exploring covalent bonding between hydrogen and
oxygen to form water
• bangles
1. Use one colour of modelling clay to create the
electrons for the oxygen outer shell (oxygen is 2, 6)
and use the other colour to create the electrons for
the outer shell of hydrogen (hydrogen is 1).
2. What is the maximum number of electrons that each
shell can hold?
3. Bring the two shells together so that one electron of
each colour is shared. Is the hydrogen satisfied?
4. Is the oxygen satisfied? H H
5. What should be done to satisfy the oxygen? Go ahead
and do it. O
6. Are all three atoms now satisfied?
7. Using the symbols of the atoms, write the chemical
formula for the bonding. FIG 8.14 Covalent bonding of oxygen
and hydrogen to form water
The maximum number of electrons that the only shell of
hydrogen can hold is two. Hydrogen’s shell, therefore, needs
one more electron and oxygen’s shell needs two. Hydrogen
8.7
shares its one electron with one of oxygen, and is satisfied.
Oxygen still requires one more. Another hydrogen atom is
needed. The formula for the compound formed is H2O. This
is called a molecule of water.
O C O H Cl
b) Hydrogen and chlorine can combine

FIG 8.15 a) Carbon and oxygen can combine to form a molecule of CO2 to form a molecule of HCl
H C H
H
c) Carbon and hydrogen can combine to form a
molecule of CH4 Fun fact
When writing formulae with atoms from different groups, Covalent bonding
the atom from the lower group is normally written first. involves strong
Because of the nature of hydrogen, its position in the connections between
formula may vary. the atoms, so it is
difficult to break these
Check your understanding molecules apart.
1. Use the steps in the activity to form molecules with Key term
the following pairs of atoms:
a) carbon and oxygen covalent bonding
b) hydrogen and chlorine bonding in which
electrons are shared
c) carbon and hydrogen between atoms
181
Form 3
Diatomic We are learning how to:
molecules • describe how atoms combine to form

molecules
• illustrate covalent bonding of atoms in
diatomic molecules
• write the chemical equation representing
the bonding.
Diatomic molecules
In a covalent bond, the positively charged nuclei of both
atoms are attracted by the oppositely charged electrons in
the bond between them.
Activity 8.7
Covalent bonding of hydrogen
• bangles • modelling clay.
1. Make a representation of the outer shell of a
hydrogen atom.
2. What is the maximum number of electrons that this
shell can hold?
3. Make another representation of the outer shell of a
hydrogen atom.
4. Show how you can use covalent bonding to satisfy the
two hydrogen atoms.
5. How is a molecule of hydrogen gas written?
H H
H H
FIG 8.16 The bonding of
hydrogen atoms to form a
H + H H2 hydrogen molecule
There is only one electron in a hydrogen atom’s single shell. This makes
the atom unstable since it does not have full electron configuration.
When another hydrogen atom bonds with it, they each share their
8.8
electrons (they are covalently bonded) and become stable. The
molecule formed is hydrogen gas. This is written in symbols as H2.
Since the molecule is made of two atoms, it is referred to as a
diatomic molecule.
Activity 8.8
Forming other diatomic molecules
• bangles
• modelling clay.
Use the bangles and modelling clay to represent the
outermost shells of:
a) chlorine (2, 8, 7) b) fluorine (2, 7) c) oxygen (2, 6).
Follow the steps in Activity 8.7 to form diatomic molecules
for each molecule.
a) shared electron-pair
(covalent) bond
Cl + Cl Cl Cl
chlorine atom chlorine atom chlorine molecule Cl2
b)
F + F F F
fluorine atom fluorine atom fluorine molecule F2
c)
O + O O O
oxygen atom oxygen atom oxygen molecule O2
FIG 8.17 Bonding in a) chlorine gas b) fluorine gas c) oxygen gas
Key term
diatomic molecule a
1. Explain how covalent bonding is used to form molecule consisting of
diatomic molecules. two atoms
183
Form 3
Metallic bonding We are learning how to:

• describe metallic bonding.
Metallic bonding
Activity 8.9
Metallic bonding
This is a demonstration activity. You are to observe only.
• thumb tacks
• metal rod
• candle
• Bunsen burner.
X Y
A B C
metal rod source of heat
from a burner
FIG 8.18
1. Attach three thumb tacks to a metal rod using

candle wax.
2. Heat one end of the rod using a Bunsen burner.
3. Is the entire rod in contact with the flame of the
burner?
4. What happens to tack C after about two minutes?
Are B and A affected?
5. Do they eventually get affected? Why?
Metals are good conductors of heat, as we have seen in
Activity 8.9. This is because of the way that metal atoms
are bound together by metallic bonding.
For a similar reason, metals are generally good conductors
of electricity. Now carry out Activity 8.10.
Activity 8.10
Metallic bonding
8.9
• circuit wire
• cell
• selection of materials – conductors and insulators
• lamp. Fun fact
1. Use each of the materials to connect the two open Metallic bonding also
ends of the electrical circuit. makes metals malleable:
their shape can be
changed by physical
force.
If a matchbox were
filled with gold it could
? be flattened to make a
sheet the size of a lawn
tennis court.
FIG 8.19 free electrons from outer

shells of metal atoms
2. Did the bulb light with every material connected in
the circuit? Why?
Metallic bonding does not involve losing, gaining or sharing
of electrons. Metals have few electrons in their outermost
shell. These electrons have the ability to move around
freely. When one part of a metal is in contact with heat
or electricity, the ‘free electrons’ in the contact area move metal ions
around and transfer heat and electricity through the metal.
FIG 8.20 Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is defined as the bonding occurring
between atoms within metals because of the movement of
free electrons through the arrangement of particles. The
structure of any substance is dependent on the formation of
its bonds. Key term
Non-metals do not generally transfer heat and electricity metallic bonding the
easily because their atoms do not have free electrons. bonding occurring
between atoms within
Check your understanding metals because of the
movement of free
1. Explain why metals conduct heat and electricity but electrons through the
non-metals do not. arrangement of particles
185
Form 3
Bonding and physical

properties
The type of bonding in a substance is important in
determining its physical properties.
Metals
Metals generally have high melting points because a lot of
energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces between
the positive ions and the negative electrons.
The temperature of the filament in a traditional lamp is
around 2500 °C when switched on. It is made of a metal
called tungsten which has a melting point of 3422 °C.
Ionic compounds
Ionic compounds consist of a matrix of positively charged
and negatively charged ions.
FIG 8.21 Tungsten filament lamp
In sodium chloride, the forces of attraction between the
positively charged sodium ions and the negatively charged
chloride ions are very strong. In general, ionic compounds Na+ Na+
have high melting points. Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–
Ionic compounds can carry an electric current when the ions
are free to move. This is not possible when solid, but when Na+ Cl–
Na+
Na+ + Na+
an ionic compound is molten or dissolved in water the ions Na Cl–
are free to move.
Na+ Na+
Simple covalent compounds Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl–
Cl–
Covalent compounds can be classified as simple molecules
or macromolecules. Methane, CH4, is an example of a simple
covalent compound. FIG 8.23 Sodium chloride
The covalent bonds between the atoms in a molecule
of methane are strong but the bonding between
molecules is weak. Simple covalent compounds H strong
have low melting and boiling points. Many are bonds
gases even at room temperature. H C
H H
Because covalent compounds do not contain free H
electrons or ions they cannot conduct electricity. C H H
H
Giant covalent compounds H H
C H
Some covalent compounds have a giant structure H
in which the same unit is repeated many times. weak bonds
FIG 8.22 Methane
For example, silica consists of a matrix in which each silicon
atom is bonded to four different oxygen atoms, and each
oxygen atom is bonded to two different silicon atoms.
8.10
In order to melt, a very large amount of energy is needed
to break the covalent bonds. Giant covalent structures are
generally hard and have very high melting points. silicon covalent
Activity 8.11 atom bond
Investigating the properties of two compounds oxygen

atom
• glucose • heat source
• sodium chloride • two beakers 100 cm3 FIG 8.24 Silica
• two hard glass test tubes • stirring rod
• test tube holder • circuit to test conductivity
(battery, lamp and wires).
1. Put a small amount of glucose in a hard glass test tube
and heat it gently at first to see if it melts. If it doesn’t
melt, heat it more strongly. Record your observations.
2. Repeat step 1 using sodium chloride in place of glucose.
3. Put about 5 g of glucose in a beaker containing 50 cm3
of water. Stir the solid until it dissolves.
4. Test whether the glucose solution conducts electricity
using a suitable circuit. Record your observations.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 using sodium chloride in place
of glucose.
Check your understanding Key term

