ENGLISH III

Topic 1: Interjections
An interjection is one of the parts of speech, which is a word that is used to express internal
or sudden feelings like joy, sorrow, emotions, excitements in any sentence. An interjection is
a part of speech that shows the emotion or feeling of the author.
Examples:
1. Hey! What are you doing today?
2. Wow! You look so beautiful!
3. Bravo! You spelt it correctly.
4. Ha! What a pleasant surprise.
5. Oops! Sorry. It was my fault.
6. Hoorah! We won the match.
7. Congratulations! You have a baby girl.
8. Yeah! I got her number.
9. Jesus! You saved me from those culprits.
10. Good! Now we can start a new beginning.
Most important interjection list:
 Aah⇒ exclamation of fear
 Ahh ⇒ realization or acceptance
 Aww ⇒something sweet or cute
 Bingo ⇒ acknowledge something as right
 Eh ⇒ question something
 Uh oh ⇒showing dismay
 Whew ⇒amazement and or/relief
 Wow ⇒expressing surprise or admiration
 Yay/yaay ⇒ congratulatory exclamation
 Yeah ⇒ variant of yes
 Yikes ⇒for fear or concern (no serious)
 Uh ⇒ indicates a pause/need for more time
 Hmm ⇒ thinking/hesitating about something
 Er ⇒ not knowing what to say
 Um ⇒ pausing or being skeptical
 Eww ⇒something disgusting
 Hmph ⇒ to indicate displeasure
 Oh ⇒ I see/I think
 Oops ⇒ making a mistake
 Ouch ⇒exclamation of pain
 Shh ⇒ an indication for silence
 Yippee ⇒exclamation of celebration
 Eek! ⇒used to express surprise or dismay
 Well, well, well ⇒ expressing a feeling such as doubt, surprise or anger
  You bet! ⇒use to show agreement
 No way! ⇒absolutely not; under no circumstances
 No shot ⇒ to express anger, disgust
 Very well ⇒agree to do something, or accept someone’s answer
 Whoa! ⇒ means “stop”, telling someone to so something more slowly
 Sleep tight ⇒to sleep deeply and well good night
 Snap! ⇒see two things that are the same, or express surprise
 Oh snap! ⇒express surprise, agreement or acknowledgment
 There⇒resolving something or pointing
 Where! ⇒ expressing uncomfortable, surprised or happy feelings
 Psst! ⇒caught someone attention
 Duh! ⇒ you think that something that someone said or done is stupid
 Meh! ⇒ an expression of boredom of apathy
 Gee whiz! ⇒ very impressive or amazing
 Whatever! ⇒ “I don’t care”. Can be considered offensive and impolite
 Easy does it! ⇒to tell someone to move or do something slowly and carefully
 Nuts! ⇒express incredulity, rejection, insane, crazy or incredible
 My, my! ⇒express surprise or pleasure
 Just wondering ⇒used to qualify a question or action, motivated by curiosity
 You don’t say ⇒express surprise, in an ironically way
 Hey! ⇒to greet, or to complain about something
 Aye! ⇒used for saying “yes”
 Sup ⇒hello, short for “what’s up”
 Alas! ⇒ to express sorrow, grief, pity, concern
 Aha! ⇒an exclamation of understanding, realization, invention
 Sigh! ⇒ an expression of fatigue, exhaustion, grief, sorrow
 Whoosh ⇒sound created by such a rush, when something goes really fast
 Jerz ⇒expressing anger, like when someone is being grumpy
 Ugh ⇒expressing repulsion
 Jesus Christ! ⇒ omg! woowie! surprise or exciment
 Mmm ⇒when we are testing something (like food)
 Uh ⇒hesitation, doubt or a pause.

Topic 2: Tag Questions

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-
question. We use tag question to ask for confirmation.
Structure:
 Positive Question, Negative Question tag ?
Verb “to be”

You are late, aren’t you?

Same subject

Verb and “do” in the same tense

You study english, don’t you?

Same subject

Intonation and meaning

Intonation is the rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
Rising intonation: If the intonation of the question tag goes up, it means you are not sure and
you want to know the answer. Example:
John doesn’t speak Spanish, does↗ he?
Falling intonation: if the intonation of the question tag does down, it means you are checking
or confirming information that we are sure of. It can also be used when making conversation.
John doesn’t speak Spanish, does↘ he?
Answers will be:
Probably yes⇒ You like pizza, don’t you↘?
Maybe yes⇒You like pizza, don’t you↗?
Doesn’t know⇒Do you like pizza↗?
Maybe no⇒ You don’t like pizza, do you↗?
Probably no⇒You don’t like pizza, do you↘?

