EE811PE: POWER QUALITY AND FACTS (PE - V)

B.Tech. IV Year II Sem L

T P C

3 0 0 3
Prerequisite: Power Electronics, Power System Operation and Control, HVDC Transmission
Course Objectives:
 Definition of power quality and different terms of power quality.
 Study of voltage power quality issue – short and long interruption.
 Detail study of characterization of voltage sag magnitude and three phase
unbalanced voltage sag.
 Know the behaviour of power electronics loads; induction motors, synchronous
motor etc by the power quality issues.
 Overview of mitigation of power quality issues by the VSI converters.
 To understand the fundamentals of FACTS Controllers,
 To know the importance of controllable parameters and types of FACTS
controllers & their benefits
 To understand the objectives of Shunt and Series compensation
 To Control STATCOM and SVC and their comparison and the regulation of
STATCOM, Functioning and control of GCSC, TSSC and TCSC

Course Outcomes: After completion of this course, the student will be able to:

 Know the severity of power quality problems in distribution system

 Understand the concept of voltage sag transformation from up-stream (higher
voltages) to down-stream (lower voltage)
 Concept of improving the power quality to sensitive load by various mitigating
custom power devices
 Choose proper controller for the specific application based on system requirements
 Understand various systems thoroughly and their requirements
 Understand the control circuits of Shunt Controllers SVC & STATCOM for
various functions viz. Transient stability Enhancement, voltage instability
prevention and power oscillation damping
 Understand the Power and control circuits of Series Controllers GCSC, TSSC and
TCSC

UNIT - I

Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems: Power Quality problems in

distribution systems: Transient and Steady state variations in voltage and frequency.
Unbalance, Sags, Swells, Interruptions, Wave-form Distortions: harmonics, noise,
notching, dc-offsets, fluctuations. Flicker and its measurement.
 UNIT- II

Transmission Lines and Series/Shunt Reactive Power Compensation: Basics of AC

Transmission. Analysis of uncompensated AC transmission lines. Passive Reactive Power
Compensation. Shunt and series compensation at the mid-point of an AC line. Comparison
of Series and Shunt Compensation.

UNIT- III

Static Shunt Compensators: Objectives of shunt compensation, Methods of controllable

VAR generation, Static Var Compensator, its characteristics, TCR, TSC, FC-TCR
configurations, STATCOM, basic operating principle, control approaches and
characteristics

UNIT- IV

Static Series Compensators: Objectives of series compensator, variable impedance type

of series compensators, TCSC, TSSC-operating principles and control schemes, SSSC,
Power Angle

characteristics, Control range and VAR rating, Capability to provide reactive power
compensation, external control

UNIT-V:

Combined Compensators: Introduction to Unified Power Flow Controller, Basic operating

principles, Conventional control capabilities, Independent control of real and reactive power.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electrical Power Systems Quality, Dugan Roger C, Santoso Surya, Mc
Granaghan, Marks F. Beaty and H. Wayre, Mc Graw Hill
2. Power Systems Quality Assessment, J. Arillaga, N.R. Watson, S.Clon, John Wiley.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Power Quality, C.Sankaran, CRC Press 4. Understanding power quality problems,
Math H. Bollen, IEEE press.
2. “Understanding FACTS –Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems” Narain G.Honorani, Laszlo Gyugyi
Power Quality Problems in Power Distribution System
Correcting power quality problems requires an understanding of all power distribution system
components and how a problem in one component can cause problems in other components.
 Distribution system components include transformers, distribution lines, switchboards, and panel
boards, disconnects, circuit breakers, fuses, and receptacles to deliver, control, and protect the
system.
Electrical power distribution systems must deliver quality power to loads if the loads are to
operate properly for their rated lifetime and performance.
Quality power is power delivered to a load that is within the load specified voltage, is capable of
delivering enough current under any operating condition, and includes minimal, not damaging,
changes.
Poor quality power is power delivered to a load that includes excessive or damaging changes such
as voltage drops, voltage unbalance, voltage fluctuations, current unbalance, transients, and
harmonic distortion. See Figure 1