1.
Substance Melting Conducts Conducts electron negatively
point and electricity electricity charged particle
boiling point when solid when molten ion particle that may
carry a positive or a
A Low No No negative charge
B High No Yes melting point
C Very high No No temperature at which a
D High Yes Yes solid becomes a liquid
TABLE 8.1 ionic compound
Which of the substances in Table 8.1 is most likely to be: has bonds between
oppositely charged ions
a) a giant covalent compound; b) a metal; covalent compound has
c) an ionic compound; d) a simple covalent compound? bonds in which electrons
are shared
187
Review of Chemical bonding
• When atoms are attracted to each other, chemical bonding occurs.
• Bonding occurs so that the outermost shell of an atom is filled, forming a stable
electron configuration.
• All atoms are neutral.
• When writing formulae, the atom losing electrons is usually written first.
• Atoms losing electrons become positively charged ions and those gaining electrons
become negative ions.
• The valence or valency of an ion depends on the number of electrons it gains or loses.
• The valence or crisscross method helps to derive the formula of the products of
a reaction.
• Covalent bonding occurs when electrons are shared between atoms.
• In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
• Covalent bonding occurs between atoms of Groups 4, 5, 6 and 7.
• Diatomic molecules are composed of two atoms.
• Diatomic molecules are covalent.
• The type of bonding in a substance influences its physical properties.
• Metals generally have high melting points and all metals are good conductors or heat
and electricity.
• Ionic compounds generally have high melting points and conduct electricity when
molten or dissolved in water.
• Simple covalent compounds have very low melting points and boiling points and many
are gases at room temperature.
• Giant covalent compounds are hard and have very high melting points.
• Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity.
Review questions on Chemical bonding
1. Define the following terms:
a) bonding b) chemical formula.
2. Explain the difference between covalent and ionic bonding.
3. a) Name a diatomic gas.
b) Show how that diatomic gas is made.
4. Using any method you know, write the chemical formula for the compound between
the following:
a) hydrogen (1) and fluorine (2, 7)
b) sulfur (2, 8, 6) and chlorine (2, 8, 7)
c) aluminium (2, 8, 3) and oxygen (2, 6)
d) magnesium (2, 8, 2) and fluorine (2, 7)
e) sodium (2, 8, 1) and oxygen (2, 6)
f) calcium (2, 8, 8, 2) and oxygen (2, 6)
5. Indicate whether each of the following is true or false.
a) Some ions have no electric charge.
b) Calcium loses electrons so it carries a 2+ charge.
c) Chlorine has seven valence electrons. It forms a Cl– ion.
d) Al3+ and F– bond to form Al3F.
e) It is usual for metals to form positive ions.
f) Methane, CH4, is a highly acidic substance.
g) Atoms like magnesium in Group 2 form ions with a 2− charge.
h) Ionic substances usually share their unpaired electrons.
i) Table salt, NaCl, is formed by ionic bonding.
189
Form 3
Unit 9: Acids and

alkalis
Acids and alkalis
One way of classifying matter is into acids and alkalis. Acids
and alkalis are found in a wide variety of products.
a)
b)
FIG 9.1 a) Fruit contains acid b) Baking soda is an alkali
FIG 9.2 These household chemicals may be acids or alkalis and many of them are
corrosive
190 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 9: Acids and alkalis
Many acids and alkalis may be hazardous.
9.1
FIG 9.3 The effects of contact with

sulfuric acid
The picture shows some of the effects of contact with

sulfuric acid.
Calcium hydroxide is a mildly corrosive alkali. However, the
product of the reaction of calcium hydroxide and sulfuric
acid is calcium sulfate, which is a useful substance – it is
used to make casts for supporting fractured bones.
FIG 9.4 Calcium sulfate is used to make casts for supporting fractured
bones
In this section you will be exploring how to distinguish
between acids and alkalis. You will also learn about some
reactions of acids.
191
Form 3
Identifying acids We are learning how to:

• distinguish between substances that
are acids and alkalis
• explain the use of an indicator
• give the colour change in an indicator
when it contacts an acid.
Identifying acids
Activity 9.1
Exploring how indicators change colour with different acids
• hydrochloric acid • phenolphthalein SAFETY
• sulfuric acid • methyl orange Observe the
safety icon on
• nitric acid • test tubes the acid bottles.
• red and blue litmus • tweezers All indicator
paper papers should
• droppers. be held with
Here is what you should do: tweezers. Avoid
1. Copy the table. spillage.
Acid Indicator Colour change
hydrochloric (HCl) red litmus paper
sulfuric (H2SO4)
nitric (HNO3)
hydrochloric blue litmus paper
sulfuric
nitric
hydrochloric phenolphthalein
sulfuric
nitric
hydrochloric methyl orange
sulfuric
nitric
2. Pour a few drops of hydrochloric acid into each of two test tubes.
3. Suck up a dropperful of hydrochloric acid from one of the test tubes.
4. Squeeze one drop of hydrochloric acid onto a piece of each of the
coloured indicator papers and record the colour you observe.
5. Pour one drop of the liquid indicators into each of the two test tubes of
hydrochloric acid. Record the colour change you observe.
6. Wash out all the test tubes and droppers thoroughly.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for sulfuric acid and then for nitric acid.
9.2
8. Compare the results you found for the various acids. Did all acids give the
same results for each indicator?
The word acid is from the Latin acidus, meaning sour. An Fun fact
acid is a chemical substance. Solutions formed from these
chemical substances usually have a sour taste. In order to Most fruits contain acids,
identify acids, indicators are used. Indicators are made from such as citric acid, but
special dyes and the results of your experiments should these are weak acids and
show the colour change. we can eat them without
coming to any harm.
They also provide the
tangy flavours of fruits.
Activity 9.2
Check your breath
In this activity you will explore the gas that is exhaled from your body.
• two test tubes • dropper
• universal indicator • straw.
1. Add a little water to two clean test tubes.
2. Put one drop of universal indicator into one of
the test tubes and observe its colour.
3. Place a straw into each test tube.
4. Ask a volunteer to gently breathe out a few breaths
through the straw and into each test tube.
5. Is there a colour change in the indicator? FIG 9.5
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring gas that is important

for photosynthesis. It is produced during respiration, decay,
fermentation, combustion and volcanic eruptions. Carbon
dioxide is acidic and forms carbonic acid with water.
1. What colour changes are observed when the acid a type of chemical
following are added to an acid? substance
a) Blue litmus paper indicators substances
b) Phenolphthalein made from special dyes
c) Methyl orange. that change colour
depending on whether
2. Name three common acids. an acid or alkali is present
193
Form 3
Strength of We are learning how to:
an acid • distinguish between substances that

• identify the strength of an acid.
Strength of an acid
Activity 9.3
Exploring the strength of acids
• vinegar • small pieces of universal • experimental trays
• milk indicator paper • hydrochloric acid
• apple • tweezers • sulfuric acid
• universal indicator • spatulas • nitric acid
solution • scalpels • droppers.
SAFETY
Observe the safety icon on the acid bottles. a)
All indicator papers should be held with the
tweezers. Take care when using scalpels.
Avoid spillage.
1. Copy the table. List the name of the substances
you are going to test in the Specimen column, b) c)
as shown below.
Specimen Universal indicator (colour change)
Paper Solution
vinegar
milk
apple FIG 9.6 a) Universal indicator paper
hydrochloric b) Universal indicator solution
c) Experimental trays
acid
sulfuric
acid
nitric acid
2. Using a scalpel, spatula or dropper, place a tiny sample of each specimen
in the cavities of the experimental tray. .3 9
3. Wash your hands and all the apparatus you used thoroughly, and dry
your hands.
4. Place one little piece of indicator paper in each specimen. Observe and record the
colour change.
5. Add one drop of indicator to each specimen. Observe and record the colour change.
6. Were all the colours the same?
7. Do you think that the difference in colour has any significance for acid strength?
Universal indicator is very special. As well as indicating
acidity, it also gives the strength of an acid.
Fun fact
vinegar lemon
(acetic acid) (citric acid)
apple tomato
(malic acid) (oxalic acid)
ant
(formic acid) grapes
(tartaric acid)
FIG 9.7 As acidity weakens, the colour of lactic
universal indicator moves from red to yellow acid
The colours of universal indicator match those on a range FIG 9.8 Acids are all around us
called the pH scale. Acids can have a pH with a number
between 0 and 6. The stronger the acid, the more corrosive
it is. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, which is the
strongest of all acids.
1. How can you determine the strength of an acid?
2. Research what scientists use to make indicators. Key term
3. Research what can be used to make homemade pH measure of strength
indicators. of an acid or alkali
195
Form 3
Identifying alkalis We are learning how to:

• distinguish between substances that
• give the colour change in an indicator
when it is in contact with an alkali.
Identifying alkalis
Activity 9.4
Exploring alkalis
• sodium hydroxide • phenolphthalein
• ammonium hydroxide • methyl orange
• calcium hydroxide • test tubes
• blue litmus paper • tweezers
• red litmus paper • droppers.
SAFETY
Observe the safety icon on the alkali bottles.
tweezers. Avoid spillage.
1. Copy the table.
Alkali Indicator Colour
change
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) blue litmus paper
ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH)
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
sodium hydroxide red litmus paper
ammonium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide phenolphthalein
ammonium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide methyl orange
ammonium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
2. Pour a few drops of sodium hydroxide into each of
two test tubes. 9.4
3. Suck up a dropperful of sodium hydroxide from one
of the test tubes.
4. Squeeze one drop of sodium hydroxide onto a piece
of each of the coloured indicator papers and record
the colour you observe.
5. Pour one drop of each of the liquid indicators into
each of the two test tubes of sodium hydroxide.
Record the colour change you observe.
6. Wash out all the test tubes and droppers thoroughly.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for ammonium hydroxide and
then for calcium hydroxide.
8. Compare the results you found for the various alkalis.
Did all the alkalis give the same results for each
indicator?
The word alkali is of Arabic origin, meaning dry. Alkalis
belong to the set of bases but they are soluble in water,
hence the name hydroxide. Dilute solutions of alkalis feel
soapy and have a bitter taste. All alkalis conduct electricity.
Alkalis can be identified by their colour changes with
indicators.
Fun fact
Saliva is mildly alkaline.
This helps to counteract
the acids present in many
foods.
Key terms
alkali a member of a
group of substances
that turn red litmus
FIG 9.9 Household ammonia
solution is strongly alkaline
paper blue
hydroxide a compound
Check your understanding of a metal with
hydrogen and oxygen,
1. Name three common alkalis. which is often basic; if it
is soluble it will form an
2. What is the effect of an alkali on red litmus paper? alkaline solution
197
Form 3
Strength of an We are learning how to:
alkali • distinguish between substances that

