Sustainable Energy Storage Options for Renewables

Sustainable Energy Science and Engineering Center
Energy Storage
Storage modes are determined

by the particular end-use
applications
http://www.sesec.fsu.edu
Anjane Krothapalli, September 20, 2006

Main Parameters
Energy density: The amount of energy that can be stored.

Recovery rate: The efficiency at which the energy can be
recovered.
Hydrogen has for example has one of the highest storage
densities (kWh/kg) of 38 as compared to that of lead acid
batteries, 0.04.
The efficiency of work exchange processes:
W re cov ered
cycle = inout
W in
Generic Storage Systems

Electrochemical systems
batteries and flow cells
Mechanical systems
fly-wheels and compressed air energy storage (CAES)
Electrical systems
super-capacitors and super-conducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES)
Chemical systems
hydrogen cycle (electrolysis -> storage -> power conversion)
Thermal systems
sensible heat (storage heaters) and phase change
Ragone Plot
Source: Tester et. al. Sustainable energy, MIT Press

Energy Density
Method kWh/kg
Gasoline 14
Lead Acid Batteries 0.04
Hydrostorage 0.3/m3
Flywheel, Steel 0.05
Flywheel, Carbon Fiber 0.2
Flywheel, Fused Silica 0.9
Hydrogen 38
Compressed Air 2/m3
Battery Storage
Designed for load leveling

Large number of batteries charged during low demand
periods
One acre could store 400 MWh of energy, deliver 40 MW
for 10 hours
Batteries require environmentally damaging chemicals
Typical installation: Southern California Edison
8000 lead acid battery modules to deliver up to 10 MW of
power for four hours of continuous discahrge
Performance Factors
1. Life time (maximum number of charge and discharge

cycles)
2. Overall cycle efficiency
3. Depth of discharge per cycle (deep cycle - less instant
energy but longer term energy delivery: e.g.: Golf cart
battery)
4. Cost of unit of power or energy stored
Rechargeable Battery Characteristics
Properties Wh/kg Wh/m3 Voltage Cycle Life
Lead acid 35 0.08 2 400
Nickel Cadmium 35 0.08 1.2 >1000
Nickel hydrogen 55 0.06 1.2 >10,000
Lithium 150 300 >3.6 >2,000
http://www.afrlhorizons.com/Briefs/Feb04/PR0306.html
400 Wh/kg Goal
Li-Ion batteries operate at higher voltages than other rechargeables, typically about 3.7 volts for lithium-ion vs. 1.2
volts forNiMH or NiCd. This means a single cell can often be used rather than multiple NiMH or NiCd cells.
Lithium-ion batteries also have a lower self discharge rate than other types of rechargeable batteries.
NiMH and NiCd batteries can lose anywhere from 1-5% of their charge per day, (depending on the storage temperature)
even if they are not installed in a device. Lithium-ion batteries will retain most of their charge even after months of
storage.
Battery Storage Requirement
Individual Americans use about 1.5 kWh of electricity every hour

Typical storage requirement: 15 kWh
Battery capacity: 400 Wh/kg
Batteries weight: 37.5 kg; Cost: $3000
Typical compact automobile power requirement: 50 KW

Typical driving distance: 500 km
Average speed: 100 km/hr
Required stored energy: 250 kWh
Battery capacity: 400 Wh/kg
Batteries weight: 625 kg; Cost: $50,000
Potential Energy Storage

Pumped hydropower:
Use excess energy to pump water uphill from a lower reservoir to
higher reservoir:
Energy recovery depends on total volume of water and its height
above the turbine location
The efficiency of pumping: 80%
Net efficiency: 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64
The typical coal power plant efficiency ~ 40%
The efficiency of the recovered energy =
0.64 x 0.4 ~ 0.25 (25%)
Pumped-Storage Plant
Source: NREL
Hydropower Storage Facility

Pumped Stored Energy

Energy stored is predominantly Nuclear Power
The water head ranges widely: 25 - 600m
Large range in capacity: 4 MW - 2100 MW
USA storage capacity: 20 GW
Europe: 32 GW
Others: 34 GW
Opportunity to store renewable energy (especially wind)
when it is produced and deliver when needed.
Ideally suited in mountainous regions.
Total hydro capacity: 420 GW
Typical pumping up cost: $14 ~ $21/MWh
Pump Turbine Progress
Source: Toshiba
http://www.dom.com/about/stations/hydro/bath_video/index.html
Potential Energy Storage

