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• ' O Physics and Technology of

X,'j Semiconductor Devices

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A. S. G R O V E

Intel C o r p o r a t i o n , M o u n t a i n V i e w

University of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New Y o r k • C h i c h e s t e r • B r i s b a n e • T o r o n t o • S i n g a p o r e

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 Preface
Copyright © 1967 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Reproduction or translation oî any pan of this work beyond thai

permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Cop>-
riehi Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlaw-
ful. Requests for permission or further information should be
addressed 10 the Permissions Department. John Wiley & Sons. Inc.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-17340

Printed in the United States of America

The 1950's was the decade in which semiconductor devices rose to

23 24 25 26 27 2E 29 30
prominence and attained great industrial significance. I n that decade,
most o f the research and engineering w o r k was directed to germanium.
The 1960's can be considered as the decade in which silicon semiconductor
devices and integrated circuits made by the planar technology o v e r t o o k
germanium devices.
The purpose o f this b o o k is to provide an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the physics
and technology o f planar silicon devices, i.e., devices made by the planar
technology. T o be sure,-the physical principles u n d e r l y i n g the f a b r i c a t i o n
and the operation o f these devices do not differ from those underlying the
fabrication and the operation o f devices made from other semiconductors
by other technologies. However, problems viewed i n general terms tend
to be very difficult to solve. T o render a p r o b l e m tractable, we must
concentrate o n its most important features. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t for an
alloy germanium diode, for instance, may not be i m p o r t a n t for a planar
silicon diode. A s a result, approximations which describe well the charac-
teristics o f the former often give results i n very p o o r agreement w i t h
observations on the latter. M o s t i f not all books i n the past have tacitly
concentrated on those factors that are i m p o r t a n t i n relation to g e r m a n i u m
alloy devices. I n this one. the emphasis is on those w h i c h are i m p o r t a n t
i n dealing w i t h planar silicon devices.
After a brief description o f the planar technology, the text is divided
into three parts. The first one deals w i t h those processes o f solid-state
VI ^retace

technology which are most intimately involved in determining the electrical I n the writing o f this book I benefited very significantly from the manv
characteristics ot" semiconductor devices. The three processes discussed— suggestions o f the reviewers: D."J.' Fitzgerald, E. H . Snow, L . Vadasz,
vapor-phase g r o w t h , thermal o x i d a t i o n , and solid-state diffusion—are the and R. J. Whittier o f Fairchild Semiconductor; and Professors P. O.
means by which the semiconductor crystal is turned into a device o f Lauritzen, University o f Washington, C. A . M e a d . California Institute o f
desired characteristics. Technology, J. L . M o l l , Stanford University, and W. G . O l d h a m , U n i -
The second part deals with semiconductors and semiconductor devices. versity o f California, Berkeley. I am further indebted to J. P. Bissell for
A summary o f the most important results o f the band theory o f solids is his assistance in evaluating device characteristics, and to Miss S. J.
followed by a discussion o f semiconductors under n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m con- Steele and M r s . D o r o t h y . U n r u h for their help w i t h the calculations
and illustrations. Finally, I w o u l d like to express my appreciation to the
ditions. Then p-n junctions, which are the b u i l d i n g block o f most
management o f Fairchild Semiconductor for providing an environment i n
i m p o r t a n t semiconductor devices, are considered in detail followed by a
which the w r i t i n g o f this book was possible.
treatment o f j u n c t i o n transistors and j u n c t i o n field-effect transistors.
One o f the principal advantages o f the planar technology is that it A . S. G R O V E
results i n excellent c o n t r o l o f the semiconductor surface. This c o n t r o l Palo Alto, California
has made the surface a designable part o f semiconductor devices and has February 1967
also led to the r a p i d development o f new types o f devices. One o f these,
the surface field-effect transistor, is already second in importance only to
the j u n c t i o n transistor among active devices. Thus the t h i r d part o f this
text considers surface effects and surface-controlled devices. This part
includes discussion o f the theory o f semiconductor surfaces, surface effects
o n p-n junctions, the s'urface field-effect transistor, and the status o f the
silicon-silicon dioxide system.
The text is principally intended for use by senior undergraduate or
first-year graduate students in electrical engineering and in materials
science. For this reason I have attempted to keep the most i m p o r t a n t
phvsical principles always in the forefront and to use simple physical models
wherever possible. However, I have also attempted to make the b o o k
remain useful to the student when he becomes a practicing engineer or
scientist. To serve this purpose, principles are generally illustrated w i t h
actual numerical computations or w i t h experimental measurements.
T h u s , in a d d i t i o n to boosting the readers' confidence in these principles,
the illustrations also contain numbers which, at a later time, can be used
in design calculations.
The dual nature o f this book was also helped by the way it developed.
The material contained in it is based on a series o f lectures given at
F a i r c h i l d Semiconductor to scientists and engineers who were engaged i n
research, development, manufacturing, and application w o r k involving
semiconductor devices and integrated circuits, and o n a graduate course
I taught at the University o f California, Berkeley. The material, i n
manuscript f o r m , was then used in the Fairchild course in the f o l l o w i n g
vear, as well as by Professors C. A . Mead, California Institute o f Tech-
nology, and P. O. Lauritzen, University o f Washington, in their under-
graduate electrical engineering courses.
Contents

Introduction: T h e Planar Technology

1. SOLID-STATE TECHNOLOGY

Chapter I Vapor-Phase Growth 7

1.1 Kinetics o f G r o w t h 10
1.2 Gas-Phase Mass-Transfer 13
1.3 Some Properties o f Gases 18

Chapter 2 Thermal Oxidation 22

2.1 Kinetics o f Oxide G r o w t h 23

2.2 Space-Charge Effects on O x i d a t i o n 31

Chapter 3 Solid-State Diffusion 35

3.1 F l u x 36
3 . 2 . T h e Transport Equation 41
3.3 Diffused Layers 43
3.4 Deviations f r o m Simple Diffusion Theory 58
3.5 Redistribution o f Impurities during Thermal O x i d a t i o n . 69
3.6 Diffusion through a Silicon D i o x i d e Layer (Oxide M a s k i n g ) 75
3.7 T h e Redistribution o f Impurities i n E p i t a x i a l G r o w t h . 78

ix
II. S E M I C O N D U C T O R S AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Chapter 8 Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s 243

8.1 Principles o f Operation 244

Chapter 4 E l e m e n t s of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics 91 8.2 Characteristics o f Junction Field-Effect Transistors . . . 248
8.3 Modifications o f the Simple Theory 253.
4.1 The Band Theory o f Solids 91
4.2 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 95
4.3 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function . . . 98
4.4 I m p o r t a n t Formulas for Semiconductors in E q u i l i b r i u m 100 III. S U R F A C E EFFECTS AND SURFACE-CONTROLLED
4.5 Transport o f Electrons and Holes 106 DEVICES

Chapter 9 T h e o r y of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Surfaces 263

Chapter 5 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m
Conditions 117 9.1 Characteristics o f Surface Space-Charge Regjons—Equi- —
l i b r i u m Case 264
5.1 Injection 117 9.2 The Ideal M I S (or M O S ) Structure 271
5.2 Kinetics o f the Recombination Process 127 9.3 Effect o f W o r k Function Difference, Charges, and States
5.3 L i f e t i m e i n Low-Level Injection 134 on M O S Characteristics . 278
5.4 Surface Recombination 136
5.5 Origin o f Recombination-Generation Centers 140
C h a p t e r 10 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions 289

10.1 Characteristics o f Surface Space-Charge Regions—Non-

Chapter 6 p-n Junctions 149
Equilibrium- Case 290
6.1 Electrostatics 152 10.2 Gate-Controlled Diode Structure 296
6.2 Space-Charge Region for Step Junctions 153 10.3 Recombination-Generation Processes i n the Surface Space-
6.3 Space-Charge Region for Linearly Graded Junctions . . 163 Charge Region 298
6.4 Space-Charge Region for Diffused Junctions 167 10.4 Field-Induced Junctions and Channel Currents 305
6.5 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics 169 10.5 Surface Effects on Junction Breakdown Voltage. . . . . 311
6.6 Current-Voltage Characteristics 172
6.7 Junction Breakdown 191
6.8 Transient Behavior 201 C h a p t e r II Surface Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s 311 -

11.1 Principles o f Operation 318

Chapter 7 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s 208 11.2 Characteristics o f Surface Field-Effect Transistors . . . . 321
11.3 Modification o f the Simple Theory 327
7.1 Principles o f Transistor A c t i o n '. . . 209 11.4 Other Types o f Surface Field-Effect Transistors . . . . . . 329
7.2 Currents Flowing in a Transistor; Current G a i n . . . . 214
7.3 Limitations and Modifications o f the Simple Theory . . 222
7.4 Base Resistance 228 C h a p t e r 12 P r o p e r t i e s of the S i l i c o n - S i l i c o n Dioxide
7.5 M a x i m u m Voltage L i m i t a t i o n s 230 System 334
7.6 M i n i m u m Voltage L i m i t a t i o n s 234 12.1 Fast Surface States 335
7.7 Thermal L i m i t a t i o n 236 12.2 Space Charge w i t h i n the Oxide 337
 Contents

12.3 Surface-State Charge . . . .

12.4 Barrier Energies
12.5 Surface M o b i l i t y
12.6 Conduction on Oxide Surfaces
12.7 Other Insulators
List of Symbols
357
Index

a i m p u r i t y concentration gradient at the j u n c t i o n . —

A coefficient in the general relationship for the thermal o x i d a t i o n

o f silicon
Aj cross-sectional area o f metallurgical p-n j u n c t i o n
A s depleted surface area

B coefficient in the general relationship for the thermal o x i d a t i o n

o f silicon;, also referred to as parabolic rate constant
B transistor base factor
BV j u n c t i o n breakdown voltage
BV CBQ collector-base j u n c t i o n breakdown voltage, w i t h emitter open
BV CE0 collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage, w i t h base open

C concentration
C capacitance per unit area
C* e q u i l i b r i u m concentration o f oxidant i n oxide film
C B b u l k concentration
C f concentration o f external doping i m p u r i t y at the surface o f an
epitaxial film
C G concentration of a species in the b u l k o f the gas
C c t o t a l gate capacitance
C, concentration o f the oxidant at the oxTde-silicon interface
C„ concentration of the oxidant at the gas-oxide interface
C„ capacitance per unit area o f oxide layer
C s surface concentration
C. capacitance per unit area o f the surface space-charge region
C Bllli i m p u r i t y concentration w i t h i n the substrate in epitaxial g r o w t h
 List 01 aymoois

total concentration o f moiecules in a gas channel conductance

total concentration o f ionized impurities in a crystal tr transconductance
0m
o rnaut transconductance in the saturation region
thickness of metallurgical channel of junction field-effect
transistor
diffusion coefficient H Henry's-law constant
effective diffusion-coefficient h gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient i n terms o f concentrations in
2aseous diffusion coefficient, the solid
diffusivity o f electrons common-base current gain
diffusivity o f impurities in oxide h
common-emitter current gain
FE
diffusivity o f holes small-signal common-emitter current gain
K
density o f uniformly distributed surface recombination-
H gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient i n terms o f concentrations in
generation centers (per unit area and energy) the gas
concentration o f uniformly distributed b u l k recombination- K gas-phase heat-transfer coefficient :
generation centers (per unit volume and energy)

electric field i current

electron energy - base current
transistor emitter factor collector current
h
activation energy
IcBO collector-base reverse current, w i t h emitter open
electron energy at conduction band edge
emitter-to-coilector reverse current, w i t h base open
critical electric field at breakdown drain current
h
electron energy at the Fermi level diffusion current
^liff
electron energy at quasi-Fermi level for electrons drain current i n saturation region
electron energy at quasi-Fermi level for holes emitter current
r s
width of the forbidden gap forward current
electron energy at the intrinsic Fermi level generation current
electric field at the semiconductor surface A, hole current
energy level o f recombination-generation center I reverse current
R

electron energy at valence band edge I recombination current

n c

flux
flux of electrons k Boitzmann's constant
flux of holes k surface reaction rate constant
s

probability o f occupation by an electron k, thermal conductivity

h

m a x i m u m frequency o f operation K dielectric constant

K„ dielectric constant o f oxide
rate o f generation o f electron-hole pairs due to absorbed light
K dielectric constant o f semiconductor
(per unit time and volume) t

conductance o f the metallurgical channel o f a j u n c t i o n field-

effect transistor channel length
rate o f generation o f electron-hole pairs in dark (per unit time
diffusion length o f electrons
and volume)
diffusion length o f holes
x v j List of Symbols List of Symbols