• identify the strength of an alkali.
Strength of an alkali
Activity 9.5
Exploring the strength of alkalis
• universal indicator • droppers
solution • bleach
• small pieces of universal • dishwashing liquid
indicator paper
• tweezers • baking soda
• spatulas • sodium hydroxide
• scalpels • ammonium hydroxide
• experimental trays • calcium hydroxide.
• test tubes
SAFETY
Observe the safety icon on the alkali bottles.
tweezers. Avoid spillage. Take care when using
scalpels.
1. Copy the table. List the names of the substances you
are testing, as shown below.
Specimen Universal indicator (colour change)
Paper Solution
bleach
dishwashing
liquid
baking soda
2. Using a scalpel, spatula or dropper, place a tiny
sample of each specimen in the cavities of the
experimental tray.
3. Wash your hands and all the apparatus you used
thoroughly, and dry your hands. 9.5
4. Place one little piece of indicator paper in each
specimen. Observe and record the colour change.
5. Add one drop of indicator to each specimen. Observe
and record the colour change.
6. Were all the colours the same?
7. Do you think that the difference in colour has any
significance for an alkali’s strength?
Universal indicator also shows the strength of alkalis.
Universal indicator displays colours for alkalis with a
pH between 8 and 14.
Where do
we find
alkalis?
FIG 9.11 Alkalis are all around us

FIG 9.10 The colour moves from blue to dark purple as the alkali gets stronger
Alkalis can be found all around us, especially in the home.

So far you have identified acidic and alkaline substances.
Based on the indicators, it can be seen that they are at
opposite ends of the pH scale.
1. What would the pH of a strong alkali be? An ant injects acid under
2. What numbers indicate the pH range of alkalis? your skin when it bites.
3. How does universal indicator show the strength By placing an ice cube
of an acid? on the bite, it is possible
to soothe the sting and
4. Which number would indicate the strongest alkali? prevent swelling.
199
Form 3
Acid–alkali We are learning how to:
reactions • describe chemical reactions involving

acids
• define neutralisation.
Acid–alkali reactions
Activity 9.6
Exploring neutralisation
For this experiment you need to work in two groups: one
with an acid and the other without.
• dilute acid • droppers
• dilute alkali • test tube
• liquid indicator • straw.
(phenolphthalein)
• measuring cylinder
SAFETY
Observe the safety icon on the reagent bottles.
Remember to observe safety rules when working
with hazardous materials. Avoid spillage.
Follow these instructions carefully and correctly.
1. Measure 1 cm3 of alkali and pour it into the test tube.
2. Use a dropper to place one drop of indicator into the
alkali.
3. Observe and record the colour.
For the groups with the acid:
4. Using a second dropper, apply acid to the alkali in the
test tube and shake it gently after each application.
5. Keep adding until a colour difference appears.
6. Use a third dropper to add drops of alkali to observe
colour changes.
7. Add acid and alkali alternately until you think you
have found a midpoint between acid and alkali.
8. Explain what you experienced as you changed from
adding acid to alkali and back.
For the group with no acid:
9. Get one student to gently blow exhaled air through
9.6
the straw into the alkali with the indicator.
10. They should keep exhaling until the colour changes.
11. Use the second dropper to add drops of alkali to
observe colour changes.
12. Then the student should exhale into this combination.
13. Repeat until you think you have found a midpoint
between exhaled air and alkali.
Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water. Acids and alkalis
have opposite chemical properties. When an alkali and
acid combine, there is a point where they both cancel out
the effect of each other and this is called neutralisation. A
neutral substance has a pH of 7, the midpoint of acids and
alkalis.
Since acids and alkalis chemically react with each other, a
new product is formed.
Fun fact
Indigestion is caused by
a build-up of stomach
acid. Indigestion tablets
FIG 9.12 Carbon dioxide, which is slightly acidic,
are alkaline and so they
neutralises lime water, calcium hydroxide, which neutralise the acid.
is an alkali
Key term
neutralisation the
1. Describe how to explore the neutralisation of an acid effect of acid and alkali
by an alkali. cancelling each other out
201
Form 3
Neutralisation We are learning how to:

• describe chemical reactions involving
acids
• give the products of the neutralisation
of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric
acid.
Neutralisation
The components of a chemical change occur in fixed or
given proportions. To know the exact amount of each
chemical to be used for neutralisation, you can use an
indicator.
Activity 9.7
Exploring neutralisation
This is a demonstration activity. You are to observe and
record.
• dilute sodium hydroxide • evaporating dish
• dilute hydrochloric acid • bunsen burner
• conical flask • tripod
• methyl orange indicator • gauze.
• titration apparatus a)
SAFETY 45
Take care with chemicals and heat sources. 46

47
48
Here is what you should do: 49
1. Add one drop of indicator to 10 cm3 of sodium 50

burette
hydroxide, and mix in a conical flask.
2. Use the titration apparatus shown in Fig 9.13a) to
find and record the amount of hydrochloric acid used
for neutralising alkali.
3. Use the data to combine a fresh set without the conical flask
indicator. hydrochloric acid
4. Pour some of the combination into an evaporating sodium hydroxide
dish and place over a Bunsen flame. and methyl
5. As the liquid evaporates, reduce the heat to a gentle orange indicator
flame. FIG 9.13 a) Titration apparatus set up
to find neutralisation point
6. If it’s a sunny day, some of the combination may be
placed outside on a crystallisation dish. 9.7
7. When evaporation is complete, examine the residue.
8. Write a laboratory report on this activity.
Fun fact
b) evaporating dish
titration solution In ancient times, Roman
pipe clay triangle soldiers were sometimes
paid in salt (Latin: sal) –
tripod
hence the origin of the
word ‘salary’.
Bunsen burner
c) salt solution
crystallising
dish
FIG 9.13 b) Evaporation of neutralisation c) Residue from evaporation
The product of the neutralisation of sodium hydroxide Key terms

and hydrochloric acid is a salt and water. The evaporation
occurring was that of the water. The residue is the salt titration a technique in
(sodium chloride). The chemical reaction that occurred is which the concentration
shown in this way: of one solution is
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + found by using another
water solution with a known
concentration
Was there any particular reason for the change to the
gentle flame? residue the material
remaining after
Check your understanding distillation, evaporation,
or filtration
1. What products are formed when a neutralisation salt the product of
reaction takes place? neutralisation
203
Form 3
Products of We are learning how to:
neutralisation • describe chemical reactions involving

acids
• name salts from hydrochloric acid,
nitric acid and sulfuric acid
• explain how a salt is named.
Products of neutralisation
The products of the neutralisation of an
alkali and an acid are a salt and water.
The names of salts have two parts.
The first part is the name of the metal
involved in the reaction. (Ammonia is
not a metal but when it reacts with acid,
the first part of the name of the salt is
ammonium.)
The second part comes from the acid
used.
If the acid is
• hydrochloric acid then the salt is a
chloride
• nitric acid then the salt is a nitrate
FIG 9.14 The neutralisation reaction between
• sulfuric acid then the salt is a sulfate. ammonia (NH3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl): the
vapours from the stoppers combine to form the
fumes of the product, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
Activity 9.8
Naming salts
Name the salt produced from each of the following
neutralisations:
1. The reaction of hydrochloric acid with
a) copper hydroxide b) zinc hydroxide
c) lead hydroxide d) magnesium hydroxide
2. The reaction of sulfuric acid with
a) ammonium hydroxide b) iron hydroxide
c) sodium hydroxide d) potassium hydroxide
3. The reaction of nitric acid with
a) aluminium hydroxide b) calcium hydroxide
c) potassium hydroxide d) ammonium hydroxide
Hydroxides are alkalis and are neutralised by acids. Here are
some examples of the uses of hydroxides:
• aluminium hydroxide – antacids, deodorants
9.8
• calcium hydroxide – caustic lime, mortar, plaster
• sodium hydroxide – lye (for making soap), oven and
drain cleaner
• magnesium hydroxide – laxatives, antacids
FIG 9.15 There are many different metal salts and some of them are brightly coloured