Compressed Air Energy Storage System
Compressor train Expander/generator train
Air
Exhaust
PC PG
Intercoolers
PC = Compressor Heat recuperator
Fuel (e.g. natural gas, distillate)
power in
PG = Generator
power out
Aquifer, Air hS = Hours of
salt cavern,
or hard mine Storage Storage (at PC)
Wind/CAES
PWF PT
CAES plant
Wind farm Transmission
PWF = Wind Farm max. PT = Transmission line
power out Underground max. power
(rated power) air storage
Wind capacity factor can be significantly improved

Source: Toward optimization of a wind/ compressed air energy storage (CAES) power system
Jeffery B. Greenblatt,
Greenblatt, Samir Succar,
Succar, David C. Denkenberger,
Denkenberger, Robert H. Williams,
Princeton University
Compressed Air Energy Storage
Huntorf plant


Energy needed to compress gases: the adiabatic
compression work
( 1)

p

W = poVo 1
1
1 p
o
W: specific compression work (J/kg); po: initial pressure; p1: final

pressure; Vo: initial specific volume (m3/kg); : ratio of specific heats
Net work = Wnet= Wturbine - Wcompressor
overall = turbinecompressor
Flywheels
A flywheel is a mechanical battery storing energy mechanically in the form of
kinetic energy. It uses an electric motor to accelerate the rotor up to a high
speed and return the electrical energy by using the same motor as a
generator. The rotational energy is delivered until friction overcomes it.
Flywheel has a higher energy density over chemical energy storage. The rate
at which energy can be exchanged into or out of the flywheel is limited only by
the motor-generator design. Hence, it is possible to withdraw large amounts of
energy in a far shorter time than with traditional chemical batteries. As such
they are widely used in automobile applications.
Flywheels store energy very efficiently and can provide high specific power
(kWh/kg) compared with batteries.
Flywheel purchase costs: $100/kW - $300/kW
Installation costs: $20/kW - $40/kW
Flywheel Parameters
Stored energy:
1 2 1
KE = I = kmR
2 2
2 2
= rotational velocity
I = moment of inertia (ability of an object to resist changes in its rotational velocity)
= kmR2
k: inertial constant depends on shape; m: mass; R: radius
Wheel loaded at rim (bike tire); k = 1: solid disk of uniform thickness; k = 1/2
solid sphere; k = 2/5; spherical shell; k = 2/3; thin rectangular rod; k = 1/2
Flywheel Parameters
In order to optimize the energy-to-mass ratio, the flywheel needs to spin

at the maximum possible speed.
Rapidly rotating objects are subject to centrifugal forces that can rip them
apart.
Centrifugal force = mR 2
While dense material can store more energy it is also subject to higher
centrifugal force and thus fails at lower rotational speeds than low density
material. Therefore the tensile strength is more important than the density
of the material.
Efficiency ~ 80%
Specific Energy Density
KE rotational,max k max
Specific energy density = =
m m
max= maximum allowable tensile stress of the material

m = volumetric mass density (kg/m3)
Technical Challenges: Light weight high tensile strength rotors (e.g.

Fused Silica or composite material rotors) , low density and reduced
friction using evacuated housing with magnetic bearings
Estimated Costs
Storage Type US$/kW US$/kWh
Pumped Hydro 800 12
Li-Ion 300 200
Flywheels 350 500
CAES 750 12
SMES 650 1500-
Ultracapacitors 300 3600-

Alternative Ragone Plot

Supercapacitors
Electrical energy storage in the form of confined
electrostatic charges in a device consisting of conductive
plates separated by dielectric medium.
Power Density = 0.5V 2
RA 2
V: applied voltage; R: total effective resistance of the

capacitor, A: nominal surface area of the conducting plate
or electrode
Very high surface area activated carbon (nanopores)
electrodes and charge separation distances in nanometers.
Attractive for Regenerative breaking and other power
needs in electric and hybrid vehicles.
Supercapacitors - State of the Art
Source: CAP-XX Pty Ltd, Australia, 2005

Superconducting Magnetic Energy

Storage (SMES)
A device for storing and instantaneously discharging large quantities of power. It
stores energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of DC in a coil of
superconducting material that has been cryogenically cooled. The SMES recharges
within minutes and can repeat the charge/discharge sequence thousands of times
without any degradation of the magnet. Recharge time can be accelerated to meet
specific requirements, depending on system capacity.
In low-temperature superconducting materials, electric currents encounter almost no
resistance.
Storage Technology Costs
Source: iti Scotland Ltd, 2005