>••• segregation coefficient.of i m p u r i t y at the oxide-silicon interface charge per unit area i n the semiconductor
m' effective mass Q ss fixed surface-state charge density per u n i t area
M multiplication factor
R ideal gas-law constant
n electron concentration R t o t a l recombination rate (per u n i t time and volume)
/I, intrinsic carrier concentration R transistor recombination factor
«„ concentration of electrons i n an 77-type semiconductor *é d r a i n series resistance
n concentration of electrons i n an 77-type semiconductor i n Re Reynolds number
n0

equilibrium X. source series resistance

n v concentration of electrons i n a p-type semiconductor *a t h e r m a l resistance
n VD concentration o f electrons i n a p-type semiconductor, in equi- X D
sheet resistance o f a square
librium 'B base spreading resistance
7J series resistance o f the collector region
r
S electron concentration at the surface sc
Nj concentration of acceptor impurities series resistance o f the emitter region
r
SE
A' c effective density of states in the conduction band
N D concentration of donor impurities surface recombination velocity
S
A",, density of surface recombination-generation centers per u n i t area m a x i m u m surface recombination velocity
TV, concentration o f bulk recombination-generation centers per u n i t surface recombination velocity o f a surface w i t h o u t a surface
volume space-charge region
A',. effective density o f states i n the valence band
T temperature
j u n c t i o n temperature
P pressure
time
P hole concentration
coll time interval between collisions
Pn concentration of holes in an 77-type semiconductor
o response time o f field-effect transistor
Pn* concentration of holes i n an 77-type semiconductor in equi-
off t u r n - o f f time
librium
transit time
Pv concentration of holes in ay>-type semiconductor
Pvo concentration o f holes i n a />-type semiconductor, i n e q u i l i b r i u m
u gas velocity
Ps hole concentration at the surface
U velocity o f undisturbed gas
V net rate o f carrier recombination-generation in the b u l k (per
_ 1 S
q magnitude o f electronic charge, 1.6 x 1 0 coulomb
u n i t time and volume)
0 total amount o f impurities per unit area in the solid u, net rate o f carrier recombination-generation at a surface (per
0 B total number o f impurities per u n i t area in the base region o f a unit time and area)
transistor
0 D charge per unit area w i t h i n the surface depletion region at the 'drift average drift velocity
onset o f strong inversion t h e r m a l velocity o f carriers - -
Q L o charge per unit area v, ;thin the surface depletion region at the V film g r o w t h rate
onset o f strong inversion, in e q u i l i b r i u m V voltage
Q (! charge per unit area on the gate average base voltage d r o p
0~ charge per unit area w i t h i n the oxicu drain voltage
O h charge per unit area due to electrons in *he inversion layer d r a i n voltage at the onset o f saturation
xviii List of Symbols

forward bias' p density

flat-band voltage p resistivity
Vr B

Va gate voltage 0 space-charge density

applied j u n c t i o n voltage 1 conductivity
voltage d r o p across oxide rt capture cross-section
K
y. polarizing voltage r offset time in the general relationship for the oxidation o f silicon
reverse bias r, effective lifetime w i t h i n a reverse-biased depletion region
v - turn-on or turn-off voltage rt lifetime o f holes in an /i-type semiconductor
T
~n lifetime o f electrons in a p-lype semiconductor
<p electrostatic potential
w depletion region w i d t h o f metallurgical j u n c t i o n
<b built-in voltage o f metallurgical p-n j u n c t i o n
w base w i d t h B

B
<b Fermi potential
w* w i d t h o f the depletion region w i t h i n the c y l i n d r i c a l region, at F

breakdown 4> s surface potential, i.e., total potential variation across surface
space-charge region
WE emitter depth
width o f the emitter-base j u n c t i o n space-charge region 4> T total potential variation across space-charge region
WEB
metal w o r k function
width o f the lowly doped region i n an epitaxial device
depletion region w i d t h i n e q u i l i b r i u m <J> metal-semiconductor work function difference
K <I>5
u s

semiconductor w o r k function
w, sample thickness

*4 w i d t h o f surface depletion region

x
tm*X maximum w i d t h o f surface depletion region
"^.iniax.o m a x i m u m w i d t h o f surface depletion Fegion. in e q u i l i b r i u m
X
i j u n c t i o n depth
*„ oxide (insulator) thickness

Y mole fraction
•

Z • channel w i d t h

X common-base current gain

X
R common-base current gain in the reverse direction
y. T
transport factor
J common-emitter current gain
y emitter efficiency
5 average boundary layer thickness
permittivity o f free space (8.86 x 10~" f/cm o r 55.4 e / V »
K thermal diffusivity
viscosity
U mobility
electron m o b i l i t y
>» hole m o b i l i t y
Physics and Technology of
Semiconductor Devices
Introduction:
The Planar Technology

The planar technology and semiconductor devices made by this tech-

1
nology were first described in I960. The planar technology has since
become the principal method of fabricating semiconductor devices a n d
integrated circuits, and has strongly contributed to the rapidity w i t h which
semiconductor devices have displaced older types o f electronic compo-
nents and penetrated into entirely new electronic applications.
Like most important technological advances, the planar technology
evolved from several generations o f earlier ones. This evolution, as well
as the essentials o f the planar technology, are best illustrated by consider-
ing i t in comparison w i t h two o f the most important earlier semiconductor
device-fabrication techniques, the grown junction method and the 'alloys
junction method. These are illustrated in the figure.
11
I n the grown junction method, a semiconductor crystal is g r o w n out o f
a melt o f the semiconductor which is doped a certain type (taken to be
/7-type in this example). A t some point i n the growth-process, the doping
concentration in the melt is suddenly changed; for instance, by dropping
a pill containing donor-type impurities into the melt. As a result, the
rest o f the crystal w i l l be grown /i-type. W h e n the g r o w t h is completed,
the crystal is sectioned into little bars containing the p-n j u n c t i o n as
indicated by the dashed lines.
This method was extremely important in the first years following the
invention of the j u n c t i o n transistor. For instance, i t . y i e l d e d the first
 Introduction. T h e Planar Technology 3
7
However, as semiconductor devices reached out for new applications,
diod-s w i t h which the theory of the current-yoltage characteristics of p-n
demands on their performance greatly increased. These increasing
junctions was verified. The grown j u n c t i o n m e t h o d however, was n o t as
demands soon demonstrated the inherent limitations o f the a l i o } ' j u n c t i o n
Suitable for mass p r o d u c t i o n as another method developed i n the early
method. For instance, we shall see later that the most i m p o r t a n t factor
years o f semiconductor device technology, the alloy j u n c t i o n m e t h o d .
determining the performance o f junction transistors is the distance separat-
i n g two junctions. I n the alloy process, the location o f j u n c t i o n s was
determined by the extent to w h i c h the recrystallized regions penetrated
into the semiconductor. However, this penetration was always difficult to
Crystal
control.
Pellet of p-type
impurity The search for a method which gives superior control o f the l o c a t i o n o f
SiO,
p-n junctions led to the development o f diffused junctions.* Diffused
ILLLi U junctions are formed i n a manner similar to the alloying process i n that
the surface of the wafer is exposed to a source of a high concentration o f
p-type opposite-type impurities contained, for instance, i n a gas. However, no
n-lype crystal
melt phase-formation takes place i n this case; the impurities penetrate the
semiconductor crystal by solid-state diffusion which can be controlled to
a very precise degree.
W i t h the a d d i t i o n a l discoverv that a t h i n laver of silicon dioxide can
Molten p-type impurities effectively mask against the diffusion o f most i m p o r t a n t acceptor and
5
boundary donor i m p u r i t i e s . a new degree o f precision was added i n c o n t r o l l i n g the
geometry o f diffused-junction semiconductor devices; the device geometry
n o w could be delineated b \ covering the semiconductor w i t h silicon
dioxide, and then exposing the semiconductor to the diffusing impurities
Melt changed only in selected areas, defined bv photolithography, where the oxide laver
to n-type
has been removed.
Recrystallized The planar technology, schematically illustrated i n the last figure, c o m -
p-type r e g i o n _ ^ bines the advantages o f j u n c t i o n f o r m a t i o n by solid-state .diffusion and
- r w » the masking property o f silicon dioxide for precise definition o f device
geometry. I t also makes use o f the very i m p o r t a n t fact that the electrical
m
characteristics o f a silicon surface covered w i t h an oxide layer are superior
(c) Planar technology to those o f a bare surface.
(b) Alloy junction
(a) Grown junction Because o f this last feature, the sensitivity of semiconductor devices to
method
method
their environments has been greatly reduced with a corresponding increase
3 in the r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y and stability o f device characteristics. Recently,
I n the alloy junction method, a pellet containing acceptor-type impurities
thermally oxidized silicon structures have even made the construction o f
( i n this example) is placed upon a wafer o f n-type semiconductor. The
surface field-effect devices feasible for the first time since the conception
wafer and the pellet are then heated to a temperature high enough so that
of such devices some t h i r t y years ago. M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the planar
the pellet fuses or alloys-into the semiconductor wafer. W h e n the crystal
technology has led to the development o f integrated circuits w h i c h ,
is cooled, a recrystallized region which is saturated with acceptor-type
although only a few vears o l d . show indications o f influencing electronics—
impurities forms under the pellet. Thus a p-n j u n c t i o n results.
technology, design, and application—possibly to as large an extent as the
T h i s method has been—and still is—employed w i t h great success i n the
advent o f semiconductor devices did ten vears earlier.
mass production o f diodes and transistors, m a i n l y made o f germanium.
4 Introduction

READING REFERENCES

The earlier methods of junction formation are summarized (with manv references)
by \V. C . Dunlap, Section 7 in Handbook of Semiconductor Electronics. 2nd éd., L . P.
Hunter, Editor, McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 1962.
A detailed description of the planar technology and its application to integrated
circuits is given by G . E . Moore, Chapter 5 in Microelectronics, E . Keonjian, Editor,
McGraw-Hill Book C o . . 1963.
PART I