Write the products of the following neutralisations:
1. magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
2. aluminium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
3. copper hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
4. zinc hydroxide + hydrochloric acid Fun fact
5. lead hydroxide + hydrochloric acid Although bee and wasp
6. aqueous ammonia + hydrochloric acid venoms carry a level of
7. aluminium hydroxide + nitric acid acidity or alkalinity, it is
not practically possible
8. sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid to neutralise the venom
9. copper hydroxide + nitric acid because the insects
deposit the venom
10. magnesium hydroxide + sulfuric acid under your skin!
205
Form 3
Acid–oxide We are learning how to:

acids
• give the product of an acid and oxide
reaction.
Acid–oxide reactions
Activity 9.9
What do you get when acids combine with an oxide?
• dilute hydrochloric acid • dropper
• sample of a metal oxide • glass rods
• liquid indicator • beakers.
SAFETY
Observe safety with chemicals.
Follow the instructions carefully and correctly.
1. Scoop a little of the oxide and place it in the beaker.
2. Using the dropper, add one or two drops of indicator
to the oxide.
3. What colour change did you observe? What does that
tell you about the oxide?
4. Pour a little of the acid into the beaker and stir.
5. Pour a little more and stir until all the oxide dissolves.
6. Is there a change in the colour of the indicator? What
does this tell you about the combination?
7. Add a little more oxide, and alternate between acid
and oxide until you arrive at the neutralisation point.
8. Was there any fizzing? What does this imply?
An oxide is a base. If it is soluble in water, it forms an alkali.
The pH of a base is between 8 and 14.
Most bases are metal oxides. This means that the positive
ions are metallic and the negative ions are oxygen.
As with an alkali, when a base and an acid combine in the
correct proportions, the chemical reaction – neutralisation –
occurs.
9.9
As there was no fizzing, it indicates that no gas was
produced.
When an acid neutralises an oxide, a salt and water are
produced.
Identify the products of the following neutralisations:
1. sodium oxide + sulfuric acid →
2. potassium oxide + nitric acid →
3. lead oxide + hydrochloric acid →
4. copper oxide + sulfuric acid →
5. zinc oxide + nitric acid →
6. magnesium oxide + nitric acid →
7. aqueous ammonia + sulfuric acid →
8. lead oxide + nitric acid →
9. iron oxide + nitric acid →
10. aluminium oxide + sulfuric acid →
Fun fact
Copper oxide is used
in many fungicides to
protect crop plants from
fungal diseases.
Key term
metal oxides substances
where the positive ions
are metallic and the
FIG 9.16 Bases are used in the garden, kitchen and bathroom, as medicines
and as laundry products negative ions are oxygen
207
Form 3
Acid–carbonate We are learning how to:
reactions • test the gas evolved from an acid–

carbonate reaction
• describe what happens when acids
react with carbonates.
Acid–carbonate reactions
Activity 9.10
What gas is given off during an acid–carbonate reaction?
This is a demonstration lesson. Volunteers will be needed. Observe carefully.
• dilute hydrochloric acid • Bunsen burner
• samples of metal carbonates • limewater solution
• test tubes • straw.
• splint
SAFETY
Observe care with acids.
1. Place a little carbonate in a test tube.
2. Have a lighted splint available.
3. Pour some acid onto the carbonate and place the splint into the evolving gas. What
happens to the flame?
4. Pour some colourless limewater solution Ca(OH)2 into a test tube.
5. Allow the evolving gas to flow into the test tube of limewater and shake it.
6. What has happened to the limewater? Can you identify the gas?
7. Using the straw, exhale into a test tube of limewater. What do you observe?
8. What gas was exhaled?
9. Can you now identify the gas that was evolved from the acid–carbonate reaction?
When an acid reacts with a carbonate or a Fun fact
hydrogencarbonate, a gas is produced (evolved).To identify
the gas, it must be tested. When a lighted splint was In the 14th century,
brought into the gas it was extinguished. When the gas was market traders used
tested with limewater, a white precipitate resulted. Carbon to try to sell chalk (a
dioxide is the only gas that forms a white precipitate with carbonate) as a hard
limewater. The gas evolved from an acid–carbonate reaction cheese to innocent
is, therefore, carbon dioxide. customers.
Activity 9.11
What else results from an acid–carbonate reaction?
9.10
• dilute hydrochloric acid • dropper
• samples of metal carbonates • glass rods
• liquid indicator • beakers.
SAFETY
Observe care with acids.
Follow the instructions carefully and correctly.
1. Scoop a little of the carbonate and place it in the beaker.
2. Using the dropper, add one or two drops of indicator to the carbonate.
3. What does the colour change tell you about the carbonate?
4. Pour a little of the acid into the beaker and stir.
5. Pour a little more and stir until all the carbonate dissolves.
6. What does the colour change tell you about the combination?
7. Add carbonate and acid alternately until you are at the neutralisation point.
Carbonates and a) b)
hydrogencarbonates are
bases. Some bases are
metal carbonates. When a
carbonate reacts with an
acid, neutralisation occurs
as a new substance is
formed.
FIG 9.17 Acid–carbonate reactions:

a) copper carbonate b) sodium carbonate

1. Describe the reaction between an acid and a Key term
carbonate. carbonate substance
2. What happens to an acid and an alkali when they containing a metal,
react with each other? carbon and oxygen
209
Form 3
Completing We are learning how to:
acid–carbonate • describe chemical reactions involving

acids
• give the products of an acid–carbonate
neutralisation reaction.
equations
Completing acid–carbonate neutralisation equations
Activity 9.12
Exploring the products of an acid–carbonate reaction
In this activity you will investigate what is left after
CO2 evolves.
SAFETY
Take care with chemicals. Take care when using
a heat source.
• hydrochloric acid
• sodium carbonate
• tripod and gauze
• evaporating dish
• Bunsen burner
• dropper
• beaker.
1. Place some sodium carbonate in a beaker.
2. Carefully add some hydrochloric acid using a dropper.
3. Allow time for the reaction to take place.
4. Gently heat the reactants.
5. Place the product in an evaporating dish.
6. Use the evaporation method to discover the residue.
When an acid reacts with a carbonate, neutralisation occurs.
The products of neutralisation are carbon dioxide, a salt
and water. Just as in other neutralisations, the salt produced
9.11
depends on the acid and the carbonate used.
carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
FIG 9.18 When calcium carbonate reacts with dilute

hydrochloric acid, carbon dioxide is given off, which can be
collected in a test tube

Copy and complete the following reactions:
1. magnesium carbonate + sulfuric acid →
2. sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid →
3. copper carbonate + hydrochloric acid →
4. copper carbonate + sulfuric acid →
5. magnesium carbonate + hydrochloric acid →
6. ammonium carbonate + nitric acid →
7. sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid →
8. copper carbonate + nitric acid → Fun fact
9. zinc carbonate + sulfuric acid →
Carbonated drinks can
10. lead carbonate + hydrochloric acid → become addictive in the
11. ammonium carbonate + sulfuric acid → same way as alcohol and
other drugs. The body
12. potassium carbonate + nitric acid → comes to want both the
13. magnesium carbonate + nitric acid → caffeine and the sugar
hit provided by such
14. lead carbonate + sulfuric acid → drinks.
211
Form 3
Acid–metal We are learning how to:

acids
• identify the gas evolved from an
acid–metal reaction.
Acid–metal reactions
Activity 9.13
a)
What happens when acids react with metals?
• rack of labelled test tubes, each containing a metal:
aluminium, magnesium, copper, zinc, lead
• acid.
SAFETY
Observe the name and the safety icon on the
acid bottle.
1. Take out each metal, observe it and replace it in the
test tube.
2. Pour some acid onto each metal, shake gently, then feel b)
the outside of the test tube. Look for any reaction and
record any observations you make.
3. You can report your findings as a group. Did each metal
react the same way to the different acids?
4. With which ones was there effervescence? What does
effervescence indicate?
Metals react differently in dilute acids. Some metals show no
reaction. However, when there is a reaction, effervescence
occurs.
FIG 9.19 Reactions between metals
and acids:
a) zinc and acid
b) magnesium and acid
Activity 9.14
To discover which gas is evolved during an acid–metal reaction
This is a demonstration lesson. You are to observe carefully.
9.12
• metal and acid that gave the best effervescence from Activity 9.13
• conical flask
• stopper
• BUNSEN BURNER
• splint.
1. Put the metal into a conical flask, add the acid carefully and put the
stopper in to collect the gas.
2. Remove the stopper from the flask and bring a lighted splint over it.
3. What did you observe?
When a lighted splint comes into contact with hydrogen in
the air, it produces a squeaky pop. This is because hydrogen
is an explosive gas. Hydrogen is the only gas that reacts that
way with a flame.
The gas evolved from the reaction of acids and metals is
hydrogen.
When an acid reacts with a metal, neutralisation occurs.
The products of this neutralisation are hydrogen and a salt.
Unlike the other neutralisations, it is not possible for water
to be produced because there are no available oxygen ions
to bond with the hydrogen.
Copy and complete these equations:
1. calcium + sulfuric acid →
2. lead + nitric acid → Fun fact
3. aluminium + sulfuric acid →
4. zinc + hydrochloric acid → Hydrogen is the least
dense gas. In the past,
5. magnesium + hydrochloric acid → hot air balloons were
6. aluminium + nitric acid → filled with hydrogen.
7. sodium + sulfuric acid → However, because of the
risk of explosions the
8. copper + nitric acid → use of hydrogen was
9. zinc + sulfuric acid → discontinued and helium
10. lead + hydrochloric acid → is now used to fill the
balloons.
213
Form 3
Formulae of acids
and alkalis
What makes an acid?
Hydrochloric acid consists of a solution of the gas hydrogen
chloride (HCl). Hydrogen chloride gas is a simple covalent
compound but when it dissolves in water it forms ions.
HCl (gas) ⇒ H+ + Cl− (in aqueous solution) Fun fact
The important ion is the hydrogen ion, H+. It is the presence Sulfuric acid is described
of this ion in aqueous solution which is common to all acids. as a dibasic acid
Here are the ions present in nitric acid and sulfuric acid. because it provides two
HNO3 ⇒ H + NO3
+ − H2SO4 ⇒ 2H + SO4
+ 2− hydrogen ions
When we use an indicator to test if a solution is acidic or not
we are actually testing for the presence of hydrogen ions.
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid are strong
acids because they produce a high concentration of
hydrogen ions in solution and turn universal indicator red.
Some acids produce much lower concentrations
of hydrogen ions when in aqueous solution.
These are called weak acids.
Vinegar contains a weak acid called ethanoic
acid. Citrus fruit, like lemons, all contain a weak
acid called citric acid.
Weak acids are much less dangerous and corrosive Ethanoic
acid
Citric acid Tartaric acid
than strong acids. The food we eat contains a FIG 9.20 Sources of some weak acids
number of weak acids.
What makes an alkali?
The chemical opposite of an acid is a base. Bases which are
soluble in water are called alkalis.
Sodium hydroxide is a common laboratory alkali. Here is
what happens when we dissolve sodium hydroxide in water.
Na+OH− (solid) ⇒ Na+ + OH− (in aqueous solution)
The important ion is the hydroxide ion, OH−. It is the
presence of this ion in aqueous solution which is common to
all alkalis. Here are the ions present in potassium hydroxide.
KOH ⇒ K+ + OH−
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are strong
alkalis. They produce high concentrations of hydroxide ions
in solution and turn universal indicator purple.
9.13
As was the case with acids, there are some weak alkalis
which still produce hydroxide ions in solution, but in much
lower concentrations.
Ammonia is a gas which has the chemical formula NH3. Here
is what happens when it dissolves in water.
NH3 + H2O ⇒ NH4+ + OH−
Lime water, which we use to test for carbon dioxide gas, is a
solution of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
Ca(OH)2 ⇒ Ca2+ + 2OH−
Both of these substances produce low concentrations of
hydroxide ions, OH−.
ammonium hydroxide calcium
(aqueous ammonia) hydroxide
Activity 9.15 FIG 9.21 Sources of some weak alkalis
Identifying acids and alkalis in everyday life
You should work in a group of 3 or 4 for this activity.
There are a number of products we use every day that
are acids or alkalis. Carry out research into products that
contain acids and alkalis. Make a list in which, for each
product, you give:
• its name
• whether it contains an acid or an alkali
• the formula of the acid or alkali if you can find it
• whether it is a strong or weak acid/alkali