Negative question tags

Question tags are usen when asking for agreement or confirmation

A positive statement + a negative question tag?

Positive statement Negative tag

 You are a student, aren’t you?

He is very busy, isn’t he?

He was very happy, wasn’t he?

They were surprised, weren’t they?

You speak english, don’t you?

He studies Spanish, doesn’t he?

You studied for the test, didn’t you?

You have studied all week, haven’t you?

You had arrived before he left, hadn’t you?

You will pass the exam, won’t you?

You can speak two languages, can’t you?

You could do it for me, couldn’t you?

We must be patient, mustn’t we?

You should go now, shouldn’t you?

You will like a new job, wouldn’t you?

Exceptions

I am late, aren’t I?

Let’s go home, shall we?

PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY III

Topic 1: Phonetic vs phonology

Phonology: Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across
languages.
            Phonology is the study of the categorical organization of speech sounds in
languages; how speech sounds are organized in the mind and used to convey meaning.
Over here, it will be described the most common phonological processes and introduce the
concepts of underlying representations for sounds versus what is actually produced, the
surface form.

            Phonology can be related to many linguistic disciplines, including

psycholinguistics, cognitive science, sociolinguistics and language acquisition.

            Phonemes are the meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest
units of sound). For example, ‘pat’ and ‘bat’ differ in their first phoneme: the /p/ and /b/.
Vowels are also phonemes, so “pat” and “pet” differ by a phoneme, too (but phonemes
don’t always match up with spelling!). When two words differ by a single phoneme, they
are known as a minimal pair.
Phonetic: Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on
the production and classification of the world’s speech sounds.  The production of speech
looks at the interaction of different vocal organs, for example the lips, tongue and teeth, to
produce particular sounds.  
Morpheme: in linguistics, the smallest grammatical unit of speech; it may be a word, like
“place” or “an,” or an element of a word, like re- and -ed in “reappeared.”
Grapheme: is a written symbol that represents a sound (phoneme). This can be a single
letter, or could be a sequence of letters, such as ai, sh, igh, tch etc. So when a child says the
sound /t/ this is a phoneme, but when they write the letter 't' this is a grapheme.
Allophones: are different ways to pronounce a phoneme based on its environment in a
word. For example, the two allophones of /l/ in “little” are actually produced slightly
differently, and the second one sounds slightly deeper. This different “l”s always occur in
different environments in words, which is known as “complementary distribution”.

Segmental phonology : is the study of the segments of speech such as vowels and
consonants and how they make up a syllable that can be uttered.

            Segmental phonology: analyses speech into discrete segments, such as,

phonemes and studies the phonological rules that govern the way sounds. function in a
language. This area studies sounds (phonemes and allophones) and sound patterns.

            In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that deals with the
analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which
correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. The Sign Writing
script represents the spatial order of the segments with a spatial
cluster of graphemes.

What is segmental phonology example? Segmental phonemes are similar, slightly

different sounds within a language. An example of segmental phonemes are the sounds
of "a," "e," "i," "o," and "u." Phonemes consisting of sound segments; hence, the
vowel, consonant, and semivowel sounds of a language.

Phonological processes : Phonological processes are the patterns that young children use
to simplify adult speech. All children use these processes while their speech and language
are developing. For example, very young children (ages 1 to 3) may say “wa wa” for
“water” or “tat” for “cat.” Other children may leave out the final sound in words (for
example, “pi” for “pig” or “ha“ for “hat.”) Up to age 3, these are appropriate productions.

            As children mature, so does their speech, and they stop using these patterns to
simplify words. In fact, by age 5, most children stop using all phonological processes and
their speech sounds more like the adults around them

Types of phonological processes

Syllable structure processes.

Sound changes that cause sounds or syllables to be reduced in number, deleted, or

repeated.

Final Consonant Deletion  is the deletion of the final consonant or consonant cluster in a
syllable or word.   