Figure 1. Power quality problems can damage electrical equipment and lead to unsafe operating
conditions.
Single Phasing
Single phasing is the operation of a motor that is designed to operate on three phases but is only
operating on two phases because one phase is lost.
Single phasing occurs when one of the three lines leading to a 3φ motor does not deliver voltage to
the motor. Single phasing is the maximum condition of voltage unbalance in a distribution system.
Single phasing is reduced through the use of properly sized dual-element fuses and heaters. An
electronic phase-loss monitor is used to detect phase loss in motor circuits and other types of circuits
in which a single-phasing condition cannot be allowed to exist for even a short period of time. The
monitor activates a set of contacts to drop out the starter coil when a phase loss is detected.
The severe blackening of one delta winding or two wye windings of the three 3φ windings will be
observable when a motor has failed due to single phasing. The coil or coils that experienced the
voltage loss will be in the best condition. The damage occurs in the other coils because of
overcurrent. See Figure 2.

Single phasing occurs when one phase opens on either the primary or secondary power distribution
system. A phase opens when one fuse blows, when there is a mechanical failure within the switching
equipment, or when lightning takes out one of the lines.
Single phasing can go undetected in some systems because a 3φ motor running on two phases can
still run in low torque applications. A motor that is single phasing will draw all of its current from
two lines.
Voltage measurements taken at a motor do not normally indicate a single-phasing condition. The
open winding in the motor generates voltage almost equal to the phase voltage that is lost. In this
case, the open winding acts as the secondary of a transformer, while the two windings connected to
power act as the primary.
 Figure 2. Single-phasing causes severe burning and distortion to one or two windings depending on
the configuration.
Single phasing is distinguished from voltage unbalance by the severity of the damage. Voltage
unbalance causes less blackening (but over more windings, normally) than single phasing and little or
no distortion. Single phasing causes burns and distortion to one winding.
Improper Phase Sequence
Improper phase sequence is the changing of the sequence of any two phases (phase reversal) in a 3φ
motor circuit. Improper phase sequence reverses the motor rotation. Reversing motor rotation can
damage driven machinery or injure personnel.
Phase reversal can occur when modifications are made to a power distribution system or when
maintenance is performed on electrical conductors or switching equipment.
The NEC® requires phase reversal protection on all personnel transportation equipment such as
moving walkways, escalators, and ski lifts. See Figure 3.
 Figure
3. Improper phase sequence is the changing of the sequence of any two phases (phase reversal) in a
3φ motor circuit.
Phase Unbalance
Phase unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when power lines are out of phase. Phase unbalance of
a 3φ power system occurs when 1φ loads are applied, which causes one or two of the lines to carry
more or less of the load. An electrician balances the load of a 3φ power system during the installation
process.
A power quality meter can be used to check phase unbalance on power lines. An unbalance begins to
occur when additional 1φ loads are added to the system. This unbalance causes the 3φ lines to move
out of phase so the lines are no longer 120 electrical degrees apart. See Figure 4.
Figure 4. Phase unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when power lines are out of phase.
Phase unbalance causes 3φ motors to run at temperatures higher than their listed ratings. The greater
the phase unbalance, the greater the temperature rise. High temperatures cause insulation breakdown
and other related problems.
A 3φ motor operating in an unbalanced circuit cannot deliver its rated horsepower. For example, a
phase unbalance of 3% causes a motor to work at 90% of its rated power. This requires the motor to
be derated. See Figure 5.
 Figure
5. A motor operating on a circuit that has phase unbalance must be derated
AC Voltage Variations
Motors are rated for operation at specific voltages. Motor performance is affected when the supply
voltage varies from a motor’s rated voltage. A motor operates satisfactorily with a voltage variation
of ±10% from the voltage rating listed on the motor nameplate. See Figure 6.
 Figure
6. A motor operates satisfactorily with a voltage variation of ±10% from the voltage rating listed on
the motor nameplate.
AC Frequency Variations
Motors are rated for operation at specific frequencies. Motor performance is affected when the
frequency varies from a motor’s rated frequency. A motor operates satisfactorily with a frequency
variation of ±5% from the frequency rating listed on the motor nameplate. See Figure 7.