1. Here is what happens to aluminium ions when
aluminium sulfate is dissolved in water.
[Al(H2O)6]3+ ⇒ [Al(H2O)5OH]2+ + H+ Key terms
Would you expect a solution of aluminium sulfate to hydrogen ion the ion
be acidic or alkaline? Explain your answer. formed by all acids in
2. Here is what happens to carbonate ions when sodium aqueous solution
carbonate is dissolved in water. base chemical opposite
CO32− + H2O ⇒ HCO3− + OH− of an acid
Would you expect a solution of sodium carbonate to alkali base that is soluble
be acidic or alkaline? Explain your answer. in water
215
Review of Acids and alkalis
• Acids are chemical substances that have a sour taste.
• Alkalis are chemical substances that conduct electricity and have a soapy feel when
diluted.
• Both acids and alkalis are identified by the use of indicators made from special dyes.
• There are a variety of indicators used for identifying acidity or alkalinity.
• Universal indicator gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity using a range of colours
numbered from 0 to 14.
• The midpoint on the universal indicator is green and indicates neutrality (pH 7).
• Carbon dioxide is a gas that can form a weak acid.
• Bases form a set of chemicals that include oxides, hydroxides and carbonates.
• Acids and bases can neutralise each other to form new products.
acid + oxide → salt + water
acid + hydroxide → salt + water
acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
• Acids also react with metals to form neutral products.
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
• In order to identify a gas, it must be tested.
• CO2 changes calcium hydroxide (limewater) to a white precipitate.
• H2 explodes when placed near a flame, producing a squeaky pop.
• A salt is named after the reactants from which it was formed.
• Hydrochloric acid forms chlorides.
• Nitric acid forms nitrates.
• Sulfuric acid forms sulfates.
• Ammonia is a positive ion that takes part in chemical reactions.
• All acids release hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solution.
• Alkalis are soluble bases.
• All alkalis release hydroxide ions, OH−, in aqueous solution.
Review questions on Acids and alkalis
1. You have found a substance. Explain and give the results of three sets of tests you
would carry out to discover whether the substance is acidic or alkaline.
2. Explain what you would do to determine how strong an acid or an alkali is.
3. When an acid neutralises a base, are the products acidic or alkaline?
4. Outline the steps you would follow to show that the result of neutralisation is a salt.
5. Complete the sentences by filling in the blanks below.
Salts made from
a) hydrochloric acid are ___________________.
b) nitric acid are _________________.
c) sulfuric acid are _________________.
6. During a reaction there is vigorous effervescence. Describe what you would do to
conclude whether the gas evolved was carbon dioxide or hydrogen.
7. Show four different ways in which you can produce zinc nitrate.
8. Copy and complete the following chemical equations:
a) zinc hydroxide + sulfuric acid →
b) magnesium carbonate + nitric acid →
c) aluminium hydroxide + sulfuric acid →
d) copper oxide + nitric acid →
e) lead + sulfuric acid →
f) sodium + hydrochloric acid →
g) aqueous ammonia + sulfuric acid →
h) potassium + nitric acid →
i) zinc carbonate + hydrochloric acid →
j) copper carbonate + nitric acid →
k) copper hydroxide + sulfuric acid →
l) lead hydroxide + nitric acid →
m) potassium carbonate + sulfuric acid →
n) magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
217
Science in practice
Measuring soil acidity

to improve yield
Mrs Whittaker’s house has a small backyard
garden in which she grows vegetables.
Mrs Whittaker grows vegetables with mixed
success. She notices that some vegetables grow
well while others do not but she doesn’t know
why. When she discussed this with another
gardener in her community Mrs Whittaker was
told that the pH of her soil was an important
issue when deciding which vegetables to grow
but she doesn’t understand what this means.
You are Mrs Whittaker’s nephews and nieces
and she has turned to you for help. FIG 9.22 Mrs Whittaker has a vegetable garden
1. You are going to work in a group of 3 or 4
to investigate soil pH. The tasks are:
• to research about soil pH testing kits
• to devise a method of measuring the pH of soil samples
• to measure the pH of the soil in a garden
• to research the best pH range for growing different vegetables and to recommend
the best vegetables to plant in the garden
• to research the use of lime to reduce the pH of soil and calculate the amount of
lime needed to reduce the pH of the garden soil by a given amount.
a) Take a look at soil pH testing kits for sale in your local garden centre or on the Internet.
Each kit contains
• instruction booklet
• pH colour chart
• plastic mixing plate
• plastic mixing rod
• pH dye indicator liquid bottle
• barium sulfate powder bottle. FIG 9.23 Soil pH test kit
Read the information on the box to see what they contain and how they work.
Use your knowledge of acid-alkali indicators and pH, and the information you obtain
from the soil testing kits to devise a way of measuring the pH of soil.
Test the accuracy of your method by checking your results against those obtained with a
pH meter.
b) You might investigate the soil in the garden of one group
member or your teacher might divide up a plot of land and Science in practice
assign one part to each group.
Plan how you will measure the pH of the soil in the garden or
given area of ground. You should consider such factors as:
• How many samples will you take?
• From which parts of the garden will you take your samples?
• How will you display your results?
• How will you use your results to provide an overall pH value for the soil in the
garden?
c) The availability of different nutrients essential for plant 4ac4.5id 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 a9.510 lkalin
growth depends on the pH of the soil. nitrogen
For example, if the pH of soil falls below pH 6 plants find phosphorous
it very difficult to obtain phosphorus from the soil. Plants potassium
that need a lot of phosphorus will do badly in soil with a sulfur
pH less than 6. calcium
Research into which vegetables grow well in soils that magnesium
have different pH values. Make a list of vegetables that iron
grow best in acid soils. Make another list of vegetables manganese
that grow best in alkaline soils. Is there a range of pH boron
values of soils in which all vegetables grow well? copper & zinc
Recommend which vegetables would be best suited to molybdenum
the soil in the garden. ammonium
d) Lime is a common name for several chemicals including 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.510
FIG 9.24 The wider the band the
calcium carbonate. easier it is for the nutrient to be
Investigate the effect of calcium carbonate on acids and absorbed
explain the effect that adding calcium carbonate to soil
has on its pH value.
e) Research how lime is used to reduce the pH
of soil. Calculate how much lime per square
metre would need to be added to the garden
soil to reduce its pH value by 1 unit.
f) Give a PowerPoint presentation to the class on
what you have found out about soil pH and
the advice you will be able to pass on to Mrs
Whittaker. Your presentation should include a
demonstration of how you measure the pH of
a sample of soil.
g) Plant some of the vegetables that you
have recommended and cultivate them to
see if they grow well. This will help you to FIG 9.25 Raking lime into the soil
determine whether your advice was accurate
or not.
219
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f or t represent figures or tables respectively.
A sharing electrons, 180–181
absorb, 142, 143 stable, 171
aciclovir, for herpes treatment, 26 avoidance, of STD/STI, 31
acid-carbonate reactions, 208–211 B
acid-metal reactions, 212–213 bar magnets, 115f, 118f
acid-oxide reactions, 206–207 bases, 214, 215
acids, 190–191 battery, 90, 90f, 91
defined, 193 car, 93
formulae of, 214–215 composed of several cells, 96, 96f
identification of, 192–193 fruit, 91, 91f
reaction with alkalis, 200–201 beam, 138, 138f, 139
strength of, 194–195 biodegradable waste, 43, 66–67
weak, 214 biodiversity, 43, 56, 57, 58–59, 75
Africanised honey bees, 42f Black-throated mango humming bird
AIDS. see HIV/AIDS (Anthracothorax nigricollis), 58f
Al-Haythan, Ibn, 141 black wattle acacia tree, 52f, 53
alkalis, 190–191 blood transfusion, and HIV/AIDS, 34, 34f, 35
acid reation with, 200–201 body fluids, 30, 31
formulae of, 214–215 body metabolism, 6
identification of, 196–197 bonding, and physical properties, 186–187
strength of, 198–199 Bowman’s capsule, 9
alloy, 117
ammeter, 94, 94f, 95 C
ammonia, 11, 215 calcium hydroxide, 191
ampere (amp, symbol A), 94, 95 car battery, 93
analogue ammeter, 94, 94f carbonate, acid reaction with, 208–211
angle of incidence, 152, 153 carbon dioxide, 10, 193
angle of reflection, 152, 153 acid-carbonate reaction and, 208
antibiotics, 29 Caroni Swamp, 55
for chlamydia treatment, 26 cells, 90, 90f, 91
for gonorrhoea treatment, 28 and lamps, 92–93
for syphilis treatment, 29 symbol for, 96
antiviral drug, 26, 27 cervix, 21
apparent depth, 156–157, 156f chemical bonding, 169
appliances, electrical, 95 chemical formula, 173
argon, 168, 168f chlamydia, 26, 27
armature, 129 Chlamydia trachomatis, 26f
Asian green mussel, 53, 53f chromosomes, 50, 51
atmosphere, 64, 65 circuit breaker, 129, 129f
atmospheric pollution, 48, 49 circuits, 84, 84f, 90–91, 91f
atoms, 168, 169, 170 constructing from circuits diagrams, 98–99, 98f
in ionic bonding, 175 parallel. see parallel circuits
220 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Index