Ex: “soap”/sop/ is pronounced “sew” /so/;

“pig” /pg/ is pronounced “pi” /pi/

Cluster Reduction is the deletion of one or more consonants from a two or three
consonant cluster.  
Ex: “spot” /spat/ is pronounced “pot” /pat/
“clown” /klaυn/ is pronounced “cown” /kaυn/

Syllable Reduction  is the deletion

of a syllable from a word containing two or more syllables. The deletion usually occurs in
the unstressed syllable.
Ex: “computer” /kəmpjut/ is pronounced “puter” /pjutɚ/

Substitution processes

Sound changes in which one sound class replaces another class of sounds.

Gliding   occurs when /r/ becomes /w/   or   /l/ becomes /w/ or   /j/.    
Ex: “rail” /rel/ is pronounced “whale” /wel/
 “leap” /lip/ is pronounced “weep” /wip/

Vocalization  occurs when one of the following, /l/, /ɝ/, or /ɚ/, is replaced by a  more
neutral vowel. 
Ex: “seal” /sil/ is pronounced “sio” /sio/
“computer” /kəmpjutɚ / is pronounced “computa” /kəmpjutʊ/

Fronting (Velar and Palatal) is the substitution of sounds in the front of the mouth, usually
alveolars, for velar or palatal sounds.     
Ex: “key” /ki/ is pronounced “tea” /ti/
“gate” /get/ ispronounced “date” /det/

Deaffrication  is the deletion of a stop component from an affricate leaving  only the
continuant aspect.    
Ex: “cheese” /iz/ is pronounced “sheese” /ʃiz/;
“jar” /dʒaɚ/ is pronounced “zhar” /ʒɑɚ/

Stopping is the substitution of a stop consonant for a fricative or an affricate.  

Ex: “sail” /sel/ is pronounced “tail” /tel/
“knife” /naif/ is pronounced “knipe” /naip/

Assimilation processes

Sound changes in which one sound or syllable influences another sound or syllable.

Prevocalic Voicing  is the voicing of an initial voiceless consonant in a word.  

Ex: “peach” /pitʃ/ is pronounced “beach”/bitʃ/

Postvocalic Devoicing  is the devoicing of a final voiced consonant in a word.   

Ex: “bag” /bæg/ is pronounced “back”/bæk/

LINGUISTICS II

Topic 1: Applied linguistics

Applied linguistics is a field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand real-
life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education. 
Importance: applied linguistics is mainly focused in real world problems (rwp) such as:
 Language policy
 Language inequality problem
 Assessment o language problem
 Measurement and assessment of language
 Speech therapy
 Teaching and learning a foreign language as a second language
Relation of applied linguistics (A.L) with language learning
Applied linguistics is closely linked to the learning of foreign languages, due to the need to
translate from one language to another and development of writing systems, vocabulary, lists,
etc.
Through language method of applied linguistics, language learning activity is an effect where
studies can learn the language in an effective and efficient manner. Studying A.L is useful for
all sorts of employment as it gives you an understanding of many aspects of human
communication exploring language acquisition from a theorical perspective.
Main barriers that impede acquiring a second language
 Social barriers
- Peer group
- Socio-economic status
- Parental/family support
- Access and support

 Psycho/emotional
- Affective factors (anxiety, social bias)
- Self-belief
- Motivation
- Attitude towards language and learning
- Social disposition/ character

 Biological
- Psycho motor skills
- Cognitive functioning
- Physical impairments (deaf, blind)
- Age and health
 Pedagogical
- Type and method of instruction
- Improper materials
- The access to imput (native speakers/audio material)
- Lack of learning skills, strategies
- Teacher/student relationship

How to overcome the barriers

- Surrounding our environment with english, listening to the language all the time
and everywhere is the best therapy to stimulate comprehension.
- To improve hearing acuity, it is advisable to watch TV shows, movies and listen
to music. All in english spoken by native speakers.
 - Seek constantly interact orally and writing with other people, especially native
speakers.
- Constancy is the best strategy for achieving any goal or project.