Figure
7. A motor operates satisfactorily with a frequency variation of ±5% from the frequency rating listed
on the motor nameplate.
DC Voltage Variations
power supply varies from almost pure DC power to half-wave DC power.
DC motor operation is affected by a change in voltage. The change may be intentional, as in a speed-
control application, or it may be caused by variations in the power supply.
The power supply voltage normally should not vary by more than 10% of a motor’s rated voltage.
Motor speed, current, torque, and temperature are affected when the DC voltage varies from the
motor rating. See Figure 8.

Figure
8. Motor speed, current, torque, and temperature are affected if the DC voltage varies from the motor
rating.
Voltage Surges
A voltage surge is a higher-than-normal voltage that temporarily exists on one or more power lines.
Lightning is a major cause of large voltage surges.
A lightning surge on a power line comes from a direct lightning hit or induced voltage. The lightning
energy moves in both directions on the power lines, much like a rapidly moving wave.
A traveling surge of lightning energy causes a large voltage rise in a short period of time. The large
voltage is impressed on the first few turns of the motor windings, destroying the insulation and
burning out the motor.
An electrician will be able to observe the burning and opening of the first few turns of the windings
that occur when a motor has failed due to a voltage surge. The rest of the windings will appear
normal, with little or no damage. See Figure 9.
Lightning arresters with the proper voltage rating and connection to an excellent ground ensure
maximum voltage surge protection. urge protectors are also available. Surge protectors are placed on
equipment or throughout the distribution system.
Voltage surges can also occur due to the normal switching of high-power circuits. Voltage surges that
occur due to the switching of high-power circuits are of lesser magnitude than lightning strikes and
normally do not cause motor problems. A surge protector should be used on computer equipment
circuits to protect sensitive electronic components.
Figure 9. A voltage surge causes burning and opening of the first few turns of the windings.
Tech Fact
Never assume that phase A, phase B, and phase C are the same throughout a structural distribution
system. Instead, a phase sequence test instrument is used to identify which lines are powered and
which power lines are phase A, phase B, and phase C.
Voltage Unbalance
Voltage unbalance, also known as voltage imbalance, is the unbalance that occurs when voltages at
the terminals of an electric motor or other 3φ load are not equal.
Voltage unbalance causes motor windings to overheat, resulting in thermal deterioration of the
windings. When a 3φ motor fails due to voltage unbalance, one or two of the stator windings become
blackened. See Figure 10.
The problem with voltage unbalance within a power distribution system is that a small amount of
voltage unbalance can cause a high current unbalance in loads such as electric motors.
In general, voltage unbalance should not be more than 1%. Whenever there is a 2% or greater voltage
unbalance, corrective action should be taken. This may include repositioning loads to balance the
current draw on the three power lines if the problem is within the building.
The problem is within the building if the unbalance deteriorates when loads are ON and improves
when loads are OFF.
If the unbalance is at the main power entrance at all times, the problem is most likely with the utility
system and the utility company should be notified.
 Figure
10. Voltage unbalance within a power distribution system can cause high current unbalance in loads
such as electric motors.
Voltage unbalance can be determined through the use of a test instrument or meter.
 First, the meter is set to measure AC voltage for an AC circuit or DC voltage for a DC circuit.
 Next, the meter is tested on a known energized source to verify that the meter is in proper
working condition before measurements are taken.
 Then, to find voltage unbalance, the following procedure is applied:
 Measure the voltage between each incoming power line. The readings are taken from L1 to
L2, L1 to L3, and L2 to L3. See Figure 11.
 Add the voltages.
 Find the voltage average by dividing the sum of the voltages by 3.
 Find the voltage deviation by subtracting the voltage average from the voltage with the largest
deviation.
 Find voltage unbalance by applying the following formula:
 Vu=VdVa×100Vu=VdVa×100
 Where
 Vu = voltage unbalance (in %)
 Vd = voltage deviation (in V)
 Va = voltage average (in V)
 100 = percentage
 Figure 11. Voltage unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when the voltages at different
motor terminals are not equal.
 Example: Calculating Voltage Unbalance
 Calculate the voltage unbalance of a feeder system with the following voltage readings: L1 to
L2 = 442 V, L1 to L3 = 474 V, and L2 to L3 = 456 V.
 1. Measure the voltage between each incoming power line.
 Incoming voltages are 442 V, 474 V, and 456 V.
 2. Add the voltages.
 Find the voltage average by dividing the sum of the voltages by 3.
 Find the voltage deviation by subtracting the voltage average from the voltage with the largest
deviation.
 Find voltage unbalance by applying the following formula:
Vu=VdVa×100
 Where
 Vu = voltage unbalance (in %)
 Vd = voltage deviation (in V)
 Va = voltage average (in V)
 100 = percentage
 Figure
11. Voltage unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when the voltages at different motor terminals are
not equal.
Example: Calculating Voltage Unbalance
Calculate the voltage unbalance of a feeder system with the following voltage readings: L1 to L2 =
442 V, L1 to L3 = 474 V, and L2 to L3 = 456 V.
1. Measure the voltage between each incoming power line.
Incoming voltages are 442 V, 474 V, and 456 V.
2. Add the voltages.
442 V + 474 V + 456 V = 1372 V
3. Find the voltage area.
Va=V3=13723=457VVa=V3=13723=457V
4. Find the voltage deviation.
Vd=V−Va=474−457=17VVd=V−Va=474−457=17V
5. Find voltage unbalance.
Vu=VdVa×100=17457×100=3.72%Vu=VdVa×100=17457×100=3.72%
An electrician will be able to observe the blackening of one delta stator winding or two wye stator
windings that occurs when a motor has failed due to voltage unbalance. The winding with the largest
voltage unbalance will be the darkest.
Current Unbalance
Current unbalance, also known as current imbalance, is the unbalance that occurs when the currents
on each of the three power lines of a 3φ power supply are not equal.
Current unbalance from overloading one or two of the 3φ power lines can cause voltage unbalances.
This can cause voltage unbalances on all loads connected within a building.
A 2% voltage unbalance can cause an 8% or higher current unbalance. Current unbalances should not
exceed 10%. Any time current unbalance exceeds 10%, the system should be tested for voltage
unbalance. Likewise, any time a voltage unbalance is more than 1%, the system should be tested for a
current unbalance.
Current unbalance is determined in the same manner as voltage unbalance, except that current
measurements are used. See Figure 12.