series. see series circuits egestion, and excretion, 7, 7f
symbols, 96–97, 96f electric bell, 128, 128f
circuits diagrams, 85, 85f, 96, 96f, 97 electric current. see current
constructing circuits from, 98–99, 98f electricity
citric acid, 193 circuit diagrams, 85, 85f
clinic, 31 circuits, 84, 84f, 90–91, 91f
Columbus, Christopher, 28, 28f conductors, 84, 84f, 86–87
communicable diseases, of reproductive systems. see current, 85, 85f, 94–95
sexually transmitted disease/infection (STD/STI) insulators, 84, 84f, 86–87
components, electric circuit diagram, 96, 97 parallel circuits, 85
compounds, naming, 173 and safety, 88–89
concentration, 12, 13, 65 series circuits, 85
condoms, 25, 25f, 30–31, 30f electromagnetism, 125
conductors, 84, 84f, 86–87 electromagnets, 115, 124–125, 125f
metallic structure, 87, 87f permanent magnets and, 128–129
conventional current flow, 91 strength of, 126–127
converging lens, 155, 155f electron flow, 91
converging rays, 138, 138f, 139 electronic configuration, 168
copper oxide, 207 electrons, 87, 187
cortex, 8 atoms sharing, 180–181
covalent bonding, 180–181, 180f, 181f gaining/losing different number of, 174–175
covalent compounds, 186, 187 gaining/losing same number of, 170–171
crisscross method, 178–179 embryo, 16, 17f
current, 85, 85f emergency vehicles, 152, 152f
direction of, 91f endangered, plants/animals, 54, 55
magnetic effect of, 122–123, 122f, 123f environment, human activities and, 42–45
measurement, 94–95 biodiversity, 43, 56, 57, 58–59
D deforestation, 43, 56–57
decomposer, 66, 67 global warming, 43, 62–63
deforestation, 43, 56–57 GM crops, 42, 50–51, 50f
dehydrated, 12, 13 greenhouse effect, 43, 64–65, 64f
dialysis, 8, 9 IAS, 42, 52–53, 52–53f
diatomic molecules, 182–183 industrialisation, 48–49
Dicliptera aripoensis, 58f nature reserves, 43, 54–55, 54–55f
digital ammeter, 94, 94f threatened species, 60–61. see also
dispersion, light, 137, 158–159, 158f specific species
diverging lens, 155, 155f urbanisation, 46–47
diverging rays, 138, 138f, 139 waste, 66–67
double insulated, 89 epididymis, 18
droughts, 62, 63 ethanoic acid, 214
drug addicts, and HIV/AIDS, 34, 35 excretion, 6–7
egestion and, 7, 7f
E by kidneys. see kidneys
earth wire, 89 in lungs, 10–11, 10f
eclipses, 137 organs responsible for, 6, 7f
lunar, 150–151, 151f through skin, 12, 12f
solar, 148–149, 149f extended light source, 146, 147
shadows created by, 146f
221
F hydroxide ion, 215
fallopian tubes, 21 hydroxides, 197, 205
female reproductive system, 17f, 20–21, 20f I
frosted glass, 143, 143f IAS. see invasive alien species (IAS)
fruit battery, 91, 91f image, 140, 141
G indicators, for acid identifications, 193
genes, 50, 51 indigestion, 201
genetically modified (GM) crops, 42, 50–51, 50f industrialisation, 48–49
world’s leading producers of, 51 insulators, 84, 84f, 86–87
genetic engineering, 50, 50f, 51 International Union for Conservation of Nature, 61
giant covalent compounds, 187 invasive alien species (IAS), 42, 52–53, 52–53f
global warming, 43, 62–63, 65f inverted object, 141
glomerulus, 8 ionic bonding, 171, 175
GM crops. see genetically modified (GM) crops of sodium chloride, 171, 171f, 173, 173f
Golden Tree frog (Amphodus auratus), 59 ionic compounds, 186, 187
gonorrhoea, 28, 28f ions, 187
gravitational field, 139 formation of, 170–173
green/common iguana, 58f where electron loss/gain are different, 176–177
greenhouse effect, 43, 64–65, 64f K
greenhouse gases, 64, 65 kidneys
H position of, 8, 8f
habitats, 54, 55 structure of, 8–9, 8f
helium, 168, 168f and water balancing, 12–13
herpes, 24, 26, 27 L
HIV/AIDS, 29, 32–33, 32f lamps
living with, 36–37 cells and, 92–93
symptoms of, 33 representation in circuit diagrams, symbols for, 97
ways of contracting, 34–35 in series circuit, 100–101, 100f
horseshoe magnet, 115f, 118f lateral inversion, 152, 153
HPV. see human papilloma virus (HPV) latex gloves, 35
human activities, and environment, 42–45 law of magnetic poles, 118–119
biodiversity, 43, 56, 57, 58–59 lenses, 155, 155f
deforestation, 43, 56–57 light
global warming, 43, 62–63 dispersion, 137, 158–159, 158f
GM crops, 42, 50–51, 50f rays, 136, 138–139, 138f, 139f
greenhouse effect, 43, 64–65, 64f reflection, 137, 152–153, 152f
IAS, 42, 52–53, 52–53f refraction, 137, 154–155, 154f
industrialisation, 48–49 and shadows, 137, 144–145
nature reserves, 43, 54–55, 54–55f transparent/translucent/opaque material,
threatened species, 60–61. see also specific species 136–137, 142–143, 143f
urbanisation, 46–47 light rays, 157
waste, 66–67 like poles, 119
human papilloma virus (HPV), 26, 27 lime water, 215
hydrochloric acid, 214 local environment, improving, 74–75, 82–83
hydrogen chloride (HCl), 214 lodestone, 114, 114f, 116, 116f
hydrogen ion, 214, 215 lunar eclipse, 150–151, 151f