TRADUCTION III

Topic 1: Legal translation

Legal translation is the field of translation that transforms legal documents and

material from one language to another, respecting the original meaning. This sort of
translation consists of a procedure that takes into account legal background. Among the
different documents that can be translated related to law, are the following:  

 Contracts 
 Court and witness transcripts 
 Depositions 
 Confidentiality agreements 
 Wills and trusts 
 Complaints 
 Policies 
 Legal
 Statements 
 Licenses 
 Litigation documentation 
 Arbitration translation 
 Legal disclaimers 

‘Legalese’ is almost like a language of its own. It requires a legally trained person to

understand it. 
Importance: when someone hires a translator or translation agency for a legal translation
procedure, it is extremely important to be able to depend on a reliable outcome. If the
translation isn’t accurate enough it can have legal consequences. Legal
translation also becomes useful when materials that have been
previously translated require updating. 
Characteristics of legal translation: according to the research of Malcolm
Harvey (2002), there are four characteristics of legal translation. 
1. The nature of legal discourse: Legal documents can be divided into prescriptive and
descriptive texts, as well as hybrid texts which contain both functions. The target text
has legal effects. The function of a document depends not on its inherent nature, but
on the communicative situation.
2. A system-bound discipline:  Legal translators must find equivalents for culture-
bound terms, particularly those related to concepts, procedures, institutions and
personnel.
3. Fidelity: Specialists in legal translation understand fidelity as, “…achieving an
equivalent impact on the target reader, which may justify substantial changes to the
original text to respect the stylistic conventions of the target legal culture.” (Sparer
1979: 78-90, Covacs 1982: 95) In this way, the translator is not
just a bilingual typist, but a text producer. 
4. Ambiguity and interpretation: The language of law, as politics, ethics and
metaphysics exists within the realm of rhetoric, relies on natural language. This
causes a lot of ambiguity, which can cause troubles when it comes to interpreting
legal content. 
Skills of a legal translator: The skills a legal translator should possess, according to
Breuer, are: 

 Diligence 
 Professionalism 
 Qualification in technical matters 
 Knowledge of the legal field and legal
translation itself
  Proper knowledge of the source language as well as the target language
 Research skills 

Types of legal documents:

1. Guardianship documents
2. Health care power of attorney
3. Financial power of attorney
4. Living will
5. Last will and testament

Legal document’s structure:

1. Write in the active voice. The active voice eliminates confusion by forcing you to
name the actor in a sentence. This construction makes clear to the reader  who is to
perform the duty. The passive voice makes sentences longer and roundabout.
2. Use action verbs. An action verb can express something that a person, animal or
even object can do.
3. Use "must" instead of "shall". To impose a legal obligation, use "must." To
predict future action, use "will."
4.  Be direct. Talk directly to your readers. Use the imperative mood. Regulations
lend themselves to this style, especially procedures, how-to instructions, and lists
of duties.
5. Use the present tense. A regulation of continuing effect speaks as of
the time you apply it, not as of the time you draft it or when it becomes
effective.
6. Write positively. If you can accurately express an idea either
positively or negatively, express it positively.
7. Avoid use of exceptions. If possible, state a rule or category
directly rather than describing that rule or category by stating its
exceptions.
8. Avoid split infinitives. The split infinitive offends many readers,
so avoid it if you can.
9. Use the singular noun rather than the plural noun. To the extent your
meaning allows, use a singular noun instead of a plural noun. You will avoid
the problem of whether the rule applies separately to each member of a class or
jointly to the class as a whole.
10. Be consistent. Don't use different words to denote the same things.
Variation for the sake of variation has no place in regulation writing.
11. Use parallel structure. Arrange sentences so that parallel ideas
look parallel. This is important when you use a list.
12. Prefer simple words. Government writing should be dignified,
but doesn't have to be pompous. Writing can be dignified when the language is
simple, direct, and strong.
13. Omit needless words. Don't use compound prepositions and
other wordy expressions when the same meaning can be conveyed with one or two
words.
14. Avoid redundancies. Don't use word pairs, if the words have
the same effect or where the meaning of one included the other.
15. Use concrete words. Government writing often concerns
abstract subjects. But abstract words can be vague and open to different
interpretations. Put instructions
in simple, concrete words.
16. Don't use words that antagonize. Words can attract or repel
readers. 
17. Avoid noun sandwiches.  Avoid these
confusing constructions by using more prepositions.
18. Don't use gender-specific terminology. Avoid the gender-specific job
title.
19. Write short sentences. Readable sentences are simple,
active, affirmative, and declarative.
20. Make lists clear and logical in structure. Listing provides
white space that separates the various conditions. 
21. Use short paragraphs. A writer may improve the clarity of a
regulation by using short, compact paragraphs.