REFERENCES CITED SOLID-STATE TECHNOLOGY

1. J . A . Hoerni. "Planar Silicon Transistors and Diodes," IRE Electron Devices
Meeting, Washington, D . C . (1960).
2. G . K . Teal, M . Sparks, and E . Buehler. "Growth of Germanium Single Crystals
Containing P-N Junctions," Phys. Rev., 81, 637 (1951).
3. R . N . Hall and W. C . Dunlap, "P-M Junctions Prepared by Impurity Diffusion," • Vapor-Phase G r o w t h
Phys. Ree, 80. 467 (1950).
• T h e r m a l Oxidation
4. M. Tanenbaum and D . E . Thomas. "Diffused Emitter and Base Silicon Transistors,"
Bell System Tech. J.. 35, 1 (1956); C . A . Lee, " A High Frequency Diffused Base • Solid-State Diffusion
Germanium Transistor," Bell Systems Tech. J.. 35. 23 (1956).
5. C . J . Frosch and L . Derrick, "Surface Protection and Selective Masking During
Diffusion in Silicon,"/. Electrochem. Soc, 104. 547 (1957).
 • KINETICS OF GROWTH
• GAS-PHASE MASS TRANSFER
• SOME PROPERTIES O F GASES

Vapor-Phase G r o w t h

Vapor-phase g r o w t h techniques are employed in semiconductor tech-

nology for the deposition o f metals (e.g.. aluminum"), insulators (e.g..
S i 0 ) , and semiconductors (e.g., silicon). Of these processes, the most
2

important one f r o m the standpoint o f device fabrication is the g r o w t h o f

single crystal semiconductor films upon single crystal substrates o f the
same semiconductor. Such g r o w t h is called epitaxial (Greek for "arranged
upon").
The importance o f epitaxial g r o w t h in semiconductor device technology
is due to the ease w i t h which the i m p u r i t y concentration in the h i m can be
adjusted independently o f the impurities within the substrate by c o n t r o l l i n g
their concentration in a gas. Thus epitaxial growth can be used to f o r m
p-n junctions between the epitaxial film and the substrate. M o r e i m p o r -
tantly, it can be used to grow films of relatively l o w i m p u r i t y concentration
upon substrates w h i c h contain the same type o f i m p u r i t y I n much higher
concentrations. I n this manner the series resistance associated w i t h the
substrate can be reduced w i t h o u t otherwise changing the characteristic*
of semiconductor devices.
Because the epitaxial growth o f semiconductors is so i m p o r t a n t , it has
been studied i n great detail. There are several ways in which such g r o w t h
can be performed. I n this chapter we study the method which is most
widely used in the epitaxial g r o w t h o f silicon: the vapor-phase reduction
of silicon tetrachloride. ( F o r a review o f other tvpes o f vapor-phase
 Vapor-Phase G r o w t h Vapor-Phase G r o w t h 9
8

g r o w t h reactions, see the Reading References listed at the end o f this I t is also k n o w n that an additional competing reaction takes place
chapter.) simultaneously w i t h the g r o w t h reaction, given by
T w o types o f reactors that have been employed i n the epitaxial g r o w t h
S i C l + Si(solid) = 2SiCl,.
o f silicon are illustrated in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1a shows the vertical 4

1
reactor used in the pioneering w o r k o f Theuerer. Figure 1.1b shows the
2
As a result, i f the S i C l concentration is very high, etching o f the silicon
4

horizontal reactor used in a more recent investigation by Shepherd. The

w i l l take place even in the absence o f a significant concentration o f HC1
latter is typical o f present-day industrial reactors i n which a film is grown
. i n the incoming gas stream. This is illustrated i n Figure 1.2 which shows
simultaneously on many wafers. I n b o t h reactors, a stream o f hydrogen
containing a certain concentration o f silicon tetrachloride enters the
reactor. The gas flows past silicon wafers resting on a susceptor w h i c h , i n
t u r n , is heated by inductive coupling to radio-frequency induction-coils.

(al Vertical reactor "»»' Horizontal reactor

Fig. 1.1 Reactors employed in che epitaxial growth of silicon.

T h e reactor itself has quartz or glass walls. Since induction heating is

employed, the walls remain cold d u r i n g the g r o w t h process. This e l i m i -
nates deposition on the reactor walls and results in m i n i m u m c o n t a m i n a t i o n
f r o m the walls.
Vlole fraction of S\C\X Y
W h i l e vapor-phase deposition o f materials can take place at relatively
1
Fig. 1.2 Effect of SiCI, concentration on silicon deposition.
low temperatures, epitaxial g r o w t h itself requires relatively high deposition
temperatures, typically above 1000°C in the case o f silicon. Epitaxial
the effect o f the concentration o f S i C l i n the gas o n the reaction. (Concen-
g r o w t h needs high temperatures because the deposited atoms must find 4

trations in gases are most conveniently given i n terms o f mole fractions.

their proper position w i t h i n the crystal lattice i n order to result i n a single
The mole fraction Yls defined as the ratio o f the number o f molecules o f a
crystal film. As the temperature o f deposition is reduced, the m o b i l i t y o f
given species to the t o t a l number o f molecules i n the gas.) I t is evident
the deposited atoms decreases, and the resulting film becomes more and
that initially the deposition rate increases w i t h increasing concentration
more defective, eventually losing its crystalline nature.
of S i C l . As the concentration o f S i C l is increased, a m a x i m u m growth
The overall reaction which results in the g r o w t h o f silicon films is 4 4

rate is reached at a mole fraction o f about 0 . 1 . Further increase i n

. S i C l + 2H., %yt Si(solid) + 4 H C 1 .
4 concentration brings about a decrease i n the g r o w t h rate and eventually
This reaction is reversible; i.e., it can take place in either direction. I f even results in etching o f the silicon surface.
the carrier gas entering the reactor contains HC1. removal or etching Silicon is usually g r o w n in the low concentration region, as indicated in
rather than growth o f silicon w i l l take place. Figure 1.2. w i t h a typical growth rate o f ~ 1 u / m i n . I n this region the
 Vapor-Phase G r o w t h Kinetics of G r o w t h
IO
reaction, which we assume this one to be, i t is the concentration o f the
dependence o f film g r o w t h rate V on the mole fraction o f SiClj in the gas
reacting species.t
mixture Y is approximately linear.
In steady state F = F» = F. U s i n g this c o n d i t i o n , we can solve the
1

above two equations to obtain the surface concentration o f the silicon

tetrachloride at the gas-film interface, .
1.1 KINETICS OF GROWTH
Cr

-
We shall now study the kinetics o f film g r o w t h on the basis o f a very
3
simple m o d e l . The essentials o f this model are depicted i n Figure 1.3 C\ = . (1.3)
where we show the concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the silicon tetrachloride i + kjffhe
i n the gas and we indicate the flux o f the silicon tetrachloride f r o m the This formula shows that the surface concentration w i l l go to zero i f
h « kg. This c o n d i t i o n is c o m m o n l y referred to as mass-transfer
G control.
On the other h a n d , iLh » k . the surface concentration approaches C .
G s G

-Gas- -Film- This condition is c o m m o n l y referred to as surface-reaction control.

We can n o w readily express the g r o w t h rate o f the silicon film by
writing
V=— = — — - (1.4)
A'i k + h A, s 0

ili where A'] is the number o f silicon atoms incorporated i n t o a u n i t v o l u m e

of the film. Its value for silicon is 5.0 x 1 0 - c m . N o t i n g that C = YC - 3
G T

where C is the total number of molecules per cubic centimeter in the gas,
T

we get the expression for the g r o w t h rate,

Fig. 1.3 Model of the growth process. Direction of gas flow i> normal to plane of paper. 1=—5-2 M'. (1.5)
k + h s G A',

b u l k o f the eas to the surface o f the g r o w i n g film F „ and the flux corre-
sponding to the silicon tetrachloride consumed i n the film-growth
Fr (Flux is defined as the n u m b e r o f atoms or molecules crossing a unit
area i n a unit time.)
W e approximate the flux F , by the linear f o r m u l a
Note the f o l l o w i n g features o f this equation. First, it predicts that the
reaction film growth rate V is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the mole fraction } ' o f the reacting
species. As we have seen earlier, this is in agreement w i t h the experimental
observations for small values o f Y such as are encountered i n usual
practice. Second, the g r o w t h rate at a given mole fraction is determined
by the smaller o f h or k . This corresponds to the t w o l i m i t i n g cases o f
G s

F , = h {C
G G ~ C)8
(1.1) mass-transfer controlled and surface-reaction controlled conditions. I n
these l i m i t i n g cases the g r o w t h rate w i l l be given either by
where C G and Cs are the concentrations o f the SiClj (molecules per cubic
centimeter) in the b u l k o f the gas and at the surface, respectively, and h c

is the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient. T h e flux consumed by the chemi- I ' = — k v y [surface-reaction c o n t r o l ] (1.6)
A'i
cal reaction taking place at the surface o f the g r o w i n g film F is a p p r o x i -
2 or by
mated by the f o r m u l a - C r
F, = k C s s (1.2) V=—h Y [mass-transfer c o n t r o l ] . (1.7)
G

where k h the chemical surface-reaction

s rate constant. These linear * Strictly speaking, we should include in our consideration the flux of the reaction
approximations are analogous t o O h m ' s l a w : they describe a flux as being product HCI from the surface back to the bulk of the-gas. In this treatment we neglect
•proportional to a driving force. I n the case o f mass transfer, the d r i v i n g this flux for simplicity. This is equivalent to the assumption that the mass-transfer
force is a concentration difference; i n the case o f a first-order chemical coefficient of the reaction product is much larger than that of S i C l . 4
 Gas-Phase Mass Transfer 13
12 Vapor-Phase G r o w t h
7 li e v , k T
/ V ; = 5 to 10 cm/sec and k = 10 cm/sec e~
s . Numbers o f the
The temperature dependence o f the film g r o w t h rate observed e x p e r i - same order o f magnitude can be extracted f r o m Theuerer's data obtained
2
mentally by Shepherd is shown by the points in Figure 1.4. I t is evident in the vertical reactor.
that at low temperatures the g r o w t h rate follows an exponential law, This model o f the g r o w t h process is quite oversimplified. I t does n o t .
i r 1
fee - V *
e j activation energy E is about 1.9 ev. Theuerer also
n e %
consider the flux o f the reaction p r o d u c t ; the linear approximation that
describes the surface reaction is. as we have discussed earlier, valid only
for l o w values o f Y. A l s o , the temperature gradient present in a cold-wall
reactor is extremely steep. Because o f this, the properties o f the gas w i l l
vary radically between the heated substrate and the cold glass wall.
Nevertheless, this simple model still predicts the overall features observed
experimentally. I t describes the two regions o f the growth process—the
mass-tiansfer and the surface-reaction c o n t r o l l e d regions—and yields at
least an order o f magnitude estimate o f b o t h the chemical surface-reaction,
rate constant k and the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient h from the
s G

growth-rate data.
I n order to obtain a good quality epitaxial film, g r o w t h temperatures
have to be relatively h i g h . As a result, most industrial epitaxial processes
take place i n the mass-transfer controlled region, so i n the next section we
consider the mechanisms which determine gas-phase mass-transfer
coefficients.