lungs neutralisation, 201, 202–203, 202f, 203f
excretion in, 10–11 acid-carbonate equations, 210–211
structure of, 10f products of, 204–205
M nichrome wire, 95
magnetic effect of current, 122–123, 122f, 123f non-biodegradable waste, 43, 66–67
magnetic field lines, 120–121, 121f non-magnetic materials, 114, 116–117
around solenoid, 123, 123f North Pole, 62, 62f, 63
for unlike poles, 121, 121f O
magnetic field strength, 121 object, image of, 141
magnetic materials, 114, 116–117 ocellated gecko, 54f
magnetic poles, law of, 118–119 ocelots, 60, 60f
magnetic strip, debit/credit cards, 127, 127f opaque material, 136–137, 142–143, 142f
magnetism, 114–115, 115f optical density, 154, 155
magnetite. see lodestone ova, 16, 20, 21
magnets, 115, 115f ovaries, 20, 20f, 21
bar, 115f, 118f overfishing, 49
horseshoe, 115f, 118f ovulation, 20, 21
permanent, 117, 117f P
Main Ridge Forest Reserve, 54, 54f parallel circuits, 85
Malachite butterfly connecting components in, 102–103, 102–103f
(Siproea stelenes), 58f
male reproductive system, 17f, 18–19, 18f parallel rays, 138, 138f, 139
Matura National Park, 54, 54f pawi, 60, 60f
medulla, 8 penicillin, 29
melting points, metal, 186, 187 penis, 18, 19
metallic bonding, 184–185 penumbra, 146, 147
metal oxides, 206, 207 permanent magnets, 117, 117f
metals and electromagnets, 128–129
acid reaction with, 212–213 pesticides, 49
demand for, 72 pH, 195
physical properties, 186–187 physical properties, bonding and, 186–187
structure of, 87, 87f pinhole camera, 140–141
model doll house, lighting, 112–113 pink mealy bug, 52, 52f
monoculture, 59 plastics, biodegradable, 66
multimeter, 94, 95 plugs, 88–89
point light source, 146, 147
N shadows created by, 146f
Nariva Swamp, 55, 55f poles, magnet, 118, 119
national parks, 54, 55 like, 119
natural processes, 44, 45 unlike, 119, 121, 121f
natural resources, exploitation of, 42 pollution atmospheric, 48, 49
nature reserves, 43, 54–55, 54–55f water, 49
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 28f, 29 population, 44, 45
neon, 168, 168f demands on environment, 45
nephrons, 8 potential difference, 93
structure of, 8–9, 9f predators, 52, 53
pregnancy, and HIV/AIDS, 34
223
prisms, 155, 155f shadows, 137, 144–145
puppets, shadow, 145 created by point light source, 146, 146f
R partial and full, 146–147
rainbows, 160–161, 160f skin, excretion through, 12, 12f
double, 161 sockets, 88
formation of, 161f sodium chloride, ionic bonding of, 171, 171f, 173, 173f
rare, plants/animals, 54, 55 sodium hydroxide, 214–215
rays, light, 136, 138–139, 138f, 139f, 157 soil acidity, measurement of, 218–219
real depth, 156–157, 156f solar eclipse, 148–149, 149f
rectilinear propagation, 139, 139f solenoid, 129
recycle, to reduce waste, 43, 69, 72–73 magnetic field lines around, 123, 123f
recycle points, 72, 73 sperm duct, 18, 19
red palm mite, 53, 53f sperms, 16, 17f, 18, 19
reduce, 43, 68, 69 stable atoms, 171
reflection, 137, 152–153, 152f Sturgeon, William, 125
refraction, 137, 154–155, 154f sugar cane, 53
refractive index, 154, 155, 157 sulfuric acid 214
relay, 129, 129f effects of contact with, 191f
reproduction, 16–17, 17f sweat gland, 11, 12
reproductive systems sweat/sweating, 11, 12
communicable diseases of. see sexually symbols, circuits, 96–97, 96f
transmitted disease/infection (STD/STI) syndrome, 33
female, 17f, 20–21, 20f syphilis, 24
male, 17f, 18–19, 18f developmental stages, 28–29
residue, 203, 203f T
respiration, 10, 11 testes, 18, 19
reuse, to reduce waste, 43, 69, 70–71 structure of, 19f
rural environment, 46, 47 titration, 202f, 203
S translucent material, 136–137, 142–143, 142f
safety, electricity and, 88–89 transparent material, 136–137, 142–143, 142f
saliva, 197 trichomoniasis, 27
salt, 203 U
names of, 204 Ultrafiltration, 8, 9
Scarlet peacock butterfly (Anartia amathea), 58f umbra, 146, 147
scrotum, 18, 19 universal indicators, 195
selective reabsorption, 8, 9 and strength of alkalis, 199, 199f
series circuits, 85 unlike poles, 119
connecting components in, 100–101, 100–101f magnetic field lines for, 121, 121f
sexually transmitted disease/infection (STD/STI), unprotected sexual intercourse, and HIV/AIDS, 34
24–25 urbanisation, 46–47
avoidance of, 31 urea, 10, 11
chlamydia, 26, 27 ureter, 8, 9
gonorrhoea, 28, 28f urethra, 21urine, 8, 12
herpes, 24, 26, 27 uterus, 21
HIV/AIDS, 29
syphilis, 24, 28–29
transmission and prevention of, 30–31

V steps to reduce, 43, 68–69. see also recycle, to reduce
vagina, 21 waste; reuse, to reduce waste
valency, 178–179 waste products, 6, 6t, 10
vasectomy, 19 water, 10
vinegar, 214 balancing, 12–13
visible spectrum, 158, 159 pollution, 49
volts (V), 93 weak acids, 214
West Indian manatee, 60–61, 60f
W white-fronted capuchin monkeys, 61, 61f
waste white light, 158, 159
biodegradable, 43, 66–67
non-biodegradable, 43, 66–67
225
Acknowledgements
pp6: crystal light/Shutterstock, pp6: Per-Anders Pettersson/Getty Images, pp9: Ian Miles-Flashpoint Pictures / Alamy Stock Photo, pp12: Geber86/E+/Getty
Images, pp12: GLYN KIRK/AFP/Getty Images, pp13: SSPL/Getty Images, pp16–17: Christian/Darkin//Science Photo Library, pp16: Robert Fried/Alamy, pp17:
MedicalRF.com/Getty Images, pp17: Dr G. Moscoso/Science Photo Library, pp17: Sebastian Kaulitzki/Science Photo Library/Corbis, pp17: Sebastian Kaulitzki/
Science Photo Library/Corbis, pp24–25: BSIP/UIG/Getty Images, pp24: Kristoffer Tripplaar/ Alamy, pp24: Zoltan Kiraly/Shutterstock, pp25: Scott Camazine/
Sue Trainor/Science Photo Library, pp26: Dr. David Phillips/Visuals Unlimited/Corbis, pp27: D. Phillips/Science Photo Library, pp28: Cavallini James/Bsip/Science
Photo Library, pp28: Eric SA House – Carle/Getty Images, pp30: Stickney Design/Getty Images, pp30: Catherine Lane/iStockphoto, pp32: Science Photo
Library – Mehau Kulykm Getty Images, pp34: Li Wa/Shutterstock, pp34: David Young-Wolff/Getty Images, pp35: Liba Taylor/Alamy, pp35: Wavebreakmedia/
Shutterstock, pp37: Thony Belizaire/Staff/Getty Images, pp42–43: Gary Whitton/Shutterstock, pp42: Jamesbenet/Istockphoto, pp42: Michael Meshcheryakov/
Shutterstock, pp44: A-plus image bank/Alamy, pp44: Joe Raedle/Staff/Getty Images, pp46: Harvey Meston/Staff/Getty Images, pp46: David Cumming/Eye
Ubiquitous/Corbis, pp47: Caribbean Photo Archive/Alamy, pp47: Jaysunlp/Istockphoto, pp48: Dbimages/Alamy, pp48: Tigergallery/Shutterstock, pp48: Michael
Macor/San Francisco Chronicle/San Francisco/Corbis, pp49: Raisman/Shutterstock, pp50: Family Business/Shutterstock, pp51: Erik de Castro/Reuters, pp52:
Uk Crown Copyright Courtesy Of Fera/Science Photo Library, pp52: Kokkai Ng/Istockphoto, pp53: Visuals Unlimited, Inc./Science Stills/ARS/Getty Images,
pp53: Amawasri/iStockphoto, pp53: Age fotostock/Alamy, pp54: FLPA/David Warren/Rex Features, pp54: Francesco De Marco/Shutterstock, pp55: Athens
2004/Alamy, pp56: Landrin Valérie/Alamy, pp56: Brent Davis/Shutterstock, pp57: Photoshot Holdings Ltd/Alamy, pp57: Planet Observer/UIG/Getty Images,
pp58: Dr Keith Wheeler/Science Photo Library, pp58: Fredrik Forsberg/Alamy, pp58: Magdanatka/Shutterstock, pp58: M.H. Sharp/Science Photo Library, pp58:
Dr. Morley Read/Science Photo Library, pp59: Dan Tautan/Shutterstock, pp59: Israel Hervas Bengochea/Shutterstock, pp59: Mike Cherim/Istockphoto, pp59:
Derek Trask/Getty Images, pp60: FLPA/Rex Features, pp60: Miropa/iStockphoto, pp60: Kipling Brock/Shutterstock, pp61: Bob Wickham/Getty Images, pp62:
Nouk/iStockphoto, pp62: Premraj K.P/Alamy, pp63: David Parsons/Istockphoto, pp66: David Nunuk/Science Photo Library, pp67: Kentoh/Shutterstock, pp67:
Fabien Monteil/Shutterstock, pp69: arctic ice/Shutterstock, pp69: Jeff Greenberg/Alamy, pp69: Dburke/Alamy, pp70: hidesy/Shutterstock, pp70: Matka Wariatka/
Shutterstock, pp71: Natalia Siverina/Shutterstock, pp72: Member/Shutterstock, pp73: Awe Inspiring Images/Shutterstock, pp73: Razvy/Shutterstock, pp73: Rob
Byron/Shutterstock, pp74: Onair/Shutterstock, pp74: Douglas Orton/Spaces Images/Corbis, pp75: Rj lerich/Shutterstock, pp82: Pulsar Images/Alamy Stock
Photo, pp82: PJF Military Collection/Alamy Stock Photo, pp83: Rawdon Wyatt/Alamy Stock Photo, pp84–85: Kodda/Shutterstock, pp84: Indianstockimages/
Shutterstock, pp84: George Tiedemann/GT Images/Corbis, pp85: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, pp85: Tarzhanova/Shutterstock, pp85:
Sommai damrongpanich/Shutterstock, pp88: PhotoSerg/Shutterstock, pp88: PhotoSerg/Shutterstock, pp89: John Kasawa/Shutterstock, pp89: Krivoshein Igor
Alexandrovich/Shutterstock, pp89: Sue yassin/Shutterstock, pp90: Volodymyr Krasyuk/Shutterstock, pp90: Paddington/Shutterstock, pp94: Sciencephotos/
Alamy, pp94: Prasolov Alexei/Shutterstock, pp114–115: Africa Studio/Shutterstock, pp112: Thomas Holt/Shutterstock, pp112: AndjeiV/Shutterstock, pp113:
Kelly Marjen/Shutterstock, pp113: Margo Harrison/Shutterstock, pp114: Sciencephotos/Alamy, pp115: BanksPhotos/iStockphoto, pp115: Matthew Cole/
Shutterstock, pp115: Revers/Shutterstock, pp115: Andrea Paggiaro/Shutterstock, pp116: Phil Degginger/Alamy, pp117: Fedorov Oleksiy/Shutterstock, pp117:
Peter Sobolev/Shutterstock, pp119: Terekhov igor/Shutterstock, pp121: Cordelia Molloy/Science Photo Library, pp125: Toshkaanvi/iStockphoto, pp125: Science
& Society Picture Library/Getty Images, pp127: Gomolach/iStockphoto, pp129: Strelov/Shutterstock, pp136–137: Pakhnyushchy/Shutterstock, pp136: Elenamiv/
Shutterstock, pp136: LatitudeStock – Ian Brierley/Getty Images, pp136: Juriah Mosin/Shutterstock, pp137: Zvezdica/iStockphoto, pp142: Lester Balajadia/
Shutterstock, pp142: Karin Hildebrand Lau/Shutterstock, pp142: Goldnetz/Shutterstock, pp143: Norma Cornes/Shutterstock, pp143: Peter Mukherjee/
iStockphoto, pp144: Idea Images/Getty Images, pp145: Katrina.Happy/Shutterstock, pp148: Lekcej/iStockphoto, pp149: Stocktrek Images/Getty Images,
pp149: Teekid/iStockphoto, pp151: Worldswildlifewonders/Shutterstock, pp151: Thomas Nord/Shutterstock, pp152: Helene Rogers/Art Directors/Trip/Alamy,
pp153: Bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock, pp155: Baevskiy Dmitry/Shutterstock, pp160: Andrew Koturanov/Shutterstock, pp161: Mikhail Varentsov/Shutterstock,
pp168–169: Mr. High Sky/Shutterstock, pp168: Shahril KHMD/Shutterstock, pp168: Dwphotos/Shutterstock, pp168: Mikeledray/Shutterstock, pp169: Aaron
Amat/Shutterstock, pp169: Modustollens/Shutterstock, pp175: PanicAttack/Shutterstock, pp177: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, pp186:
ConstantinosZ/Shutterstock, pp190–191: R. Gino Santa Maria/Shutterstock, pp190: Svitlana-ua/Shutterstock, pp190: Gts/Shutterstock, pp191: Dr P. Marazzi/
Science Photo Library, pp191: Stockphoto mania/Shutterstock, pp194: Coprid/Essentials collection/iStockphoto, pp194: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo
Library, “pp194: Pulse/Fuse/Getty Images,” pp195: Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, pp197: Giphotostock/Science Photo Library, pp199: Andrew
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, pp204: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, pp205: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
Photo Library, pp209: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, pp209: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, pp211: Andrew Lambert
Photography/Science Photo Library, pp212: Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, pp212: Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, pp214: BlueRingMedia/
Shutterstock, pp214: AlenKadr/Shutterstock, pp214: Roman Tiraspolsky/Shutterstock, pp215: MARTYN F. CHILLMAID/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, pp215:
TREVOR CLIFFORD PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, pp218: Ivonne Wierink/Shutterstock, pp218: R Ann Kautzky / Alamy Stock Photo, pp219:
Koliadzynska Iryna/Shutterstock.
226 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Acknowledgements