Figure
12. Current unbalance is determined in the same manner as voltage unbalance, except that current
measurements are used.
Current unbalance can be determined through the use of a test instrument or meter.
 First, the meter is set to measure AC current for an AC circuit or DC current for a DC circuit.
 Next, the meter is tested on a known energized source to verify that the meter is in proper
working condition before measurements are taken.
 Then, to find the percentage of current unbalance in a circuit, the following procedure is
applied:
1. Measure current on each of the incoming power lines.
 2. Add all current values together.
3. Calculate the current average by taking the sum of current measurements and dividing by the
number of measurements taken.
4. Calculate the largest current deviation by subtracting the lowest current measurement from
the current average.
5. Calculate the current unbalance by dividing the largest current deviation by the current
average and multiplying by 100.
Example: Calculating Current Unbalance
Calculate the current unbalance of a feeder system with the following current readings: L1=58A,
L2=53A, and L3=57A.
1. Measure the current for each incoming power line.
Incoming currents are 58 A, 53 A, and 57 A.
2. Add the currents
58 A + 53 A + 57 A = 168 A
3. Find the current average.
Va=V3=1683=56AVa=V3=1683=56A
4. Find the current deviation.
Id=I−Ia=56−53=3AId=I−Ia=56−53=3A
5. Find current unbalance.
Iu=IdIa×100=356×100=5.35%
Transient and Steady state variations in voltage and frequency
Concepts of transients:
 Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution
networks result from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and
network switching operations.
 Response of an electrical network to a sudden change in network conditions.

 Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or

system. It is a momentary event preceding the steady state
(electronics) during a sudden change of a circuit.
 An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse)
signals in computer networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an
oscillation resulting from the sudden rise in voltage and another
oscillation from the sudden drop in voltage. This is generally
considered an undesirable effect as it introduces variations in the high
and low voltages of a signal, causing instability.
 Types of transient:
o Impulsive transient
o Oscillatory transient
Impulse transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity.