Hydrogen Storage
Potential Fuel
Energy Sources Typical Chemical

Energy Density
Hydrogen 142.0 MJ/kg

Ethanol 29.7 MJ/kg
Ammonia 17.0 MJ/kg
Automotive Gasoline 45.8 MJ/kg
Methane 55.5 MJ/kg
Methanol 22.7 MJ/kg
(Source: Chemical Energy, The Physics Hyper text Book)

Energy Density
Fuel Typical Stored Chemical

Energy Density
Hydrogen 7.1 MJ/kg @ 5wt%

Ethanol 26.7 MJ/kg @ 90wt%
Ammonia 13.6 MJ/kg @ 80wt%
Automotive Gasoline 41.2 MJ/kg @ 90wt%
Methane 44.5 MJ/kg @ 80wt%
Methanol 20.4 MJ/kg @ 90wt%
Objective
To achieve adequate stored energy in an efficient, safe and
cost effective system.
Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory Hydrogen Storage Work Shop, May 2003
Energy Storage
Source: Ian Edwards, ITI Energy, May 24th, 2005

Hydrogen Storage
Hydrogen pellets
Mg(NH3)6Cl2
Technology Status
Storage Methods
Energy Densities (LHV) in Liquid state

40
carbon
hydrogen
30
Energy Density (MJ/liter)
Hydrogen
20
18 18 density range
17
20 16 15
12
12 9 8
10
14 13 13 13 13
13 12 12 12 13 12 12
11 11
9
e
n
l
l
e
ne
e
ne
ne
ne
e)
a
)
er
no
no
el
id
an
an
an
ge
on
in
at
ha
ta
ha
xa
es
dr
ha
ha
pt
nt
op
ro
ol
w
bu
m
he
i
et
et
hy
(d
et
et
he
pe
as
yd
pr
am
m
m
(g
ne
.h
ta
ne
liq
ce
ta
oc
Compressed Gas
5
Compressed Gas Storage Density
Gasoline: 13 MJ/L
(300 K, LHV)
4
Energy Density (MJ/liter)
350 bar 700 bar

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Pressure (psi)
Compressed Gas
• increased pressure (>700 bar)

– stronger, lighter composite tanks (cost)
– hydrogen permeation
– non-ideal gas behavior
• conformable tanks
– maximum volume gain ~20% (cylind./rect. volumes)
– some increase in weight
• microspheres
– multiple shell volumes
– close-packed packing density ~60% of volume
– hydrogen release/reload mechanism
Compressed Gas Cylinders

Carbon fiber wrap/polymer liner tanks
are lightweight and commercially
available.
weight specific energy

6 wt.% 7.2 MJ/kg
7.5 wt.% 9.0 MJ/kg
10 wt.% 12 MJ/kg
Energy density is the issue:
Pressure Gas density System density

350 bar 2.7 MJ/L 1.95 MJ/L
700 bar 4.7 MJ/L 3.4 MJ/L
High Pressure Cryogenic Tank
600
Liquid Hydrogen EOS
500
400
Pressure bar
300
200
100 S. Aceves, et al 2002
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Estimated energy density:
Temperature K 4.9 MJ/L (Berry 1998)
• reduces temperature requirements

• eliminates liquifaction requirement
• essentially eliminates latency issue
Liquid Storage
Requires cryogenic systems
• Equilibrium temperature at 1 bar for liquid hydrogen is ~20 K.

• Estimated storage densities1
Berry (1998) 4.4 MJ/liter
Dillon (1997) 4.2 MJ/liter
Klos (1998) 5.6 MJ/liter
• Issues with this approach are:
– dormancy.
– energy cost of liquifaction.
1 J. Pettersson and O Hjortsberg, KFB-Meddelande 1999:27

Gaseous Hydrogen Storage
Hydride storage of
hydrogen may be
compared to the
compression of
hydrogen
Higher Heating value of

Hydrogen: 142 MJ/kg
Source: The Future of Hydrogen Economy: Bright or Bleak?

