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Unit 5: Fire Safety Installations

5.1 Basic Fire Science

i. Definition of Fire: A process of combustion accompanied by a
rapid release of heat and light in varying quantities.
ii. By products of fire: Gas and smoke. These products can impede
oxygen levels as well as causing visual impairment, leading to
asphyxiation as well as inhibiting swift evacuation from building.
iii. Triangle of Fire: Combustion requires 3 elements in order to take Triangle of
place: Fire
a) Fuel: Combustible solids, liquids or gases;
b) Heat:
c) Oxygen: Makes up approx. 21% of Earth’s atmosphere.

iii. Classes of Fires:

a) Class A Fires: Ordinary, combustible materials, e.g Paper, wood, etc;
b) Class B Fires: Flammable or combustible liquids, liquids or gases,
such as petroleum related products;
c) Class C Fires: Energized electrical equipment (i.e Electrical Fires);
d) Class D Fires: Combustible Metals, e.g Potassium, sodium, titanium,
etc.

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5.2 How Fires are Extinguished

i. Fires can be extinguished by removing any one element from the
triangle of fire:
– Cutting off the oxygen supply to the fire, e.g Using a blanket to
smother the fire;
– Removing fuel supply to the fire, e.g cutting off the gas supply to the
stove will cut off the stove fire;
– Removing heat supply the fire via cooling, e.g spraying water into the
fire.
Types of Fire Fighting Systems
ii. Automatic fire fighting system: Includes sprinklers, foams, FM200;
iii. Manual Fire Fighting equipment: Includes water hose reels, hydrants,
fire extinguishers;
iv. Fire Alarm Systems: Designed to alert nearest fire station as well as in-
house fire fighting team to fight fire.

5.3 Manual Fire Fighting Systems

5.3.1 Fire Extinguishers:
i. Common Types of Extinguishing Agents
for Portable Fire Extinguishers:
 Water;
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2);
 Halon;
 Powder;
 Foam.
ii. All extinguishers in buildings must be
charged, tested and maintained in
accordance to locality’s code of
practice (SS: CP 55 in Singapore);
iii. Construction of Extinguishers in
conformance to COP of locality (SS232
for Singapore).

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iv. Types of Extinguishers

a) Water:
 Extinguishing method:
 Removing heat source (Cooling);
 Removing oxygen source (Smothering);
 Can be discharged from:
 Portable Extinguishers;
 Water hose reels (Connected to a main water supply line) or other forms
of water sprays;
 Fire Hydrants;
 Dry/Wet risers.
 Advantages:
 Easily available as long as there is a consistent water supply;
 Cheap;
 High Specific Heat Capacity (4.2kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure) and High
latent heat of vaporization: (225kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure): Able to
cool effectively through high heat absorption;
 When vaporized, water expands up to 1600 times its original volume.
This allows it to displace oxygen in the air, hence the smothering effect.

 Disadvantages:
 Water is an excellent conductor of electricity, hence unsuitable for
Class C electrical fires;
 Not suitable for Combustible Metals (Class D fires);
 Not suitable for continuous use on radioactive substances;
 Tends to damage properties when used to extinguish fires.
 Suitable classes of fire for water: Class A and Class B Fires.

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b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

 Extinguishing method:
 Removing oxygen source (Smothering);
 Advantages:
 Non-combustible;
 Does not conduct electricity, hence suitable for all electrical fires;
 Easily liquefied and bottled;
 Low Boiling Point: Once discharged, it immediately vaporizes and
displaces the oxygen in the air, hence achieving the smothering effect on
the fire;
 Since CO2 is a gas, it dissipates into the atmosphere readily, leaving no
traces behind and hence no damage to property;
 Can penetrate to all areas due to its gaseous form.

 Disadvantages:
 CO2 is limited in putting out fires due to its readiness to dissipate into
the environment and low cooling capacity;
 Requires large quantities to put out large or deep seated fires;
 May create suffocating atmosphere in enclosed areas due to its ability
to displace oxygen;
 Should only be used when there is a nearby escape route for occupants
to evacuate before discharge.
 Suitable Classes of Fire for CO2: Classes A, B, C and D fires.

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c) Halon
 Extinguishing method:
 Removing oxygen source
(Smothering).
 Halon is a form of hydrocarbon: One of
the hydrogen atoms replaced by
flourine, bromine, chlorine or Iodine.
 Can be discharged from:
 Total flooding systems;
 Portable Fire Extinguishers.
 Advantages:
 Non-flammable;
 Does not conduct electricity, hence
suitable for all electrical fires;
 Does not leave behind messy
residues;
 Does not damage sensitive
electronic equipment;
 Suitable for server rooms.