1.2 G A S - P H A S E MASS T R A N S F E R

I n Section 1.1 we approximated the flux f r o m the bulk o f the gas to the
surface o f the solid by the formula

F , = h (C G G — C ).
s

0.725 We n o w consider the factors which determine h.

G

0.625 0.65 0.675 0.70

lo-VrrK-'i
Fig. 1.4 Temperature dependence of the film-growth rate. Points represent experi-
mental data.- curves were calculated based on Equation 1.5.
observed an exponential temperature dependence in this range corre-
sponding to an activation energy o f 1.6 ev. A t high temperatures the
g r o w t h rate levels off, and becomes relatively temperature insensitive.
Since chemical reaction rate constants generally follow an exponential
temperature dependence while mass-transfer coefficients are relatively
a. Stagnant-film Model*
The simplest possible picture o f the mass-transfer process is shown i n
Figure 1.5. I n this picture we split the gas phase into two regions: one
which is well mixed a n d which flows past the solid surface w i t h a uniform
velocity U, and another, a stagnant film o f thickness <5 next to the solid.
Transport o f the active species across this stagnant film proceeds by
diffusion alone. Thus the flux F can be immediately written down as
x

insensitive to variations i n the temperature, the simple model explains the

general features o f the temperature-dependence data shown i n Figure 1.4. n s
Fx - D (1.8)
By fitting E q u a t i o n 1.5 to these data, we can obtain theoretical curves such G

o
as shown i n that figure. The best fit seems.to be obtained for the values o f
 Vapor-Pha.se G r o w t h Gas-Phase Mass T r a n s f e r 15
14

where D„ is the diffusivity o f the active species in the gas. This results in a possessed a finite velocity, the velocity gradient there w o u l d be infinitely
formula for the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient. larse. Then according to Equation 1.10 an infinitely large frictional force
would act on the fluid, immediately bringing its velocity to zero. Thus the
hr.=
(1.9) velocity o f the fluid right next to a solid body must clearly be zero in order
to avoid the existence o f infinitely large velocity gradients.
A l t h o u g h this stagnant-film m o d e l is quite arbitrary and fictitious, i t has The b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n o f zero velocity right next to the plate disturbs
been successfully a p p l i e d to many problems i n v o l v i n g gas-phase mass the velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n . As the fluid moves along the plate, this disturb-
ance w i l l spread further and further into the bulk o f the fluid. T o calculate
the thickness o f the disturbed region 6, we recall that it is the friction at
the wall that causes the deceleration of the fluid.

iM.v)
it = 0.991/
( Boundary-

1 I layer

rf.v-H
-L-
/////y/
v///////////////""" > Fig. 1.6 Development of a boundary layer in flow past a flat plate.

m o d e l o f m a s s t r a n s f e r
Fig. 1.5 The "stagnant-film" S^'P"*" - According to N e w t o n ' s second law.

transfer since the 1930's. However, the thickness o f the stagnant film
F=ma. (1.11)
being an arbitrary quantity, it has to be determined experimentally for any
given set of conditions. Consider n o w the shaded element shown in Figure 1.6. and take it to
represent a v o l u m e element whose size in the direction n o r m a l to the paper
is unity.
5
b. Boundary L a y e r T h e o r y The p r i n c i p a l force acting on this element is F dx. f r i c t j o n

F l u i d mechanics can provide a more realistic and useful estimate o f the The acceleration o f this element is
mass-transfer coefficient h . c Consider the geometrically simplest p r o b l e m :
du du dx du
a fluid flowing parallel to a flat plate o f length L . We assume that the
u.
extent of the flowing fluid is infinitely large or. i n other words, that the dt dx dt dx
fluid is unbounded. Far away from the plate the fluid flows w i t h a u n i f o r m The mass o f this element is p6(x) dx. Here p denotes the density.
velocity U as shown i n Figure 1.6. Right next to the plate the velocity o f I f we combine the above with Newton's second law. we get
the fluid is zero. The reason f o r this is as follows. The frictional force per
u n i t area along the i - d i r e c t i o n acting on a fluid element next to the plate ou - du
- u — = po(x)u — . (1.12)
is given by by dx

F|rleU«B ~ /< T -
(1-10) Replacing the differentials by the respective differences results in
By
where ft is the coefficient of viscosity or simplv viscosity. The plate is /u
U
a, it- —
~ pdlx)l
U

(1.13)
stationary, i.e.. its velocity is zero. I f right next to the plate the fluid d{x) x
 Vapor-Phase G r o w t h Gas-Phase Mass Transfer 17

16
where n\pD , 0 a dimensionless group called the Schmidt number, has
w h i c h can be rearranged to lead to an expression giving an estimate o f the values between 0.6 and 0.8 for most gases practically independently o f
size o f the region o f disturbed velocity c o m m o n l y referred to as the temperature. Thus the numerical factor by which our simple derivation
boundary layer thickness: deviated from the result o f the more exact treatment is o f the order o f
af*)3S (1.14) unity.
y P fj We can now estimate the mass-transfer coefficient for an epitaxial
1 2
3 reactor such as employed i n Theuerer's and Shepherd's w o r k . Typical
M o r e exact calculations by Blasius i n the 1930's. based o n the solution
velocities are 10 to 30 cm/sec, leading to values o f the Reynolds number
o f the complete equations o f m o t i o n for a fluid, led to a f o r m u l a which
of ~ 2 0 . Using Equation 1.19, this leads to h ^ 5 cm/sec. This is i n 0
differs f r o m E q u a t i o n 1.14 only by a numerical coefficient whose value is
between i and 5. depending on the precise definition o f d. ( I n Figure 1.6
the dashed line indicates the l o c a t i o n o f those points where the velocity 1 I I I I I I I I I ' I B 3=1
reaches 9 9 % o f the velocity o f the free stream U. T h i s is one way o f
defining 6.) \
T h e average boundary layer thickness 6 over the whole plate is given by

d = - I d(x)
L
dx = iL^pJplJL (1.15) J-
L Jo j
or ;"
5 = . - — k = . (1.16)
3 v Re,, ?

This expression gives the average boundary layer thickness i n terms o f the i' 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
z 2
(Gas flow rate)" (liter/min.)"
Reynolds number,
I Fig. 1.7 Effect of gas-flow rate on the film growth rate in a vertical reactor. 1

The Reynolds number is an extremely i m p o r t a n t dimensionless number p.- order-of-magnitude agreement w i t h the value we had obtained by fitting
i n f l u i d dynamics. I t represents the ratio o f the magnitude o f inertial i our model to both Shepherd's and Theuerer's experimental data. (The
effects to viscous effects i n fluid m o t i o n . Thus large Reynolds numbers estimation o f viscositv, densitv, and diffusivity are discussed i n Section
i m p l y small viscous effects, and vice versa. 1.3.)
N o w , i f we take the average b o u n d a r y layer thickness h for the thickness I Theuerer's data o f film g r o w t h rate as a function o f the square root o f
gas-flow rate i n the vertical reactor are shown in Figure 1.7. I t appears
o f the stagnant film b i n E q u a t i o n 1.9, we get an expression for the mass- §.
that at l o w gas-flow rates the film g r o w t h rate V increases approximately
transfer coefficient h :a %. in p r o p o r t i o n to the square root o f the gas-flow velocity. A t high Hew
rates, V reaches a m a x i m u m ; i n this region V depends exponentially on
temperature, indicating that the g r o w t h rate has become surface-reaction
w h i c h can be rearranged i n t o the dimensionless equation £
limited.
In contrast. Shepherd found no effect o f the gas-flow rate on the mass-
-f- = * v R ^ - • (1-18) i
transfer coefficient in the horizontal reactor. T o explain this discrepancy,
we must recall that the length o f the effective flat plate (the susceptor) in
T h i s can be compared w i t h the result o f a more exact calculation b y |
Shepherd's horizontal reactor is considerably longer than in Theuerer's
0 7
Pohlhausen: "- ; | vertical reactor. In-fact, the average boundary-layer thickness for Shep-
-2- - JvRT i>JZp~DZ (1.19) |
L
herd's reactor can be estimated to be o f the order o f 2 to 3 cm, which is as
18 Vapor-Phase G r o w t h S o m e Properties of Gases
19
larce as the radius o f the reactor. Thus, evidently, the unbounded fluid a. Ideal G a s L a w
approximation cannot be expected to yield reasonable results.
The ideal gas law states that
I n such a case we may use another simple approximation based on
6
Graetz's theory, developed i n 1885 for heat transfer i n a circular tube. P' mobr = RT = (Avogadro's number) • kT ( ] 20)
Because the transport o f heat and o f mass are described by the same
7
where the gas constant R is conveniently given for such calculations'by
equations, Graetz's theory can be readily adapted to mass-transfer con-
siderations as shown i n Figure 1.8. I t is evident that for both a parabolic R = 8^ 1 c m 3 a t m

(g-mole)°K '
100 1 I I I 1 1 111 1 i I I I 1111 i I I 1 1 I ]'_•
and the B o l t z m a n n constant k is conveniently given by

c m 3 a
k = 1.37 x 1 0 - " - tm_
(mo)ecule)°K '
S,Vt he f
*^£ZLÌ " - * «""—*» » — ° —*
p
« 10 (1-21)
Rod-like flow

Parabolic velocity profile

1
J ! I I ! ! I 11 M i l l
:
10 10 10 3

(Gas flow raid

Fig. 1.8 The Graetz-solution for mass transfer from the wall to the fluid in a circular
8
tube.

velocity profile and for a rod-like flow (uniform velocity profile) the mass-
transfer coefficient for l o w gas-flow rates becomes independent o f the flow
rate. The conditions in Shepherd's reactor correspond to an abscissa o f
the order o f 1. This leads to a mass-transfer coefficient of the same order
as the boundary layer considerations d i d . However, this theory predicts
the complete absence o f a gas flow-rate dependence o f the mass-transfer
coefficient, i n agreement w i t h Shepherd's observation.

1.3 S O M E PROPERTIES O F GASES

10-5

We now briefly review h o w certain properties o f gases, which are

F

needed i n mass-transfer calculations, are obtained. ' g . 1.9 D

ensity and viscosity of H„ N , and O as a function of the abs
s
olute temperature.
20 Vapor-Phase Growth Problems
21
The ideal gas l a w can also be rearranged to give directly the density o f a 6. Ibid., Chapter 14.

gas, 7. R. B. Bird. W. E . Stewart, and E . N. Lightfoot. Transport Phenomena. Wiley, 1960,

Chapter 21.
P = (molecular weight) — . • (1.22)
RT 3. W. H . McAdams, Heat Transmission, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 1954,
Chapter 9.
The densities o f three gases—oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen—are
9. R. C . Reid and T . K . Sherwood, The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw-Hill
s h o w n i n Figure 1.9 as functions o f the absolute temperature. Book C o . , 1958.