Oscillatory transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.

Short duration variations – Interruption

The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time less
than
1 min.
Types of Short Duration interruption:
 Momentary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
  Temporary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
Long duration variations – Sustained interruption
The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time
greater than 1 min.

Sags and Swells:

Voltage sag:

 A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short duration reduction in RMS

voltage which can be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting
of electric motors.
 Voltage sag happens when the RMS voltage decreases between 10
and 90 percent of nominal voltage for one-half cycle to one minute.
 Some references define the duration of sag for a period of 0.5
cycles to a few seconds, and longer duration of low voltage
would be called “sustained sag".

There are several factors which cause voltage sag to happen:

 Since the electric motors draw more current when they are
starting than when they are running at their rated speed, starting an
electric motor can be a reason of voltage sag.
 When a line-to-ground fault occurs, there will be voltage sag until the
protective switch gear operates.
  Some accidents in power lines such as lightning or falling an
object can be a cause of line-to-ground fault and voltage sag as a
result.
 Sudden load changes or excessive loads can cause voltage sag.
 Depending on the transformer connections, transformers energizing
could be another reason for happening voltage sags.
 Voltage sags can arrive from the utility but most are caused by in-
building equipment. In residential homes, we usually see voltage sags
when the refrigerator, air-conditioner or furnace fan starts up.

Voltage Swell:
 Swell - an increase to between 1.1pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency durations from 0.5 to 1 minute
 In the case of a voltage swell due to a single line-to-ground (SLG)
fault on the system, the result is a temporary voltage rise on the un
faulted phases, which last for the duration of the fault. This is shown
in the figure below:

Instantaneous Voltage Swell Due to SLG fault

  Voltage swells can also be caused by the deenergization of a very large load.
 It may cause breakdown of components on the power supplies of the
equipment, though the effect may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It
can cause control problems and hardware failure in the equipment,
due to overheating that could eventually result to shutdown. Also,
electronics and other sensitive equipment are prone to damage due to
voltage swell.
Voltage Swell Magnitude Duration

Instantaneous 1.1 to 1.8 pu 0.5 to 30 cycles

Momentary 1.1 to 1.4 pu 30 cycles to 3 sec

Temporary 1.1 to 1.2 pu 3 sec to 1 min

\
Voltage unbalance:
 In a balanced sinusoidal supply system the three line-neutral voltages
are equal in magnitude and are phase displaced from each other by
120 degrees (Figure 1). Any differences that exist in the three voltage
magnitudes and/or a shift in the phase separation from 120 degrees is
said to give rise to an unbalanced supply (Figure 2)
  The utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages due to
malfunctioning equipment, including blown capacitor fuses, open-
delta regulators, and open-delta transformers. Open-delta equipment
can be more susceptible to voltage unbalance than closed-delta since
they only utilize two phases to perform their transformations.

Also, voltage unbalance can also be caused by uneven single-phase

load distribution among the three phases - the likely culprit for a
voltage unbalance of less than 2%. Furthermore, severe cases (greater
than 5%) can be attributed to single-phasing in the utility’s
distribution lateral feeders because of a blown fuse due to fault or
overloading on one phase.
Voltage Fluctuation:
 Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive or random
variations of the voltage envelope due to sudden changes in the real
and reactive power drawn by a load. The characteristics of voltage
fluctuations depend on the load type and size and the power system
capacity.
 Figure 1 illustrates an example of a fluctuating voltage waveform.
The voltage waveform exhibits variations in magnitude due to the
fluctuating nature or intermittent operation of connected loads.
 The frequency of the voltage envelope is often referred to as the
flicker frequency. Thus there are two important parameters to voltage
fluctuations, the frequency of fluctuation and the magnitude of
fluctuation. Both of these components are significant in the adverse
effects of voltage fluctuations.