 Suitable Classes of Fire for Halon: Classes A, B and C fires.

 Disadvantages:
 Expensive;
 Toxic: Evacuate occupants before usage. Limitations in exposure time
and concentration levels;
 Environmental Issue 1: Depletion of Ozone in Earth’s Upper
Atmosphere;
 Environmental Issue 2: Creates Greenhouse Effect by trapping heat in
Earth’s atmosphere;
 Limits of quantities used by Montreal Protocol.
 In Singapore, installation of Halon Systems have ceased since 1990;
 Not suitable for the following fires:

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d) Dry Powder
 Extinguishing method:
 Removing oxygen source (Smothering);
 Removing heat source (Cooling).
 How it works: Uses chemical particles to extinguish fire;
 Forms a barrier to reduce oxygen required for combustion;
 Crust forms over burning material as heat reacts with the powder, further
smothering the fire via cooling.
 Usually discharged from Portable Fire Extinguishers.
 Advantages:
 Good for normal combustibles involving surface fires, as it puts out fire
rapidly;
 Chemical cloud provides effective screen against flame flashback, allowing user
to close in on fire safely to put out fire more effectively;
 Forms radiant heat barrier (Crusting).

 Disadvantages:
 Leaves behind messy residue. Will cause damage to electronic
equipment;
 Does not leave behind lasting inert atmosphere on surface. If ignition
is expected, dry powder is not adequate;
 Toxic: May be detrimental to health.

 Suitable classes of fire for Dry Powder: Classes AB or BC (Class D is

available as well, but rare).

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e) Foam

 Extinguishing method:
 Removing oxygen source
(Smothering);
 Removing heat source (Cooling).
 How it works: Special liquid agents
mixed with air (sometimes a inert
gas) to create foam concentrate;
 Ability to expand: In liquid form,
it blankets fire and forms layer
over burning material to smother
fire;
 Vaporized vapor inhibits oxygen
from feeding fire;
 Some foam mixtures can form
vapor seal to blanket over
burning material.

 Defined by their ability to expand:

 Advantages:
 Effective for fuel-related fires;
 When doused over fuel spills, fuel is rendered safe from combustion;
 Because it is in liquid and/or vapor form, it can be used to spray into
small spaces where there is suspected fuel residues;
 In vapor form, it can be used to disperse fuel vapors and reduce
oxygen levels via steam displacement.
 Disadvantages:
 Water based, so foams are excellent conductors of electricity and
cannot be used for electrical fires;
 Due to its water based nature, foam is unstable and it can easily be
broken down and dispersed. Large volumes required to put out fire;
 Easily diverted away from fire areas under strong winds.
• Suitable classes of fire for Dry Powder: Classes A and B fires.

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v. How Fire Extinguishers

Work
Activating the fire extinguisher – Gas
Cartridge Type
a) Pull the safety pin. This will unlock
the lever;
b) Aim nozzle at base of the fire and
press the lever;
c) When lever is depressed, actuating
rod pushes down and activates the
spring-mounted valve;
d) End of actuating rod is a needle
which activates the gas release
valve connected to the gas
cartridge;
e) Gas is released from the cartridge
and the suppressant/extinguishing Components of the Gas Cartridge Fire
agent is released from the fire Extinguisher
extinguisher.

Activating the fire extinguisher –

Stored Pressure Type
a) Similar in operation to gas
cartridge type;
b) Nozzle may be replaced by
extended hose and horn type
nozzle;
c) Triggering the lever will siphon
the suppressant through the
syphon tube all the way to the
horn to be expelled.

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vi. Maintenance of Fire Extinguishers

a) Mandated by law.
b) Maintenance of fire extinguishers are focused on three basic elements:
 Mechanical parts;
 Extinguishing agent/suppressant;
 Means of Expulsion.
c) Regular Maintenance (Usually once a year) will include the following
check list:
– Location of the extinguisher at its designated location;
– Extinguisher is free from obstruction in terms of visibility and
accessibility;
– Operating instructions visible, facing outward;
– Seal and tamper indicators are still in place;
– Weighing of extinguisher to ensure suppressant quantity is adequate;
– Check pressure gauge reading;
– Check external nozzle for blockage, body of extinguisher free from
physical damage and corrosion.

d) Under the following circumstances, increase in frequency of inspections

should be considered:
 High frequency of fire hazards in the location;
 Extinguishers subjected to external damage or losses: Vandalism, theft,
abuse due to impact from external forces, etc;
 Exposure to abnormal atmospheres or temperatures;
 Presence of physical obstructions;
 Condition of deteriorating fire extinguishers.
e) Schedule for Recharging of Extinguishers: Extinguishers must be
recharged after a stipulated time period or immediately after use.