Complete course coverage
and support for CSEC®
Support your students with:

• Comprehensive coverage of the latest CSEC® Biology,
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Excellent practice for the multiple-choice questions

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• Authentic CSEC®-style multiple choice questions
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providing comprehensive practice of all topics
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Collins CSEC® Biology Workbook Collins CSEC® Chemistry Workbook

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About the Publisher
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Integrated Science 3 for the Caribbean
Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to
the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to
help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’s books and
accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in
science ready for their studies at CSEC® level.
• Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean
• Clear and accessible explanations of each topic
• Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life
• Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress
with quick questions
• Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used
• Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding
• End-of-section questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the units
• Accompanying workbooks for each level provide opportunities for written activities
and homework and help students consolidate learning
Integrated Science range:
or the Caribbean
Integrated Integrated Science 1 for the Caribbean
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated
2 2 3 leumaS eneG koobkroW naebbiraC eht rof 3 ecneicS detargetnI
3
leumaS eneG koobkroW naebbiraC eht rof 2 ecneicS detargetnI
leumaS eneG koobkroW naebbiraC eht rof 1 ecneicS detargetnI
1 1
naebbiraC eht rof 2 ecneicS detargetnI

Workbook Workbook Workbook
Science Science Science Science Science Science

ctivity-led course set in contexts relevant to Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to
ywhere. It has been specially developed to the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to
. The course provides student’s books and help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’s books and help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’s books and Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to
e all students gain a strong foundation in Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in Collins Integrated Science for the Caribbean is a brand-new activity-led course set in contexts relevant to accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in
the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to science ready for their studies at CSEC® level. the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to science ready for their studies at CSEC® level. the Caribbean and suitable for lower secondary students everywhere. It has been specially developed to
help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’s books and help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’ s books and help students develop the skills they need for success in science. The course provides student’s books and
accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in • Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in • Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean accompanying workbooks for forms 1, 2 and 3 and will ensure all students gain a strong foundation in
science ready for their studies at CSEC® level. science ready for their studies at CSEC® level. science ready for their studies at CSEC® level.
• Clear and accessible explanations of each topic • Clear and accessible explanations of each topic
bring science to life • Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean • Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life • Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean • Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life • Developed and written specifically for the Caribbean
for the Caribbean for the Caribbean for the Caribbean for the Caribbean for the Caribbean for the Caribbean
udents to check progress • Clear and accessible explanations of each topic • Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress • Clear and accessible explanations of each topic • Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress • Clear and accessible explanations of each topic
• Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life with quick questions • Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life with quick questions • Practical activities throughout to engage students and to bring science to life
e they are used • Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress • Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used • Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress • Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used • Check your understanding sections allow teachers and students to check progress
elp broaden students’ understanding with quick questions • Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding with quick questions • Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding with quick questions
erstood the ideas in the units • Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used • End-of-section questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the units • Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used • End-of-section questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the units • Key terms highlighted and explained on the pages where they are used
unities for written activities • Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding • Accompanying workbooks for each level provide opportunities for written activities • Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding • Accompanying workbooks for each level provide opportunities for written activities • Fun facts boxes provide extra facts and information to help broaden students’ understanding
• End-of-unit questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the unit and homework and help students consolidate learning • End-of-unit questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the unit and homework and help students consolidate learning • End-of-unit questions to check that students have understood the ideas in the unit
• Accompanying workbooks for each level provide opportunities for written activities • Accompanying workbooks for each level provide oppor tunities for written activities • Accompanying workbooks for each level provide opportunities for written activities
and homework and help students consolidate learning and homework and help students consolidate learning and homework and help students consolidate learning
elganoMcM kereD & leumaS eneG

www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools www.collins.co.uk/caribbeanschools

ISBN 978-0-00-826303-4 ISBN 978-0-00-826304-1
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Workbook Gene Samuel & Derek McMonagle
Workbook Gene Samuel & Derek McMonagle
Workbook
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Advisors: Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers, Advisors: Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers, Advisors: Shameem Narine, Nadine Victor-Ayers,
Ishaq Mohammed, Sheldon Rivas & Doltan Ramsubeik Gene Samuel9 780008 263034
Ishaq Mohammed, Sheldon Rivas & Doltan Ramsubeik Gene Samuel9 780008 263041
Ishaq Mohammed, Sheldon Rivas & Doltan Ramsubeik Gene Samuel
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978-0-00-826308-9 978-0-00-826305-8 978-0-00-826303-4 978-0-00-826306-5 978-0-00-826304-1 978-0-00-826307-2

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Integrated Science 1 Workbook.indd 1 21/5/17 10:41 pm Integrated Science 2 Workbook.indd 1 21/5/17 10:43 pm Integrated Science 3 Workbook.indd 1 21/5/17 10:38 pm

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Introduction – How to use this book 4

Industry This tells you what you

The book has plenty of

The populations of some sea animals, such as shrimp and

48 Integrated Science for the Caribbean Student’s Book 3: Unit 4: Environmentall im

At the end of each section there

you and your teacher review

your knowledge, and see if you

the science skills that you have

Improving your local environment

carbon water urea

Excretion is the removal of the waste products of

eating inside the digestion

Excretion by the We are learning how to:

kidneys • identify location and parts of the kidneys

Position of the kidneys

FIG 1.7 Dialysis

The roles of the We are learning how to:

Excretion in the lungs

Water balancing We are learning how to:

The human body loses water in a number of different ways

FIG 1.12 Sportspersons need to

FIG 2.1 Male and female

FIG 2.2 A sperm fertilises an ovum

FIG 2.4 The human male reproductive

FIG 2.5 The human female

The male We are learning how to:

reproductive • outline the structure of the human

The male reproductive system

The female We are learning how to:

reproductive • outline the structure of the human

The female reproductive system

uterus uterine wall

vagina cervix Fun fact

FIG 3.1 The transmission of sexually transmitted diseases is preventable if people

FIG 3.2 Male and female condoms

Herpes, chlamydia We are learning how to:

and human • identify the different types of

Researching bacterial vaginosis

Gonorrhoea, We are learning how to:

syphilis and HIV • explain the transmission of HIV

Gonorrhoea, syphilis and HIV

FIG 3.5 Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae or

Transmission We are learning how to:

and prevention • identify the different types of

Transmission and prevention of STDs

FIG 3.7 Long-term partners

HIV and AIDS We are learning how to:

HIV and AIDS

The body’s immune system defends it against disease. If

Ways of contracting We• explain

HIV/AIDS the transmission of HIV

Ways of contracting HIV/AIDS

FIG 3.11 A tiny amount of infected

Living with We are learning how to:

HIV/AIDS • discuss strategies for protecting