 Voltage fluctuations are caused when loads draw currents having

significant sudden or periodic variations. The fluctuating current that
is drawn from the supply causes additional voltage drops in the power
system leading to fluctuations in the supply voltage. Loads that
exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the most likely cause of
voltage fluctuations.
  Arc furnaces
 Arc welders
 Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner units, fans)
 Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling mills)
 Equipment with excessive motor speed changes (wood chippers, car shredders)

Power frequency variations:

 Power frequency variations are a deviation from the nominal supply
frequency. The supply frequency is a function of the rotational speed of
the generators used to produce the electrical energy.
 At any instant, the frequency depends on the balance between the load
and the capacity of the available generation.
 A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-synchronous
with the power system, causing an inconsistency that is manifested in the
form of a variation.

Waveform Distortion
Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal
sine wave of power frequency.
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
 3. Interharmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise
1. DC offset:
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.
Effects: (a) It may saturate the transformer core causing additional
heating and loss of transformer life.
(b) Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding
electrodes and other connectors.
2.Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the supply frequency (fundamental frequency).
Sources: Non-linear loads

Total Harmonic Distortion is used to measure the effective value of harmonic distortion.
The following figureillustrates the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical
adjustable- speed-drive (ASD) input current.
3Interharmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are
called interharmonics.
Sources: Static frequency converter, cycloconverters, induction
furnaces, and arcing devices.Power line carrier signals can also be
considered as interharmonics.
4Notching
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another.
The following figure shows an example of voltage notching from a three-phase converter
that produces continuous dc current. The notches occur when the current commutates from
one phase to another. During this period, there is a momentary short circuit between two
phases, pulling the voltage as close to zero as permitted by system impedances
 [Fig.Voltage notching caused by a three-phase converter]

5Noise
Noise is the unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200
kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or
found on neutral conductors or signal lines.
Sources: Power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-
state rectifiers, and switching power supplies.
The problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation transformers, and line conditioners.

MCQ POST TEST:

1.Lightening and Tree striking on a live conductor is an example Power Quality issue.

(a) Voltage Sag (b) Voltage Swell (c) Interruption (d) Surge

2.Interruption is

(a) complete loss of power (b) complete loss of voltage (c) complete loss of current (d) all the
above

3.The Transients in the power system occurs for

a) less than two complete cycles b) exact two complete cycles c) less than one complete cycles d)
exact one complete cycles

4.The most common cause of long interruption is (a) Faults (b) Outages (c) Both (a) & (b)

(d) none of the above

5.Outage is the

(a) Removal of Primary Component (b) No Power Generation (c)

Transmission Faults (d) None of the above 6.Single Phase Tripping is generally

used in .

(a) Transmission System (b) Distribution System (c) Low Voltage System (d) Generation System

7.The Short Interruptions occurs for

(a) Less than two complete cycles (b) exact two complete cycles (c) less than one complete cycles
(d) exact one complete cycles
8.Most electrical equipment is designed to operate within a voltage of ± of nominal with
marginal decrease in performance.

(A) 5%

(B)1 C) 10 % (D) 0.5 %

9.Which of the following equipment has low immunity index?

(A) electronic medical equipment

(B)adjustable speed drives

(C) transformers

(D) electromechanical relays

10.As per the power quality indices, which of the following applications face low power
quality problems?

(A)HVAC power panels

(B)lighting power distribution panel

(C)elevators

(D)large motors

ASSIGNMENTS :

1.What do you understand about power quality issues? Discuss all the power quality issues
in brief.

2. Explain the cause and effect with respect to power quality point of view? What
is an immunity of the equipment? Discuss the treatment criteria for a machine.

3. Define and technically describe following terms: (1)Linear loads

(2)Inrush current (3)Power factor(displacement) (4)Voltage swell
(5)Transient

4. What are the power quality standards? Discuss responsibilities of supplier and user of
electrical power with respect to power quality