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f) Hydrostatic Testing of Extinguishers: To test strength of cylinders as well

as detect any leakages in the cylinder.

g) Record Keeping Purposes for Fire Extinguisher Maintenance Schedule

• Necessary to ensure that everything is in

order.
• Maintenance records should include the
following:
 Maintenance date and name of
person/agency carrying out
maintenance schedule;
 Date of last recharge and name of
person/agency performing the
recharge;
 Hydrostatic re-test day and name of
person/agency performing the
hydrostatic test;
 Date of next recharge.

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5.3.2 Hose Reels

i. High pressure hose, connected to a constant
water supply (e.g Booster pump system,
localized plumbing water supply, etc);
ii. Consists of rubber hose and nozzle attached to
drum;
iii. Drum may be mounted on wall, or portable
type designed to be connected to water supply.

Wall Mounted Hose Reel

Portable Hose Reel Wall Mounted Hose Reel Parts

iv. Inspection of Fire Hose Reels: Typically once a month or as per legal
requirements;
 To ensure they are free from leakage, especially valves, nozzles and
rubber hose reels;
 Nozzles should be able to function as per design: Typical nozzles can
be tuned for jet streams or cone sprays;
 Check connecting booster pump systems (if any) for signs of
malfunction or leakages;
 Testing of hose reel to ensure that it should be able to discharge water
at a rate of 0.4 Liters/Second;
 Ensure accessibility of hose reels (not obstructed).

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5.3.3 Dry Riser Mains

i. Used for medium height

buildings (In Singapore, it
is between 25m – 60m).
ii. Main vertical pipe rising
to upper levels of building
for use by fire fighters to
suppress fire.
iii. Pipes are dry. In the
event of fire, water must
be pumped into the
system before it can be
used.

iv. Parts of a Dry Riser System:

a) Breeching Inlet: Water is
pumped into the breeching inlet
from a water source, e.g Hydrant
or fire truck;
b) Riser Pipe: Main pipe directing
water to the respective floors;
c) Landing Valve:
 Each level of the building has one
landing valve;
 In the event of fire, fire hose is
attached to the landing valve to
allow firemen to suppress fire;
d) Air release valve: For releasing
trapped air in water supply which
may cause air lock and hamper
fire fighting.

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v. Maintenance:
 Visual Inspection;
 Hydrostatic Testing.
a) Visual Inspection:

b) Hydrostatic Testing

Hydrostatic Testing: Changing Dry Riser System to 200 PSI 0r 13.8 bar via
Breeching Inlet

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5.3.4 Wet Rising Mains

i. Used for high rise buildings (For

Singapore, the definition is more than
60m);
ii. Similar in design to dry rising main,
except that the piping is connected to
a water supply system and supplied by
a constant water main;
iii. Pipes are wet. In the event of fire, fire
fighters can proceed to the location of
fire and connect the hose reel directly
to fight fire without the need to pump
water from ground level;
iv. If water supply is insufficient or no
water supply from the utility services,
a breeching inlet for fire service is
connected to the water tank for fire
services to supply auxiliary water into
the system.

v. Maintenance:
 Visual Inspection of Wet Riser System;
 Flow test;
 Pressure test;
 Testing of Pumping Equipment;
 Checking of Water Supply and Storage.

Pump room of Wet Riser System

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a) Visual Inspection:

b) Flow Test:
• Tested for sufficient flow under gravity and pump operations;
• Higher flow rates for commercial/non-residential buildings;
• Usually governed by Code of Practice.
• CP 29 (Singapore Code of Practice):

c) Pressure Test:

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d) Testing of Pumping Equipment

e) Water Supply and Storage

5.3.5 Fire Hydrants

i. Usually installed outside a building or at the
ground floor of the building.
ii. Connected to a municipal/localized water
source.
iii. Provides an instant water supply for fire
fighters to plug into with a fire hose via
coupling system and suppress fire
instantaneously.