PROBLEMS
b. Transport Properties
e lkT
1.1 Exponential temperature dependence is alternately represented bv the form e~ i
The estimation o f viscosities a n d diffusivities o f gases is treated lBIRT
or e~ , where E is the value of the activation energy in electron volts, and
a
9
t h o r o u g h l y elsewhere. T o provide a feeling for the orders o f magnitude A H is its value in Kcal/mole. Show that if £7 = 1 ev, the corresponding value
a

i n v o l v e d , we show the viscosity o f the same three gases as a f u n c t i o n o f of A H is 23 Kcal/mole. (

absolute temperature i n Figure 1.9. 1.2 Calculate the time required to grow a monolayer of silicon epitaxially under the
conditions of Figure 1.4, at 1200°C.
Diffusivities o f gases at r o o m temperature generally range between 0.1
and 1 crnr/sec. 9
Gaseous diffusivities generally increase with absolute 1.3 Derive the expression for the film-growth rate V if deposition takes place through
the chemical reaction.
temperature as 7 , w i t h in between 1.5 and 2.
S i X ^ Si(solid) + X .

in terms of the rate constants of the forward and reverse chemical reactions k s

READING REFERENCES and kf„ and the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficients of S i X and of X . h and h .
n qx

Under what conditions does the resulting expression reduce to Equation 1.5?
A general disaissiatt.ofj.Lappr-ohase growth is given by C . P. Powell. J . H . Oxlev, 1.4 A tubular flow reactor is 2" in diameter. The flow meter indicates a gas-Row rate
and J . M . B\ocher^VaporDeposuion, Wiley, 1966. of 1 liter/min. The entering gas mixture is 98% H , , 2 % S i C l by volume. T h e
4

The epitaxial growtbAot^emiconductors is discussed in a series of papers in the reactor is heated to 1200°C. Calculate:
December 1963 issue of RCA Review; and in Volume 9 of a series of review-reports (a) The Reynolds number based on the wafer size.
(b) The average boundary layer thickness over the first wafer.
on "Integrated Silicon Device Technology" by the Research Triangle Institute, A S D - 3
(c) The concentration of S i C U (molecules/cm ) in the entering gas.
TDR-63-316 (1965).
(d) The flux of S i C l molecules to the surface.
4

Gas-phase mass transfer is treated by R. E . Trevbal, Mass-Transfer Operations.

(e) The film growth rate, assuming the growth is mass-transfer limited.
McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 1955; and by R . B. Bird, W. E . Stewart, and E . N . Lightfoot,
(f) The concentration of S i C l in the vent gas. assuming that there are 20 wafers
4

Transport Phenomena, Wiley, 1960. in the reactor, and that the film growth rate is the same on all wafers and is
that calculated in (e).

REFERENCES CITED

1. H . C . Theuerer, "Epitaxial Silicon Films by the Hydrogen Reduction of S i C l , " 4

/. Etectrochem. Soc, 108, 649 (1961).

2. W. H . Shepherd. "Vapor Phase Deposition and Etching of Silicon." / . Etectrochem.
Soc, 112, 988 (1965).
3. A . S. Grove, "Mass Transfer in Semiconductor Technology," Ind. & Eng. Chem.,
58. 48 (1966).
4. R . E . Treybal. Mass-Transfer Operations. McGraw-Hill Book C o . . 1955. Chapter 3.
5. H . Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 1960,
Chapter 7.
 • KINETICS OF OXIDE GROWTH Kinetics of O x i d e G r o w t h 23

• SPACE-CHARGE EFFECTS
Thus some o f the silicon is used up in the g r o w t h o f an oxide film. I t
can be shown f r o m the densities and molecular weights o f silicon a n d

2
silicon dioxidef that i n the g r o w t h o f an oxide film whose thickness is
a: a layer o f silicon 0.45z thick is consumed.
o

I n this chapter we study the thermal o x i d a t i o n o f silicon i n some detail.

The thermal o x i d a t i o n o f silicon is performed in o x i d a t i o n furnaces or
Thermal Oxidation reactors o f the type illustrated schematically in Figure 2 . 1 . The reactor
itself is tubular, usually made o f quartz or glass. I t is heated by a resistance
furnace t o temperatures i n the vicinity o f 1000°C. A gas containing the
oxidizing m e d i u m (oxygen or water vapor) flows t h r o u g h the reactor and

O O O O o o o o o o o o o o Silicon wafers

(I
O , or 1-UO
-Vent
Carrier gas
»OOOOOOOOOI -Resistance heater

Fig. 2.1 Oxidation furnace.

The growth o f a t h i n layer o f silicon dioxide on a silicon wafer is a basic

past the silicon wafers. Gas-flow velocities are typically o f the order o f
feature o f the planar technology. B o t h the precise control of the thickness
1 cm/sec. A t typical o x i d a t i o n temperatures such a flow velocin corre-
o f the oxide laver and a knowledge of the kinetics o f the oxidation process
sponds to a Reynolds number Re % 10 to 20. (See Chapter 1.)
are therefore o f obvious importance i n the fabrication o f planar devices.
After the o x i d a t i o n step is completed, the oxide thickness can be deter-
In addition, phenomena involved i n the oxidation process play an
mined by either precise measurement o f the weight gain o f the silicon
i m p o r t a n t role in determining the electrical characteristics o f planar sample or by optical techniques. These t w o methods have been shown to
silicon devices. - . . . be in excellent agreement. 5

The mechanism o f o x i d a t i o n o f silicon is also o f general scientific

interest. The oxidation o f certain metals such as copper and aluminum
has been studied extensively i n the past i n connection w i t h corrosion 2.1 KINETICS OF OXIDE GROWTH
problems. Silicon now provides another example o f an element whose
oxidation kinetics and mechanism are relatively well understood. We shall study the kinetics o f the oxidation process on the basis o f the
Silicon dioxide ( S i O ) layers on silicon can be formed by various
:
6
simple m o d e l illustrated in Figure 2.2.
methods. F o r example, they can be deposited through a vapor-phase I t has been demonstrated by the use o f radioactive tracers and also bv 4

1
reaction, or they can be formed by electrochemical oxidation (anodi- 7
other means t h a t o x i d a t i o n o f silicon proceeds by the i n w a r d m o t i o n o f
3
zation)- or by a plasma reaction. I n industrial practice, silicon dioxide the oxidizing species t h r o u g h the oxide layer rather t h a n by the opposite
4
layers are most frequently formed by the thermal oxidation o f silicon process o f the o u t w a r d m o t i o n o f silicon to the outer surface o f the oxide.
through the chemical reaction (This forms an interesting contrast to the case o f copper whose o x i d a t i o n
6
proceeds by the o u t w a r d m o t i o n o f the metallic i o n . and also to the case
Si(solid) + 0 : — Si0 (solid)
2 9
of anodic o x i d a t i o n o f silicon where silicon moves o u t w a r d . )
or T

Si(solid) + 2 H 0 — S i 0 ( s o l i d ) + 2 H . Some important properties of S i O , are listed in Table 4.1.

: 2 ;
 Thermal Oxidation Kinetics of O x i d e G r o w t h
24 25

F o r the oxidizing species to reach the silicon surface it must go through
three consecutive steps:
1. I t must be transported f r o m the b u l k o f the gas to the oxide-gas
partial pressure o f that species in the surrounding gas. Thus we assume
that the concentration at the outer surface o f the oxide C, is p r o p o r t i o n a l
to the partial pressure o f the oxidant right next to the oxide surface p , s
i.e., C„ = Hp , where H is the Henry's law constant. Furthermore, we
s

interface. denote the equilibrium concentration i n the oxide, i.e.,. the concentration
2. I t must diffuse across the oxide layer already present. which w o u l d be in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the partial pressure in the bulk o f the
3. I t must react at the silicon surface. gas p by the symbol C*, i.e., C* = Hp .
G G

I f we recall that according to the ideal gas law (see Chapter 1) C a =

p jkT,
G and C = pslkT, we can rewrite Equation 2.1 as
s

F x = h(C* - C„) (2.2)

where h is the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient in terms of concentrations

in the solid, given by h = h \HkT. G

The flux across the oxide F-, is taken to be a diffusive flux,

C C i
F t - D ' ~ , (2.3)

where D is the diffusivity o f the oxidizing species in the oxide layer.

Finally, the rate o f the reaction taking place at the oxide-silicon interface
is assumed to be p r o p o r t i o n a l to the concentration o f the oxidant at this
interface. Thus.

F 3 = k C, s (2.4)
where k s is the chemical surface-reaction rate constant for o x i d a t i o n . j
Using the condition o f steady state, F = F = F, = F , after some x 3

algebra, we get the following expressions for the concentrations o f the

oxidant at the oxide-silicon interface C, and at the gas-oxide interface C„,
Fig. 2.2 Model for the thermal oxidation of silicon.* Direction of gas flow is normal
to plane of paper. (2.5)
T h e three fluxes corresponding to the three steps are equal in steady- ' • , 1 D
state o x i d a t i o n . T h e y w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e d as follows. As i n Chapter 1, and
a linear a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the gas-phase flux Fi is obtained by taking the
flux o f oxidant f r o m the b u l k o f the gas to the oxide-gas interface to be
p r o p o r t i o n a l to the difference between the concentration o f the oxidant
in D )'
C = ( 2 6 )

i n the b u l k o f the gas C and the concentration o f the oxidant right next ° k " k x • '
a

to the oxide surface C , s

h D
Fx = h {C
G G - C ).
s (2.1) I t is interesting to consider the two l i m i t i n g forms o f Equations 2.5 and
2.6. W h e n the diffusivity is very small, C — 0 and C, -— C*. I n the {

Here h is the mass-transfer coefficient which we discussed in the previous

a
opposite case, when the diffusivity is very large, C and C, w i l l be equal and f

chapter.
Note the similarity between this model and the one used in the treatment of vapor-
W e now assume Henry's law to h o l d . Henry's law states that, i n equi- phase growth in Chapter 1.
l i b r i u m , the concentration o f a species w i t h i n a solid is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
 T h e r m a l Oxidation Kinetics of O x i d e G r o w t h
27

w i l l be given by C * / ( l + k / / i ) . T h e s e t w o l i m i t i n g cases are called the

s
oxidation m o d e l may not have been valid. W e w i l l consider the significance
diffusion-controlled and reaction-controlled cases, respectively. The of x, i n this case i n more detail i n Section 2.2.
distributions o f the.concentration o f the oxidizing species in the oxide layer The s o l u t i o n o f the differential equation (2.7) leads to the general rela-
for these t w o l i m i t i n g cases are illustrated in Figure 2.3. (We are assuming tionship f o r the oxidation o f silicon,'
i n this figure that k is much smaller than h. W e shall see later that this is
indeed a realistic assumption.) x - + Ax
B 0 = Bit + t ) (2.8)
I n order to calculate the rate o f oxide g r o w t h we w i l l have to define
one more quantity, A ' j , which is the number o f oxidant molecules incor-
22
where A = 2D(— -) (2.8a)
porated into a unit volume of oxide. There are 2.2 x 1 0 S i 0 molecules/ 2

3
c m i n the oxide and we incorporate one 0 molecule into each S i 0
2 2

IDC*

Oxide Silicon
Gas B ^ — (2.8b)

k - D
s
2
(reaction controlled) x, + Ax,
and t m - '-. (2.8c)
E q u a t i o n 2.8 can be solved for the oxide thickness as a function o f t i m e ,
resulting i n

— = / 1 + —2— 1 (2 9)
(
Ail « A*lAS '

This relationship is shown in Figure 2.4 along w i t h a large number o f

experimental data taken by various investigators under widely, v a r y i n g
conditions o f temperature, partial pressure o f oxidants, using either
oxygen or water vapor as oxidizing species.
Fig. 2.3 Distribution of the oxidizing species in the oxide layer for the two limiting
Note the t w o l i m i t i n g cases o f this general relationship. F o r large times,
cases of oxidation. 2
i.e., / » A /4B, the so-called parabolic relationship, x - = B: is approached. b

molecule, whereas we incorporate t w o H , 0 molecules into each S i O , I n this relationship B is referred to as the parabolic rate constant.
molecule'. Hence, Af, for oxidation i n d r y oxygen w i l l be 2.3 x 1 0 cm , s2 3 For small times, i.e., (r + t ) « A * j 4 B , we o b t a i n the linear law,
whereas for oxidation in water vapor it w i l l be twice this number. x = 'BjA){t
0 + t ) where B'jA is referred to as the linear rate constant and is
given by
Thus the flux o f oxidant reaching the oxide-silicon interface is given by

kgC* i J ^ - ^ l . (2.10)
(2.7) =

1
dt A k + h h\
s

1 + ^ +
D-
We solve the above differential equation subject to the initial condition,
x (0) = x . Here z, is the thickness o f oxide layer g r o w n i n an earlier
o t
oxidation step. T h i s general i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n permits us to consider t w o
or more successive oxidation steps. The quantity x, can also be regarded
as the thickness o f oxide that is present at the end o f an initial period
of oxidation d u r i n g which the assumptions involved in this simple
These t w o l i m i t i n g cases are also illustrated i n Figure 2.4.
As is evident f r o m Figure 2.4, the experimental results f o l l o w the pre-
dictions o f the simple model o f oxidation very well over a wide range o f
conditions. I n a d d i t i o n , the predicted effect o f temperature and pressure
on the coefficients A and B o f the general relationship have a l l been v e r i -
fied experimentally. I n particular, it is found that B is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
partial pressure o f the oxidant in the gas, indicating that the assumption o f
 I MCI mai WA.\jaLiu wi W A I U B vjrowtn 2?