5. Define the following terms 1. Displacement Power Factor 2. Flicker 3. Nonlinear load

6. Explain following terms related to power quality. (1) Grounding (2) Noise (3) Notch.

7. Explain all power quality concerns in brief.

 UNIT-2
Transmission Lines and Series/Shunt Reactive Power Compensation

Electrical energy, after being produced at generating stations (TPS, HPS, NPS, etc.) is

transmitted to the consumers for utilization. This is due to the fact that generating stations are
usually situated away from the load centers. The network that transmits and delivers power
from the producers to the consumers is called the transmission system. This energy can be
transmitted in AC or DC form. Traditionally, AC has been used for years now,
but HVDC (High Voltage DC) is rapidly gaining popularity. Single Line Diagram Of AC Power
Transmission System
A typical single line diagram that represents the flow of energy in a given power system is

Electric power is commonly (or usually) generated at 11 kV in generating stations in India

and Europe. While in some cases, generation voltage might be higher or lower. Generating
machines, to be used in power stations, are available between 6 kV to 25 kV from some big
manufacturers. This generating voltage is then stepped up to 132kV, 220kV, 400kV or 765kV
etc. Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is to be
transmitted. Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level. Stepping up of voltage is to
reduce the I2R losses in transmitting the power (when voltage is stepped up, the current
reduces by a relative amount so that the power remains constant, and hence I2R loss also
reduces). This stage is called as primary transmission.
The voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV. Secondary
transmission lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near
load centers (cities etc.).
The voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can be
supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Also, feeders emerge from these
substations. This stage is called as primary distribution.
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the load
points (end consumers) up to a couple of kilometers. Finally, the voltage is stepped down to
415 volts by a pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered to the distributors. End
consumers are supplied through a service mains line from distributors. The secondary
distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.
Different Types Of Transmission Systems
1. Single phase AC system
 single phase, two wires
 single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
 single phase, three wires
1. Two phase AC system
 two-phase, three wires
 two-phase, four wires
Three phase AC system
 three-phase, three wires
 three-phase, four wires
DC system
 DC two wires
 DC two wires with midpoint earthed
 DC three wires

Electric power transmission can also be carried out using underground cables. But,

construction of an underground transmission line generally costs 4 to 10 times than an
equivalent distance overhead line. However, it is to be noted that, the cost
of constructing underground transmission lines highly depends upon the local
environment. Also, the cost of conductor material required is one of the most
considerable charges in a transmission system. Since conductor cost is a major part of
the total cost, it has to be taken into consideration while designing. The choice of
transmission system is made by keeping in mind various factors such as reliability,
efficiency and economy. Usually, overhead transmission system is used.
Main Elements Of A Transmission Line
Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely used
for electric power transmission. Following are the main elements of a typical power system.
  Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line. Conductors
must be of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity.
Usually, ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
 Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and
step-down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be
transmitted at higher efficiency.
 Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating
them from the support towers.
 Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.
 Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation.
These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.
 Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.
 UNCOMPENSATED TRANSMISSION LINES
 1. Introduction

For simplicity let us consider only the inductive reactance

From the above figure it is clear that between he sending and the receiving end
voltages and magnitude variation as well as a phase difference is created and the most
significant part of the voltage drop in the line reactance is due to the reactive
component of the load current and to keep the voltages in the network nearly at the
rated value.

Two compensation methods are:

1.     Load compensation

2.     System compensation

2. Load Compensation

 
Ø  
It is possible to compensate for the reactive current of the load by adding a
parallel capacitive load so that Ic = Ix and the effective power factor to become
 unity.    Loads compensated to the unity power factor reduce the line drop but
do not eliminate it. They still experience a drop of ∆V2 from j IrX1.

3. System compensation

 
Ø  
To regulate the receiving-end voltage at the rated value a power utility may
install a reactive-power compensator as shown in the figure and this
compensator draws a reactive current to overcome both components of the
voltage drop ∆V1 and ∆V2 as a consequence of the load current I 1 through the
line reactance X1.
 

Ø  
To compensate for ∆V2 an additional capacitive current ∆I c over and above Ic
that compensates for Ix is drawn by the compensator.

. Lossless Distributed Parameter Lines

 
Ø  
Most power transmission lines are characterized by distributed parameters:
Series Resistance, Series Inductance, Shunt Conductance and Shunt
Capacitance all per-unit length and these parameters all depend on the
conductor size, spacing, and clearance above the ground, frequency and
temperature of operation.
 