Female coupling
of Fire Hydrant

Fire Hydrant

Male coupling of fire hose

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iv. How it works:

a) Rigging up fire hose male coupling to hydrant’s female coupling;
b) Hydrant gate valve box chamber cover is removed;
c) Using of hydrant key to turn on hydrant gate valve. Hydrant valve is used
to turn on and off water but not to adjust water flow;
d) Hose reel nozzle is used to control flow rate to suppress fire.

v. Maintenance:
a) Inspection should be carried out once a
year by qualified persons;
b) Check for:
 Any obstruction to fire hydrant
(Remove, if any);
 Fire hydrant gate valve should be in
“open position” at all times. If not, use
the hydrant key to open valve;
 Check for adequate flow rate and
pressure.

Fire Hydrant key

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5.4 Automatic Fire Fighting Systems

i. Definition of Automatic Fire Fighting System: The ability of the system
to control and suppress fire without human intervention.
ii. Automatic fire fighting systems must have the ability to:
– Detect;
– Actuate extinguishing medium;
– Deliver extinguishing medium to suppress fire.
iii. Types of automatic fire fighting systems:
 Water sprinkler system;
 Water spray system;
 Foam system;
 Halon System;
 Carbon Dioxide System;
 Dry Chemical System.

5.4.1 Water Sprinkler System

i. Definition:
 Thermal Sensitive Devices;
 Designed to release water when pre-
determined temperature is reached.
ii. Advantages of Water Sprinkler System:
 Gives advanced warning or alert to fire;
 Provides early/first line of response to fire;
 Provides cooling (removal of heat) and
reduces smoke at the scene of fire;
Fire Sprinkler
 Reduces potential damage to property in the
event of fire;
 Reduces interruption to activities caused by
uncontrolled fire;
 Causes less considerable damage compared
to other manual water systems, such as fire
hose reels.

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iii. Types of Water Sprinkler Systems

a) Wet Pipe Sprinkler System:
How it Works:
 Water piping system is constantly filled with water;
 When surrounding temperature reaches a pre-determined
temperature, sprinkler is activated and water bursts from sprinkler
to put out fire.
Used for:
 Used for normal conditions with no special requirements, e.g
commercial offices, shopping centres, etc.
 Not suitable for premises which are undergoing extremely low
temperatures, e.g freezers, as water in pipe may freeze and burst.

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b) Dry Pipe Sprinkler Systems:

How it Works:
 Sprinklers attached to pipeline filled with compressed air (Usually
Nitrogen;
 When surrounding temperature reaches a pre-determined
temperature, sprinkler is activated and air is released from the
sprinkler;
 Sudden drop in pressure activates the dry pipe valve and releases
water into the dry piping system;
Used for:
 Extremely cold conditions, e.g in a chiller room, where water pipe
systems are unsuitable due to the problem of freezing.

Combined Dry Riser and Wet Riser Sprinkler System

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c) Pre-Action Sprinkler System:

 Similar to the Dry Sprinkler System;
 Air fills up dry pipe system. May or may not be pressured air;
 Fire detection by fire detection system.
How it Works:
 When fire is started, fire detection system first detects the fire;
 Water Control Valve is opened, water is released into dry pipe;
 Fire Alarm is triggered;
 Sprinkler does not open until fire reaches its predetermined
temperature (higher than the one set for the fire detection system).
Advantages:
 Can be used for extremely cold conditions due to the dry piping
system used;
 Use for fire detection system, not sprinkler, to release water. Hence
water is released faster than dry piping system;
 Because water is released faster, there is potentially less damage to
property.

Preaction Sprinkler System

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d) Deluge Sprinkler System:

 Similar to Pre-action system,
except that sprinklers are
permanently open;
 In the event of fire, water is
immediately released via control
valve into the dry pipe and
straight to the scene of fire via
the open sprinklers;
 Used for high hazard areas, e.g
fuel storage warehouses.

5.4.2 Water Spray System

i. Definition: Fixed piped water system connected to a consistent water
supply to provide fire protection with water via a series of nozzles over
protected area;
ii. Similar to sprinkler systems. May be used in tandem with sprinkler
systems, but are generally not used to replaced sprinkler systems.
iii. Used for:
 Specialized protection for problematic areas, e.g fuel storage;
 Providing optimal fire protection and extinguishment.