Henry's law was indeed justified. This implies the absence o f any dissoci-
ation effects at the gas-oxide interface. Thus, for o x i d a t i o n b o t h w i t h
oxygen a n d w i t h water vapor, the oxidizing species m o v i n g t h r o u g h the
oxide layer are apparently molecular.
The principal effect o f temperature on B should be reflected i n the
diffusivity D., .
([ Experimental measurements o f the temperature depend-
ence o f the parabolic rate constant B are shown i n Figure 2.5. I t is seen

f - T
:
A 4B

Fig. 2.4 The general relationship for silicon oxidation and its two limiting forms.*
t h a t the dependence is exponential w i t h activation energies o f 0.71 ev
a n d 1.24 ev for the cases o f o x i d a t i o n i n oxygen and i n water vapor,
respectively. These activation energies are very close to the respective
activation energies o f the diffusivities o f water vapor and oxygen through
fused silica (bulk S i 0 ) . Using the k n o w n values o f these diffusivities,
2
we can calculate the equilibrium concentration o f the oxidizing species
16 - 3
i n the oxide C*. I t is found that these numbers (5 x 10 c m for oxygen
19 - 3
and 3 x 10 c m for water) are i n good agreement w i t h independent
measurements o f the solubility o f oxygen and water in fused silica, at
atmospheric pressure.
The temperature dependence o f the linear rate constant B\A is shown i n
Figure 2.6. I t is evident that the linear rate constant B/A also depends o n
temperature exponentially with an activation energy o f about 2 ev for
both oxidants. The fact that the temperature dependence o f BlA is
exponential and that 2 ev is close to the bond-breaking energy o f silicon as
10
obtained by independent techniques, indicates that the rate constant
which dominates B/A is the one associated w i t h the reaction at the oxide-
silicon interface, A: . (We can see f r o m E q u a t i o n 2.10 that o f k and h
5 s
the smaller w i l l determine the magnitude o f BlA.)
Confirmation o f the fact that it is the oxide-silicon interface reaction-
rate constant k that controls B/A, and not the gas-phase mass-transfer
s
 Thermal Oxidation Space-Charge Effects on O x i d a t i o n 31
30
of the model o f o x i d a t i o n discussed in this section. There remains one
O
i m p o r t a n t unexplained observation. I t is found that data obtained by
o o o
o o o oxidation i n oxygen can only be brought into consistent agreement w i t h
rM T- o
theory i f we assume a fictitious initial condition o f z,- = 200 A . Careful
measurements o f oxide g r o w t h in dry oxygen at l o w temperatures indicate
that there is, i n fact, a rapid i n i t i a l phase o f oxidation. This is illustrated i n
Figure 2.7, where the i n i t i a l r a p i d oxidation phase is indicated as well as the

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Oxidation time (hr)
t
Fig. 2.7 The rapid initial oxidation phase (O. at 700°C).

subsequent linear g r o w t h . I t is evident that the linear p o r t i o n o f the oxide

thickness versus time curve extrapolates to approximately x = 200 A i

rather than to zero. This has been found consistently through all experi-
ments w i t h dry oxygen. However, such rapid initial phase (or finite x ) t

0.7 0.8 0.9- 1.0 1.1 1 2

has never been observed i n o x i d a t i o n i n a wet ambient.
; ]000/Ti°kl
A possible explanation for this observation might be based on the role o f
Fig. 2.6 The effect of temperature on the linear rate constant.'
space charges in the oxidation process.

coefficient h, is supplied by the realization that the crystallographic

orientation o f the single crystal silicon sample influences the magnitude o f
the linear rate constant B/A . n
[ A l l data shown i n this chapter, are f o r
2.2 S P A C E - C H A R G E EFFECTS ON OXIDATION
(111) orientation.] Also, estimates o f h based on boundary layer theory,
So far we have treated the oxidation process as i f i t proceeded t h r o u g h
as outlined in Chapter 1, show t h a t h is about 1.000 times larger than
n the m o t i o n o f an uncharged oxidizing species across the oxide. H o w -
ks l(Ji
s t h). Direct experimental evidence o f the absence of a gas-phase
transport limitation i n thermal o x i d a t i o n is supplied by the observation ever, this may not be the case.
t h a t a 50-fold variation i n gas-flow rate has no effect on the value o f B\A} As we have stated earlier, it is k n o w n that oxidation proceeds t h r o u g h
The experimental observations provide a very good overall verification the m o t i o n o f the oxidizing species acrcss the oxide, rather than t h r o u g h
32 Thermal Oxidation - Problems
33

the m o t i o n o f silicon. Other experiments studying the effect o f an electric 3. J . R . Ligenza, "Silicon Oxidation in an Oxvgen Plasma Excited by Microwaves,"
field applied across the oxide on the o x i d a t i o n rate have indicated that the J. Appi. Phys., 36, 2703 (1965).

o x i d i z i n g species i n o x i d a t i o n i n 0. 2 is negatively c h a r g e d . 12
4. M. M. Atalia. ""Semiconductor Surfaces and Films; The Silicon-Silicon Dioxide
W e can n o w speculate about the reaction t a k i n g place at the gas-oxide System," in Properties of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors, H . Gatos, E d . ,
Vol. 5, pp. 163-181, Interscicnce, 1960.
interface. Let us suppose, for instance, that molecular oxygen f r o m the
gas gets adsorbed at the interface. U p o n its entry i n t o the oxide, i t dis- 5. B. E . Deal, ""The Oxidation of Silicon in Dry Oxygen, Wet Oxygen, and Steam,"
J. Electrochem. Soc, 110, 527 (1963).
sociates i n t o a negatively charged oxygen molecule and a positive hole
a c c o r d i n g to the reaction 6. B. E . Deal and A . S. Grove, "'General Relationship for the Thermal Oxidation
of Silicon," J. Appi. Phys.. 36, 3770 (1965).
0 „ ?± O . ~ + hole.
7. J . R. Ligenza and W. G . Spitzer. "'The Mechanisms for Silicon Oxidation in Steam
B o t h the oxygen i o n a n d the hole begin to move across the oxide layer. and Oxygen," Phys. Chem. Solids, 14, 131 (1960).
t o w a r d the silicon. However, the net electric current flowing across the
3. N . Cabrera and N . F . Mott, ""Theory of the Oxidation of Metals," Rep. Progr.
oxide m u s t still be zero. The hole, w h i c h has a higher m o b i l i t y , moves Phys., 12,163 (1948).
faster. I n effect, i t runs ahead o f the slower ion and drags the i o n w i t h i t .
9. E . A . Benjamini. E . F . Duffek, C . A . Mylroie, and F . Schulénburg, "The Mobi'e
Such a consideration is not restricted to the case of t h e r m a l o x i d a t i o n o f Ionic Species During the Anodic Oxidation of Silicon in a Non-Aqueous Medium,"
silicon. Whenever we have the c o u p l e d m o t i o n o f two charged species Electrochemical Society October 1963 Meeting, New York.
t h a t have different mobilities, a b u i l t - i n electric field w i l l result. T h i s field 10. L . Pauling, 77ie Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd ed., Cornell Univ. Press,
aids the motion of the slower of the two species. 1960. p. 85. "
8
C a b r e r a and M o t t have considered this process i n detail. T h e i r theory 11. J . R . Ligenza. "Effect of Crystal Orientation on Oxidation Rates of Silicon in High
predicts that so l o n g as the oxide thickness is small—smaller than a critical Pressure Steam," / . Phys. Chem., 65, 2011 (1961).
distance—there w i l l be an i n i t i a l r a p i d o x i d a t i o n phase. As the oxide 12. P. J . Jorgensen. "Effect of an Electric Field on Silicon Oxidation," J. Chem. Phys..
grows beyond this c r i t i c a l thickness, its rate o f g r o w t h w i l l slow d o w n . 37, 874(1962).
Estimates o f this critical thickness (called extrinsic Debye length) yield
150 A for silicon o x i d a t i o n i n 0 ; and 5 A for o x i d a t i o n i n H 0 . ; Since the
PROBLEMS
first value is in agreement w i t h the observed thickness below w h i c h the
o x i d a t i o n rate is r a p i d in 0 - o x i d a t i o n , and the second is too small to
2 be 2.1 Show that when a silicon dioxide film of thickness x, is formed, a layer of silicon
detectable experimentally, this mechanism may account for the experi- of thickness 0.45x, is consumed.
m e n t a l observations.
2.2 A silicon sample has a surface area of 1 cm*.
(a) Calculate the weight of a 0.2-,« thick oxide layer on this sample.
ls 3

READING REFERENCES " (b) I f the oxide laver contains 5 x 1 0 excess oxygen molecules/cm , calculate
the total weight of the excess oxygen.

A comprehensive treatment of the oxidation of metals is given by U . R . Evans,
The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals, Edward .Arnold and C o . , London 1960.
The oxidation of silicon is reviewed in Volume 7 of a series of review-reports on
"'Integrated Silicon Device Technology" by the Research Triangle Institute, A S D -
TDR-63-316 (1965).
2.3 Calculate (a) the flux of oxidant, and (b) the time required to form a monolayer
of SiOo in dry oxygen at 1200°C, when the oxide thickness is 0.2 p.
2.4 Using the general relationship. Equation 2.8. and the data given in the figures,
construct the oxide thickness versus time curves for (a) dry oxygen at 1200°C; and
(b) water vapor at 1000°C.