Ø  
In addition these parameters depend on the bundling arrangement of the line
conductors and the nearness to other parallel lines.

5. Symmetrical Lines

 
 Ø  
When the voltage magnitudes at the two ends of a line are equal that is
 

Vs = Vr =V and the line is said to be symmetrical because power networks

operate as voltage sources attempts are made to hold almost all node voltages
at nearly rated values. Therefore a symmetrical line presents a realistic
situation.
 

Ø  
Active and Reactive powers of a transmission line are frequently normalized by
choosing the Surge-Impedance Load (SIL) as the base.
 

6. Midpoint Conditions of a Symmetrical Line

 Ø   The magnitude of the midpoint voltage depends on the power transfer and this voltage
influences the line insulation.

For a symmetrical line where the end voltages are held at nominal values the midpoint
 Ø  

voltage shows the highest magnitude variation.

When ∆Ic X1 = ∆V2 the receiving end voltage Vr equals the sending end voltage Vs and
Ø  

such compensators are employed by power utilities to ensure the quality of supply to their
customers.
Ø  
In the figure the absence of I x eliminates the voltage drop ∆V 1 bringing Vr closer in
magnitude to Vs, this condition is called load compensation and actually by charging extra for
supplying the reactive power a power utility company makes it advantageous for customers
to use load compensation on their premises.

Passive Reactive Power Compensation. PASSIVE COMPENSATION

 
The reactive-power control for a line is often called reactive-power compensation and
external devices or subsystems that control reactive power on transmission lines are
known as “compensators”.
A compensator mitigates the undesirable effects of the circuit parameters of a given line
and the objectives of line compensation are invariably
 1.     To increase the power-transmission capacity of the line.
2.     To keep the voltage profile of the line along its length within acceptable bounds to
ensure the quality of supply to the connected customers, to minimize the line insulation costs.
Types

1. Shunt Compensation
2. Series Compensation

1. Shunt Compensation
 
Ø   
In a weak system voltage control by means of parallel compensation is applied
to increase the power quality and improvement of the voltage profile for
different system and load conditions when using a Static Var Compensator
(SVC) for fast control of shunt connected capacitors and reactors.
 

Ø   
Shunt compensation can also be employed as a ‘local’ remedy against voltage
collapse which can occur when large induction machines are connected to the
system.
 

Ø   
After system faults the machines load the power system heavily with high
reactive power consumption and the remedy for such fault is strong capacitive
power injection for example by using an either SVC or STATCOM or just
switched capacitors.
 
 Ø   
The reactive current is injected into the line to maintain voltage magnitude and
transmittable active power (P) is increased but more reactive power (Q) is to
be provided.
 
P = (2V2/X)sin(ᵟ/2)
 
Q = (2V2/X)[1-cos(ᵟ/2)]
 

2. Series Compensation
 
Ø   
The Series Compensation is a well established technology that primarily used to
transfer reactances most notably in bulk transmission corridors.
 

Ø   
The result is a significant increase in the transmission system transient and
voltage stability and Series Compensation is self regulating in the sense that its
reactive power output follows the variations intransmission line current that
makes the series compensation concept extremely straight forward and cost
effective.
 

Ø   
The thyristor controlled series capacitors adds another controllability dimension
as thyristor are used to dynamically modulate the ohms provided by the
inserted capacitor and this is primarily used to provide inter-area damping of
prospective low frequency electromechanical oscillations but it also makes the
whole Series Compensation schama immune to Sub Synchronous Resonance
(SSR).
 

Ø   
Series compensation is used to improve system stability and to increase the
transmission capacity in radial or bulk power long istance AC systems and
referring to below the equation and a series capacitor reduces the line
impedance X hence the transmmission P will increase.
Ø   
This principle can also be applied in meshed systems for balancing the lods on
parallel lines and the simplest form of series compensation is the fixed series
compensator for reducing the transmission angle thus providing stability
enhancement.
Ø   
FACTS for series compensation modify line impedance X is decreased so as to
increase the transmittable active power (P), however more reactive power (Q)
must be provided.
 
P = [V2/(X – Xc)]sinᵟ
 
Q = [V2/(X – Xc)]{1- cosᵟ}