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5.4.3 Foam System

i. Production of Foam:
a) Proportioning Process: Correct mixture of foam agent, air and water;
b) Foam Generation Phase: Generation of foam;
c) Distribution Method: Distribution of foam for storage or fire fighting
purposes.
ii. Types of Foam
Systems:
a) Fixed Foam
Systems;
b) Semi-fixed Foam
Systems.

iii. Fixed Foam Systems

 Complete installations;
 Used to protect fixed
installations, e.g fuel
dumps.
 Foam is discharged
through fixed outlets
should the system be
activated.

Activation of Fixed Foam

System Schematic Drawing of Fixed Foam Systems

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iv. Semi-Fixed Foam System

How it Works:
 Similar to fixed foam system;
 Discharged foam outlet can be
linked to mobile vehicle, usually a
fire truck;
 Water supply from hydrant can be
linked to fire truck;
 Foam and water is mixed to allow
fire truck to discharge foam Linking up of fire truck to Semi-fixed
mixture on fire. Foam System
Suitable for: Fuel storage facilities
stored over a large area, so much so
that fixed foam system installation is
impractical.

Discharging of Foam from a Fire

Truck

5.4.4 Dry Powder System

i. Consists of:
 Dry chemical Supply;
 Fixed Piping;
 Actuating mechanism.
ii. Types of Systems:
 Total Flooding System;
 Local Application System.
iii. Total Flooding System: Localized Dry Powder System for
 Entire protected area is covered; Kitchen
 Only when protected area is totally enclosed and no re-ignition expected;
 Pre-determined amount of dry powder is released if system is actuated by fire.
iv. Local Application System:
 Nozzle is directly pointed to fire localized protection only);
 Only when protected area is totally enclosed and no re-ignition expected;
 Pre-determined amount of dry powder is released if system is actuated by fire.

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Total Flooding System using Dry Powder

5.4.5 Halon System

i. Consist of:
 Halon supply (Usually in
cylinders);
 Linked to existing fire alarm
system;
 Halon Cylinders are connected via
piping network to various
Release of Halon Gas via
locations designated for
Halon System
protection.
ii. Types of Systems:
 Total Flooding System;
 Local Application System.

Halon cylinders stored in

secured location

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iii. Total Flooding System

 Used to protect
enclosed locations;
 Cannot be used in
places with high human
concentration due to
toxicity;
 Halon 1301 used due to
higher volatility and
lower toxicity.

iv. Localized Application

System
 Used to protect
enclosed locations over
smaller area;
 Use of Halon 1211 for
lower volatility.
Total Flooding System

5.4.6 FM 200
i. Usually seen as an alternative to
Halon system:
 Lower toxicity;
 Not harmful to ozone layer;
 No harmful residues left behind;
 Suitable for use where there is
sensitive equipment, e.g Server
rooms.
ii. How it works:
 When fire activates fire
suppression panel, FM200 is
released to the nozzle;
 Additional nitrogen from
nitrogen cylinder is also released
under high pressure to create
supersaturated mixture for fire
suppression.

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5.4.7 CO2 System

i. Total Flooding System
 Used to protect enclosed
locations;
 Quantity of CO2 must be
calculated based on
volume of protected
space and concentration
of CO2 required to
extinguish fire of
combustible materials;

ii. Localized Application

System
 Used to protect enclosed
locations over smaller
area;
 Nozzle pointed directly at
localized point of
protected space.

5.5 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems

i. Definition:
 System designed to detect the presence of fire
by monitoring environmental changes associated
with combustion.
ii. When fire is detected:
 Fire Alarm is sounded to warn occupants of
impending fire for evacuation purposes;
 Automatic fire suppression methods (E.g FM
200) is activated;
 Designated fire lifts homed to ground level for
use by fire fighting teams;
 Location of fire source can be identified by
system to guide in-house fire fighting team and
subsequently the fire fighters;
 Firefighters from nearest fire fighting precinct
can be activated.

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5.5.1 Fire Alarm Components

i. Fire Alarm Panel

 Central processing unit of the system. May
be linked to sub panels at various floors at
multiple storey buildings;
 Receives signal from manual call points
and respective automatic detectors and
relays it to output devices (Auxillary
equipment, alarm, decam);
 Must have separate emergency power
supply (Emergency Battery Operating
Supply, or EBOPs) inside panel to provide
E-power to alarm system in the event of
power failure;
 Addressable systems: Provides
information on:
 Origins of fire alarm;
 Which device has been activated;
 What type of signal is being
transmitted.
 Non-Addressable Systems: Older type.
Provides information only on the zone
where the signal is being received.
Fire Alarm Panel

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ii. Automatic Detectors

 Primary Function: Detect environmental changes, e.g Smoke in the
atmosphere, and send signal to fire panel;
 Usually mounted at ceiling surfaces or in air ducts;
 Activated by one or combination of the following conditions:

 Fire Detection can be classified as follows:

Smoke Detector
 Spot detector: Detection of fire at one point;
 Line Detector: Detect fire along a continuous line of path.