2.5 Using the curves obtained above, determine the oxide thickness:
REFERENCES CITED (a) After oxidation for one hour in dry oxygen at 1200°C.
(b) After oxidation for 75 minutes in water vapor at 1000°C.
1. E . L . Jordan, " A Diffusion Mask for Germanium," / . Electrochem. Soc, 108, 478 (c) After step (a) + step (b).
(d) Alter step (b) + step (a).
(1961).
2. P. F . Schmidt and W. Michel, "Anodic Formation of Oxide Films on Silicon," 2.6 A silicon sample is covered with a 0.2-.« thick oxide layer. What is the additional
J. Electrochem. Soc, 104, 230 (1957). time required to grow 0.1 ft more oxide in dry oxvgen at 1200°C?
 T h e r m a l Oxidation
• FLUX
• TRANSPORT EQUATION
• DIFFUSED LAYERS

rate constant in epitaxial growth. • DEVIATIONS FROM SIMPLE

DIFFUSION THEORY
• REDISTRIBUTION DURING
OXIDATION
• DIFFUSION T H R O U G H SiO, LAYER
• REDISTRIBUTION IN EPITAXIAL
GROWTH

algebra.)

i
ii Solid-State Diffusion

The p r i n c i p a l a i m o f semiconductor technology is to control the type and

concentration o f impurities w i t h i n specific regions o f a semiconductor
crystal. The most practical wav of achieving this is through solid-siaie
diffusion. A s a result, the diffusion of various impurities in semiconductors
has been studied very extensively. Such studies have been facilitated by the
fact that the electrical characteristics o f p-n j u n c t i o n s and other semicon-
ductor devices formed by solid-state diffusion can be directly employed i n
the measurement o f the impurity concentrations. U s i n g such electrical
measurements, concentrations in the range o f 10 parts per b i l l i o n can be
determined relatively accurately.
I n this chapter, we discuss solid-state diffusion, w i t h emphasis on the
diffusion o f i m p u r i t i e s in s i l i c o n . . We begin by deriving the formula g i v i n g
the flux o f a charged species, and the transport equation which determines
their d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a solid. Then we discuss the method o f f o r m a t i o n and
evaluation o f diffused layers, using simple diffusion theory. D e v i a t i o n s
from this theory due to such factors as the two-dimensional geometry o f
planar semiconductor devices, the charged nature o f the impurities, and
external rate l i m i t a t i o n s are then considered.
The second h a l f o f the chapter contains a treatment o f other solid-state
diffusion problems encountered in the fabrication o f semiconductor
devices. These include the redistribution o f impurities d u r i n g t h e r m a l
oxidation, the diffusion o f impurities through a silicon dioxide laver, and
the redistribution o f impurities during epitaxial g r o w t h .

35
36 Solid-State Diffusion Flux 37

the probability o f a j u m p o f any o f these impurities to the valley at x ;

3.1 FLUX and (iii) the frequency o f attempted j u m p s v. Thus we can write

The flux F o f any species is-derined as F = number passing through-unit

F l = [aC(x - a)] • exp —[W— \ai] •v (3.1)
area i n unit time. kT
T o derive a formula for the flux F. let us consider the example o f the where [aC(x — a)] is the density per u n i t area o f particles situated i n the
m o t i o n o f positively charged impurities i n a crystal. The atoms o f valley at (x — a), and the exponential factor is the probability o f a success-
the crystal f o r m a series o f potential hills w h i c h impede "the m o t i o n o f ful j u m p from the valley at (x — a) to the valley at x. Note the lowering o f
the charged impurities. This c o n d i t i o n is represented in Figure 3.1a. The the barrier due to the electric field S.
Similar formulas can be written f o r F,, F , and F When these are 3 v

combined to give a f o r m u l a for the flux F at position x, w i t h the con-

centrations C(x ± a) approximated by C(x) ± a(dCjdx), we obtain

F(x) = -[va-e-^ ^ 1
f£ c o s h ^ £ + [ 2
T
a r e - " ™ ] C sinh SSl. ( 3 . )
2

dx 2kT 2kT
A n extremely i m p o r t a n t l i m i t i n g f o r m o f this equation is obtained for
the case when the electric field is relatively small, i.e., S « kT/qa. I n this
case we can expand the cosh and the sinh terms i n the above equation.
N o t i n g that cosh (x) = I and sinh ( x ) == x for x 0, this results i n the
l i m i t i n g f o r m o f the flux equation for a positively charged species,

f ( x ) = - D — + p.SC (3.3)
ox
where
w/kT
x — ii x x ~ a Distance D s Va-e-* (3.3a)
and
Ibl

Fig. 3.1 Model of ionic motion within a crystal; potential distribution with and without H a — . (3.3b)
applied bias.
Note that the m o b i l i t y a and the diffusivity D are related by
height o f the potential barrier W is typically o f the order o f electron volts
in most materials. The distance between successive potential barriers a is kT
£>-— ft. (3.4)
o f the order o f the lattice spacing w h i c h is typically several angstroms.
<?
I f a constant electric field is applied, the potential d i s t r i b u t i o n as a func- This is the w e l l - k n o w n Einstein's relationship.
t i o n o f distance w i l l be tilted, as shown i n Figure 3.1b. This w i l l make the It is customary to identify the c o n t r i b u t i o n to the flux which is propor-
passage o f positively charged particles to the right easier a n d i t w i l l make tional to the concentration gradient as the diffusion term, while the contri-
their passage to the left more difficult. L e t us n o w calculate the flux F at b u t i o n which is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the concentration itself is referred to as the
p o s i t i o n x. This flux w i l l be the average o f the fluxes at position {x — a/2) drift term.
and at (x + a/2). I n t u r n , these two fluxes are given by F — F, and y
A similar derivation can be made f o r the m o t i o n o f negatively charged
F — F , respectively, as indicated i n Figure 3.1b.
3 t
species. Such a derivation leads to an equation similar to E q u a t i o n 3.3
Consider the component F I t w i l l be given by the product o f (i) the
v
except that the sign o f the drift t e r m is negative. These expressions, as
density per unit areaf o f impurities at the potential valley at (x — a); (ii) well as other i m p o r t a n t formulas developed in this chapter, are summarized
t This "area' is along a plane which is normal to the direction of the flux. in Table 3.3 at the end o f this chapter.
38 Solid-State Diffusion

U u

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1000/TCK I
lOQO/TfKl
1
Fig.<3.2 Diffusivity of acceptor impurities in silicon. 1
Fig. 3.3 Diffusivity of donor impurities in silicon.

Experimentally measured values o f the diffusivities o f various i m p u r i -

ties i n silicon are shown i n Figures 3.2 t h r o u g h 3.4. Diffusivities in silicon T o assign a physical meaning to the activation energy E we must k n o w
a

dioxide, in t u r n , are shown i n Figure 3.5. N o t e that the l o g a r i t h m o f the the particular atomistic mechanism o f diffusion. I t is k n o w n that i n semi-
diffusivity (or, equivalently, the l o g a r i t h m o f the square r o o t o f diffusivity conductors diffusion o f substitutional impurities, i.e., impurities w h i c h
which we show here for later convenience) plotted versus the reciprocal o f occupy sites i n the silicon lattice, usually proceeds" by the i m p u r i t i e s
3

the absolute temperature gives a good straight line i n all cases. This i m - j u m p i n g i n t o silicon vacancies in the lattice. Thus the activation energy
plies that the temperature dependence of the diffusivity can be represented corresponds to the energy required to f o r m a silicon vacancy rather than to
by the equation the energy required to move the i m p u r i t y . Since silicon-to-silicon bonds
E ltT
must be broken to form a vacancy, we m i g h t expect a relationship between
D = D e- '
0 • (3-5)
the energy gap o f a semiconductor (see Chapter 4) and the activation
in agreement w i t h Equation 3.3a.
40 Solid-State Diffusion
The T r a n s p o r t Equation
41
energy o f the diffusivities o f substitutional impurities. I n fact, the activ-
bo
ation energy for the diffusivities o f acceptor and d o n o r type impurities, ooo o o o
<noo o o o
which are all substitutional, ail ranse between 3 and 4 ev in silicon, whereas
the similar activation energies for diffusion in germanium all range between
2 and 3 ev—three to four times the energy gaps o f Si and Ge, respectivelv.
Other impurities occupy the space between the silicon atoms, instead o f
the lattice sites in thexrystal. Such interstitial impurities (e.g., manganese
and nickel in silicon) generally move much more rapidly than substitutional
impurities, as is evident from Figure 3.4. The atomistic mechanism o f the

CJ

0 5
10 1.5 2.0 ~ 2.5 3.0 3.5
lOOO/rCK)
;
Fig. 3.S Diffusivities in amorphous S I O . .

diffusion o f gold i n silicon is quite complex; it involves the m o t i o n o f

1
interstitial gold, but is influenced also by the concentration o f vacancks.'

3.2 THE TRANSPORT EQUATION

Consider now a small element of a solid such as shown in Figure 3.6.

A n inventory o f the material contained w i t h i n the element bounded by
the planes at position x and at position x + A x yields

Increase i n the density o f material per unit area _ _ „

UXJO/TVKl , .
U n i t time
T . — ^ in t out,

Fig. 3.4 Diffusivity of miscellaneous impurities in silicon.

provided material is neither formed nor consumed within this element.
 Solid-State Diffusion Diffused Layers 43
42

I n terms of concentrations, we can write T h e c o n d u c t i o n - o f heat in solids is described by an identical equation

except that the diffusivity D is replaced by the thermal diffusivity. k. T h u s
5
Ax— = F(x) - F(x + Ax) .(3.6) we can use the solutions o f heat conduction p r o b l e m s in solid-state
dt diffusion w o r k .

where C is the average concentration w i t h i n the element. N o w , i f we let

Ax — 0 ,
F(x + Ax) - F{x) dF 3.3 DIFFUSED LAYERS
C—C(x), and
Ax dx
Solid-state diffusion is most frequently employed i n semiconductor
so that
technology to f o r m diffused layers o f impurities. Typically, diffused layers
(3.7) are formed i n a tworstep process. I n the first step, impurities are i n t r o -
dt ox duced i n t o the semiconductor to a depth of a few tenths o f a m i c r o n . T h i s
which is the general form, o f the transport equation i n one dimension.! process is called the predeposition step. Once the impurities have been
introduced i n t o the semiconductor, they are then diffused deeper to provide
a suitable concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h o u t any more impurities being
added to the semiconductor. T h i s second step is called the drive-in
Unit cross-sectional diffusion step.
area

a. T h e P r e d e p o s i t i o n Step
Rvl 'Fix + A.xl
The predeposition step is typically performed by placing the semi-
conductor sample i n a furnace t h r o u g h which flows an inert gas containing
6
the desired i m p u r i t i e s . The furnace and flow conditions are similar to
A.v t h o s ; used in thermal oxidation (Chapter 2). The temperature usually
Fig. 3.6 The control element used in the derivation of the transport equation. c
ranges between 800 and 1200°C.
7
The impurities can be introduced into the carrier gas in several w a v s :
I f we n o w substitute our f o r m u l a for the flux o f a positively charged
species, Equation 3.3, and i f we assume that the diffusivity is independent S o l i d S o u r c e . I n one arrangement the i m p u r i t y is introduced i n t o the
of the concentration, we arrive at a simpler f o r m o f the transport e q u a t i o n carrier gas f r o m a solid source w h i c h evaporates. I f e q u i l i b r i u m is reached
at the source, the partial pressure o f the i m p u r i t y compound in the gas
(3.8) w i l l equal its vapor pressure at the source temperature.
= D — n - p.S ' — [<o and D = const.].
1
dt dx ox A solid source can be used in the predeposition o f most impurities. T h e
I n most o f this chapter we concern ourselves w i t h problems whose source material is usually an oxide o f the i m p u r i t y , e.g., P , 0 for phos-
5

phorus, B 0 for b o r o n . A s 0 for arsenic. S b 0 for antimony. The

solutions we can approximate by assuiiung that the electric field S = 0. 2 3 = 3 2 4

oxide is carried to the semiconductor surface by the gas and then is reduced
This results in the diffusion equation,
at the surface. A n example o f this reducing reaction m i g h t be

2 £ == £ ^ [ / = 0; D — const.]. (3.9)
P-ACgas) + Si(solid) — P + SiO (solid). =
dt dx'

t In three dimensions Equation 3.7 would become Thus an oxide layer is formed on the silicon surface d u r i n g predeposition.

dC L i q u i d S o u r c e . A liquid c o m p o u n d can also be used as a source o f

= -divF.
dt the impurities by passing the carrier gas through a flask containing the
44 Solid-btace Uittusion

l i q u i d . The flask and the l i q u i d in i t are kept at a fixed temperature. The

gas w h i c h bubbles through the l i q u i d reaches e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the liquid
w i t h the result that the partial pressure o f the i m p u r i t y c o m p o u n d i n the
gas leaving the flask w i l l equal its vapor pressure at the temperature o f the
l i q u i d . L i q u i d sources are available for several impurities, e.g.. P O C l for 3

phosphorus predeposition. and B B r for b o r o n predeposition.