Baldur Eliasson and Ulf Bossel, ABB Switzerland Ltd.
Hydrogen Storage - Liquefaction
Total energy requirement for

liquefaction of 1 kg of H2

Hydrogen Delivery - Pipelines

Hydrides
Chemically bond hydrogen in a solid material
• This storage approach should have the highest hydrogen packing
density.
• However, the storage media must meet certain requirements:
– reversible hydrogen uptake/release
– lightweight with high capacity for hydrogen
– rapid kinetic properties
– equilibrium properties (P,T) consistent with near ambient
conditions.
• Two solid state approaches
– hydrogen absorption (bulk hydrogen)
– hydrogen adsorption (surface hydrogen)
including cage structures
Alanates
Complex Hydrides
Hydrogen Storage Volume

Hydrogen System Weight

Future
US DOE Strategy
US DOE Strategy
Complex Hydrides
Complex Hydrides
Source: Ali T. Raissi, FSEC

Fuel Tank Problem

Current Status
Compressed Gas System Requirements

Improvements
US DOE Targets
FCEV Storage System

Comparative Volumes and Weights
of a FCEV Hydrogen Storage System
(Capable of 560 km (350 mi) Range – Compact Sedan)
800
700
600
kg
500
Liters
400
Liters
kg
300
200
100
0
IC
Li
Li
M
24
S
od
qu
qu
om
et
E
al
iu
id
id
C
ba
pr
m
as
H
H
H
es
rH
yd
2(
2
e
B
se
or
2
(>
rid
(R
<
d
oh
30
54
ef
e
H
yd
er
(M
0
0
yd
en
rid
g)
ro
m
ce
e
ge
di
di
)
a.
a.
(3
)
45
ba
r)
LH2 Tank Configuration
inner vessel
super insulation
outer vessel
level probe
filling line suspension
gas extraction
liquid extraction liquefied hydrogen
253°C)
filling port
safety valve
gaseous hydrogen
(+20°C up to +80°C)
shut off valve
electrical heater
cooling water
reversing valve
heat exchanger
(gaseous / liquid)
Storage Systems
System System Extraction System Fuel Dormancy Safety
Weight Volume Complexity Cost Cost
Compressed
Gas (5,000 psi)
Cryogenic
Liquid H2
Cryo - Liquid
Compressed H2
Rechargeable
Metal Hydride
Carbon
Adsorbtion
Chemical Hydride
Good Acceptable Problem

Sustainable Energy Storage Options for Renewables

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sustainable Energy Storage Options for Renewables

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sustainable Energy Science and Engineering Center

Storage modes are determined

Anjane Krothapalli, September 20, 2006

Energy density: The amount of energy that can be stored.

Generic Storage Systems

Source: Tester et. al. Sustainable energy, MIT Press

Designed for load leveling

1. Life time (maximum number of charge and discharge

Rechargeable Battery Characteristics

Properties Wh/kg Wh/m3 Voltage Cycle Life

Lead acid 35 0.08 2 400

Nickel Cadmium 35 0.08 1.2 >1000

Nickel hydrogen 55 0.06 1.2 >10,000

Lithium 150 300 >3.6 >2,000

400 Wh/kg Goal

Battery Storage Requirement

Individual Americans use about 1.5 kWh of electricity every hour

Typical compact automobile power requirement: 50 KW

Potential Energy Storage

Hydropower Storage Facility

Pumped Stored Energy

Pump Turbine Progress

Potential Energy Storage

Wind capacity factor can be significantly improved

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed Air Energy Storage

W: specific compression work (J/kg); po: initial pressure; p1: final

Net work = Wnet= Wturbine - Wcompressor

In order to optimize the energy-to-mass ratio, the flywheel needs to spin

Specific Energy Density

max= maximum allowable tensile stress of the material

Technical Challenges: Light weight high tensile strength rotors (e.g.

Pumped Hydro 800 12

Li-Ion 300 200

Flywheels 350 500

SMES 650 1500-

Ultracapacitors 300 3600-

Alternative Ragone Plot

V: applied voltage; R: total effective resistance of the

Supercapacitors - State of the Art

Source: CAP-XX Pty Ltd, Australia, 2005

Superconducting Magnetic Energy

Storage Technology Costs

Source: iti Scotland Ltd, 2005

Energy Sources Typical Chemical

Hydrogen 142.0 MJ/kg

(Source: Chemical Energy, The Physics Hyper text Book)

Fuel Typical Stored Chemical

Hydrogen 7.1 MJ/kg @ 5wt%

Source: Ian Edwards, ITI Energy, May 24th, 2005

Energy Densities (LHV) in Liquid state

350 bar 700 bar

• increased pressure (>700 bar)

Compressed Gas Cylinders

weight specific energy

Pressure Gas density System density

High Pressure Cryogenic Tank

100 S. Aceves, et al 2002

• reduces temperature requirements

• Equilibrium temperature at 1 bar for liquid hydrogen is ~20 K.

1 J. Pettersson and O Hjortsberg, KFB-Meddelande 1999:27