 Types of Detectors:
– Heat Detectors;
– Smoke Detectors;
– Flame Detectors;
– Aspirating Detectors.
a) Heat Detectors:
 Spot detectors;
 Comes in two prototypes: Detector Types and their Respective
 Fixed Temperature: Characteristics
Activates only when
surrounding temperature
reaches predetermined
temperature;
 Rate of Rise: Activates
when there is a sudden
temperature flux (Not
suitable for environments
where temperature
changes are frequent). Heat Detector

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b) Smoke Detectors
 Three main types:
 Light scattering;
 Light Obscuring;
 Ionization.
Smoke Detector
 Suitable for confined areas where combustible materials produce small
smoke particles are expected in the event of fire;
 Not suitable for locations where smoke is constant, e.g Basement Car
Parks.

1. Light Scattering Smoke

Detectors:
Spot detectors;
Operating principle:
Dependent on detecting
light scattered by smoke
particles onto photocell. How Light Scattering Smoke Detector Works

2. Light Obscuring Smoke Detectors:

 Line Detector;
 Operating Principle:
 Light source projected to photocell;
 When smoke particles enter the
smoke detector, light reaching
photocell is interrupted;
 Signal is sent out from detector.
 Suitable for high ceiling areas, e.g
Atriums.
3. Ionization Detectors:
 Spot Detectors;
 Operating Principle:
 Two electrodes charging air inside
detector (+ve and –ve charges);
 Current flow caused by charge;
 Smoke particles entering detector
attracts electrodes, reducing
current flow. Once current drops
below acceptable alarm, signal is
sent out from detector.

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c) Flame Detectors
 Detects specific portions of flame:
Visible and invisible light spectrums;
 Typically infra red and ultraviolet lights
from the flame of the fire: 5 – 15 Hertz
Hz lights are typically identified;
 Extremely sensitive, used only for high
hazard areas, e.g aircraft hangars, Infra Red Flame
petroleum storage facilities, etc; Detector

d) Aspiring (Air Sampling) Detector

 Uses a pump to draw air into unit;
 Drawn air is sent to lab to test for
combustion products.

iii. Fire Alarm Devices

 Two types:
• Audible Alarm Sounders;
• Visual Signaling Devices.
 To warn occupants of impending fire so as to
allow for orderly evacuation of premises.
a) Audible Alarm Sounders:
 Generate continuous tone of alarm bell; Audible Alarm Sounder
 Should be min. 5 dB (Decibels) over
ambient noise (Standard ambient noise is
60dB);
 Should not exceed 120dB;
 All alarm bells in building should activate
simultaneously, unless it is a multi-stage
alarm system.
b) Visual Signaling Devices:
 Used in facilities where ambient noise
makes alarm sounders ineffective;
 Additional strobe lights/signaling devices Visual Signaling Devices
used in conjunction with standard alarm c/w Audible Alarm
sounders to reinforce announcement.
Sounders

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iv. Manual Call Points

 Installed for use by occupants to sound emergency

alarm should fire or an emergency be detected.
Signal is sent to the fire alarm panel;
 Usually used as secondary back up to automatic
detectors, or in locations where detectors are not
Break Glass Manual
installed;
Call Point
 Manual call points should be free from obstruction.
 Types available:
 Break Glass Type: Activation by breaking the
glass. This will trigger a switch which then
sends signal to fire alarm panel. Glass panel
must then be replaced to shut off signal;
 “T-Bar” Type: Activation by pulling down the T-
bar. This action triggers a switch which then
sends signal to fire alarm panel. Reactivation
can be done using specialized key.
T-Bar Manual Call Point

5.5.2 Common Problems Associated with Fire Alarm

Systems
i. False Alarms
 Defined as the unintended activation of alarm
devices when there is no actual fire.
 Inconvenience to building occupants, as well as
creating a hazard. If actual fire occurs, occupants
may take it for granted that it is another false
alarm.
 Possible causes include:

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ii. Loss of Effectiveness in Fire Alarm Systems

 When fire alarm panels lose effectiveness, they
may not be able to warn occupants of fire;
 May be caused by:

5.6 Voice Communication Systems

i. Voice communication systems (VCS) are installed
in buildings which are designated to have a Fire
Command Centre (FCC) by law.
ii. The VCS is designed for the following functions:
– Allows for communication between occupants
or fire fighting members at the scene of
incident and the FCC. This allows fire fighters at
the FCC to determine the extent of the
emergency;
– Early communication allows for FCC team to
strategize and plan for the best strategy to
tackle emergency and deploy sufficient
manpower to tackle emergency promptly;
– Broadcasting via speakers allows FCC team to
evacuate occupants promptly once the incident
is ascertained.
iii. Two types of VCS (VCS equipment should be fire-
rated):
– One-way communication system;
– Two-way communication system.

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a) 1-way Communication System:

 Basically a network of loudspeakers to
provide a one-way communication from
FCC to occupants;
 Speakers are typically located in major
areas of access by occupants or members
of publics, such as lifts, lift lobbies,
staircases, as well as emergency locations
such as escape staircases, places of refuge,
etc.
 Consists of: Loudspeaker
 Microphone at FCC;
 Selector switches allowing for FCC to
switch off alarm when announcement
is made;
 Amplifier: Sends signal to FCC indicator
board with regards to which speakers
have been activated;
 Loud speakers at various strategic
locations for broadcasting purposes.
Microphone and
Selector Switches in FCC

b) 2-way Communication System:

 Basically a network of telephone sets to provide a
one-way communication between FCC and
occupants;
 Telephone set at FCC should be linked to all telephone
sets for 2-way communications;
 Besides FCC, telephone sets should be placed at
equipment laden areas, such as lift motor rooms, lifts,
AHU rooms, etc, as well as places of refuge or other
high risk locations.
 Consists of:
 Telephone sets at FCC; VCS Telephone Set
 Selector switches allowing for FCC to switch of
alarm when announcement is made;
 Amplifier: Sends signal to FCC indicator board
once telephone is activated to indicate location
of activation;
 Telephone sets at various strategic locations May
be housed in secure lock boxes if vandalism is a
problem.

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5.7 Smoke Control Systems

 Definition of Smoke:
 By-products of combustion in rising plume of hot air;
 Can be in gaseous or solid particles;
 Consist of burned and unburned portions of fuel, plus
other chemical components released from combusted
material.
 Why smoke is dangerous:
 Most deaths during fires are caused by smoke inhalation. Few people actually
burn to death;
 Smoke reduces visibility, hence impeding escape;
When designing fire installations, it should be assumed that all forms of smoke
from fires are dangerous, and should be directed away safely from building in the
event of a fire.
Smoke Control within building proper is to achieve the following objectives:
 Keep smoke away from designated escape routes;
 Limit the spread of smoke throughout the building.
Methods of Smoke Control:
 Pressurization (Containment of smoke);
 Venting (Removal of smoke);
 Smoke Curtain.

5.7.1 Pressurization
i. Pressurization of escape stairways/routes:
 To prevent smoke from entering escape route when access door is opened;
 Achieved by keeping the escape route area constantly pressurized by air;
 Activated by alarm system during fire.
ii. How it works:

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iii. Use of air-pressurized escape routes mandated by regulations:

In Singapore, pressurization is provided for the following:
 Medium to high rise buildings (Exceeding 24m);
 Internal exit staircases with no other forms of natural ventilation;
 Basement staircases (More than 4 storeys).
iv. Pressurization Level:

v. Air Velocity: Maintain at 1.0 m/s when activated(Escape doors opened or

closed).
vi. Equipment:
 Each ventilation system is complete with mechanical ventilation fan , ducting
and other Mechanical ventilation accessories;
 Each ventilation system for each staircase, independent of one another.

5.7.2 Venting
i. Venting: Direct, method of directing smoke to
external environment.
ii. Nature of smoke progression:
 Smoke tends to rise to the highest point within the
building (Ceiling, atrium, etc);
 As smoke builds up, it gets lower and lower,
eventually engulfing whole building and creating
hazard for occupants to escape.
iii. Purpose of Venting: Mechanical Smoke
 Give sufficient time for occupants to evacuate Control Fan
building;
 Give sufficient time for fire fighting team to locate
fire and extinguish it without being obscured by
smoke.
 Extract smoke to prevent dangerous build up of
smoke within building premises.
iv. Types of Venting:
 Natural ventilation;
 Mechanical Ventilation.

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v. Technical Specifications for Vent Systems

Venting via Natural Ventilation Venting via Mechanical Ventilation

5.7.3 Smoke Curtains

i. Use for large buildings, such as shopping complexes.
ii. Purpose: To prevent smoke from spreading sideways.
iii. Designed to work with venting system: Creates smoke reservoir for
smoke to be directed out of building via venting system.
iv. Designed to be fire rated (Min. as good as the roof structure).

Smoke Curtain being Manually

Smoke Curtain in Shopping Complex Activated for Testing Purposes

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5.7.4 Fire Dampers

i. Fire dampers: Passive fire protection
device installed inside HVAC and ACMV
ducts to prevent smoke from
spreading inside duct works;
ii. Fire damper must be fire rated (Usually
similar to the surrounding wall which
its ducting penetrates).
iii. How it Works:
 When fire occurs, thermal element
melts (i.e the fusible link), dropping
the fire rated door in the damper;
How the fire damper works
 Another design would be to connect
the damper to the fire alarm to
trigger the fire damper, instead of the
thermal element.
 When the door drops, smoke is
prevented from spreading.

5.8 Fire Lifts

i. In the event of fires, designated fire lifts are designed to function the following
roles, even if the main power supply is cut:
– Ensure that the internal lift lighting and ventilation systems are working via
Emergency Battery-Operated Supply (EBOPs);
– The lift is able to function, so that it can still transport passengers and at the
same time home in to ground floor for use by fire fighters. This is achieved
using generator and/or battery power;
– In the event the building has no generator supply (For buildings which are
lower than 60m), the lift is actually homed to the nearest floor. This is
achieved by a separate battery operated system known as Automatic Rescue
Device (ARD).
ii. Firemen can manually activate and control lifts via firemen switch (These are
usually locked to avoid vandalism, with firemen or authorized crew with the
keys to manually control the fire lifts).

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5.8 Emergency & Exit Lights

i. Emergency lighting: Placed in strategic locations to direct occupants to
the nearest exits in the event of an emergency by providing luminance,
particularly when normal lighting has failed due to power failure.
ii. Exit signs help to provide instructions to the nearest exit, while other
emergency lights help to provide luminance for evacuation purposes.
iii. During normal operations, emergency lights are connected to the
emergency switch board or, in the case of ARD, normal switchboard
power supply;
iv. During a power failure, these emergency lights have their own battery
packs to last a prescribed duration until power resumes, and/or to give
ample time for occupants to evacuate building.
v. Exit and emergency lights are designed such that even in a smoke-filled
environment, they can still be highly visible.

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Illustration showing Exit Lighting and Emergency

Lighting Placements in a building proper

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Tutorial Questions:
1) Basics of Fire Science:
i. Define “fire”, and identify the by products of fire (4 marks).
ii. With the aid of a diagram, indicate the basic elements of fire (4 marks).
iii. Identify the classes of fire and indicate the types of fire which these classes
denote. Give 1 example for each class of fire (8 marks).
iv. Explain the methods whereby fire can be extinguished (4 marks).

2) Dry and Wet Riser Mains are used by fire fighting teams to fight fires in multi-
storey buildings.
i. Indicate the height prescription for the installation of dry and wet riser mains(2
marks).
ii. Indicate the key difference between a wet riser system and a dry riser system (2
marks).
iii. Describe the components of a dry riser main system and explain how it can be
used by fire fighting teams in the event of an emergency (8 marks).
iv. Describe how hydrostatic testing is carried out on the dry riser system and state
the criteria for compliance (4 marks).
v. Describe how the wet riser system can be used by fire fighting teams in the even
of an emergency (4 marks).

3) The fire alarm system is an integral feature in many buildings.

i. Sketch/draw a simple schematic diagram of the fire alarm system (7 marks).
ii. Briefly explain the how the fire alarm system works (5 marks);
iii. Explain why false fire alarms can be detrimental to occupants in the building,
and list down the possible causes of false fire alarms (8 marks).

4) In the event of a fire, smoke is considered to be the most dangerous killer.

i. Briefly describe the nature of smoke and its contents (3 marks).
ii. List down the ways smoke can kill in the event of a fire (2 marks).
iii. List down the objectives of smoke control techniques (2 marks).
iv. List down three methods of smoke control (3 marks).
v. Discuss the use of fire dampers in air ducting systems, including the
requirement(s) of fire dampers and how it works (10 marks).

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