3

C h e m i c a l T r a n s p o r t . A t h i r d method o f i n t r o d u c i n g an i m p u r i t y
i n t o the gas stream is t h r o u g h a chemical reaction t a k i n g place at the
source. A n example o f this chemical transport process is that o f gallium.
The source employed i n gallium predeposition can be g a l l i u m oxide, G a 0 . ; 3

8
I t has been f o u n d that gallium is introduced into the carrier gas only i n
the presence o f hydrogen. This specificity indicates t h a t a chemical
reaction takes place at the source. One reasonable reaction m i g h t be

Ga 0 (solid) + 3 H
2 3 2 2Ga(vapor) + 3 H . 0 .

F o r this reaction the partial pressure o f g a l l i u m vapor s h o u l d be given by

Paa. 3C I J
v
Ph,o'
3
according to the law o f mass action. Experiments show that the gallium
concentration is, in fact, p r o p o r t i o n a l to the I.5-power o f the hydrogen-to-
water ratio, indicating that this reaction is the correct one.
I f there is no resistance to the transport o f the i m p u r i t y f r o m the gas to
the solid surface, the surface concentration C i n the solid w i l l be in equilib-
s

r i u m w i t h the partial pressure p o f the i m p u r i t y i n the gas. A c c o r d i n g l y ,

i f Henry's law is obeyed (see Chapter 2), we expect that
C = Hp.
s

There is, however, a m a x i m u m concentration o f any i m p u r i t y that can be

accommodated i n a solid at any given temperature. This concentration is
called the solid solubility o f the i m p u r i t y . Thus the above relationship
can h o l d only up to the l i m i t o f the solid solubility o f the i m p u r i t y i n the
semiconductor at the temperature o f the predeposition. Solid solubilities
o f i m p o r t a n t impurities i n silicon are shown i n Figure 3.7 as a function o f
temperature.
The relationship between surface concentration and p a r t i a l pressure is
illustrated by Figure 3.8 w h i c h shows the measured surface concentration
o f b o r o n i n silicon as a function o f the partial pressure o f boron-oxide i n
the carrier gas for an 1100°C predeposition. 11
I t is seen t h a t the surface
concentration is indeed p r o p o r t i o n a l to the partial pressure i n the gas at
I n industrial practice, predeposition is usually performed with a partial
pressure o f the impurity in the carrier gas high enough so that the surface
concentration i n the semiconductor corresponds to the solid solubility o f
the i m p u r i t y . Under such conditions the surface concentration is inde-
pendent o f the partial pressure o f the i m p u r i t y and w i l l be reproducible and
u n i f o r m even i f the partial pressure is not.
We can now proceed to the consideration o f the i m p u r i t y distribution i n
the semiconductor resulting after predeposition. Since during.predeposi-
t i o n the surface concentration C o f the i m p u r i t y is kept constant, we must
s

low concentrations, w i t h an eventual saturation expected at the solid solve the diffusion equation (3.9) subject to the'boundary conditions
solubility l i m i t . C(0, 0 = Q (3.10)
-46 Solid-State Diffusion
47
1
I I 1 i i—I—r
Solid-solubiliiv of
2 0
3 x 10
B in Si ai 1I00-C

2 -

Line corresponds to Henry's law.

: i 3
with fi ï 2 x 1 0 atm/cm .

i.5 2 x icr-
p (Torri
s

Fig. 3.8 Surface concentration of boron in silicon as a function of the partial pressure
n
of B 0 in the ambient, at I IOO°C.
: 3

and
C(co, r) = 0 (3.11)
and the initial condition
C{x, 0) = 0. (3.12)

The solution satisfying the diffusion equation as well as the above con-
1
ditions is the complementary error function,*

C(x. t) = Cs erfc — — (3.13)

2,/Dr
;
w h c h is one o f the most i m p o r t a n t functions encountered in diffusion
theory. Some o f its properties are summarized in Table 3.1. I t is tabu- Xl/ll
lated in Carslaw and Jaeger' as well as in many mathematics handbooks.
The concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n resulting i n a predeposition process
according to the above simple theory is shown in Figure 3.9 where we plot,
on b o t h linear and logarithmic scales, the normalized concentration
(normalized to the surface concentration, which is constant) as a function
f
o distance for three different values o f the diffusion length 2 \ Dl corre- 2(0 • \C{x, t) dx. (3.14)
Jo
sponding to three consecutive predeposition times. N o t e that as the
Integration o f E q u a t i o n 3.33 vields
predeposition time progresses, the i m p u r i t y penetrates deeper and deeper
into the solid. This penetration can be represented by a useful quantity,
2(0 = ~_ y D~t C £
(3.15)
\ "
 Solid-State Diffusion Diffused Layers 49
48
TABLE 3.1
b. Drive-In Diffusion
SOME PROPERTIES OF T H E ERROR FUNCTION
As discussed above, predepositions usually result in surface concen-
trations which equal the solid solubility o f the impurity. It is often neces-
erf (x) • —= da sary to lower the surface concentration from this value. Furthermore, it is
V 77 Jo
often desirable to move the impurities deeper into the semiconductor
erfc (x) == 1 — erf (x)
w i t h o u t at the same time increasing the total number o f impurities w i t h i n
en (0) = 0 the semiconductor.
erf ( x ) m i Both purposes can be accomplished by a further high-temperature heat
i treatment in a gas which does not contain any impurities. I n practice, this
additional heat treatment, the drive-in diffusion, is usually carried out i n
erf (x) 35 — = x for x « 1 an oxidizing ambient.
A comparison o f the data shown i n Figures 3.2 and 3.3 w i t h those
z
1 e~ ' shown in Figure 3.5 indicates that most acceptor- and donor-type i m p u r i -
ertc (x) 3£ — = for x » 1 ties diffuse much faster in silicon than i n silicon dioxide. ( G a l l i u m is a
v rr x
d'erf(x) 2 notable exception.) Thus, i f the heat treatment is performed i n an o x i -
dizing ambient, the resulting oxide layer w i l l tend to seal these impurities
into the silicon; no more impurities w i l l be added nor will a significant
erfc ( V ) ax' = x erfc x H = ( 1 -<?*")
amount o f impurities escape because the oxide acts as an effective mask
against the diffusion o f these impurities.
erfc (x) rfx = —= The concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n after drive-in diffusion is accordingly
given by that solution o f the diffusion equation which satisfies the boundary
conditions

T h i s expression can be interpreted simply as follows. The quantity — = 0 (3.18)

dx (o.n
0(f) represents the area under one o f the concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n
and
curves o f the top p o r t i o n o f Figure 3.9. These distributions can, i n t u r n ,
C(co,r) = 0 (3.19)
be a p p r o x i m a t e d by triangles whose height is C s and whose base is
-~2\ Dt. This leads to Q(f) = \ Dt C , s which is reasonably close to the which provide for a constant 0 being maintained in the semiconductor
exact f o r m . E q u a t i o n 3.15. during the drive-in diffusion step. The initial c o n d i t i o n is given by
A n o t h e r quantity o f considerable importance i n determining the charac- C(x, 0) = C erfc * (3.20)
s

teristics o f semiconductor devices is the gradient o f the i m p u r i t y concen- -\ (-^Opredep

t r a t i o n dC'idx. I t can be obtained by differentiating Equation 3.13. This since the impurity d i s t r i b u t i o n at the beginning o f the drive-in diffusion
leads to step is the impurity d i s t r i b u t i o n resulting at the conclusion o f the pre-
5C HDl (3.16) deposition step.
dx i-Dt This is a difficult problem to solve. However, for most practical cases,
v Dt for drive-in diffusion is much larger than \ Dt for predeposition.
Usins the asvmptotic a p p r o x i m a t i o n for the complementary error
Thus we can regard the extent o f penetration o f the predeposited profile to
f u n c t i o n given'in Table 3.1, which is valid under most practical conditions,
be negligibly small in comparison to that o f the final profile resulting after
this can be rewritten as
the drive-in diffusion step. Accordingly, we can represent the predeposi-
3C
I — C(x, f ) . (3.17) tion profile mathematically "by a delta function.
(x.t) 2Dt
 50 Solid-State Diffusion Diffused Layers
SI
The concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n after drive-in diffusion subject to this
5
approximation then w i l l be given b y

iD
C ,<)
{X = -S=e->"-' '. (3.21)

This is the well-known Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n . N o t e that in this solution

the t o t a l amount o f impurities in the solid, Q. is constant by virtue o f the
boundary condition E q u a t i o n 3.18. Since the impurities move i n t o
"the solid with the passage o f t i m e , i n order to keep the total O constant
the concentration near the surface must d r o p . Indeed, it is evident
from Equation 3.21 that the surface concentration is given by

C (0
s = -$= . (3.22)
/ IT VI
%

Thus the concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n can also be represented by

: 1D
C(x. f) = C (t)e-* ' >. s (3.23.)

The distribution o f impurities for a Gaussian profile is shown in Figure

3.10 where we plot the concentration o f the impurities normalized by 0,
which is a constant, as a function o f distance for three increasing diffusion
lengths or three successive drive-in diffusion limes. N o t e that the slope o f
each impurity distribution at x = 0 is zero corresponding to the first
boundary condition, and that the diffusion profile spreads inward into
the semiconductor, w i t h the surface concentration dropping as the
diffusion time increases.
The gradient of the i m p u r i t y concentration i s o b t a i n e d by differentiating
Equation 3.23 and is

d C 1
C(x. f).
ox iz.o 2Dt
I t is important to note that for b o t h the complementary error-function
and the Gaussian distributions the concentration is a function o f a
normalized distance, xjl\' Di. T h u s , i f we normalize the concentration
w i t h the surface concentration, we can represent the distributions w i t h a
single curve each, valid for all times, as shown i n Figure 3.11. I t is i m p o r t -
ant to realize that i n the case o f the Gaussian distribution we n o w have
also introduced the time variable i n t o our other normalizing parameter,
the surface concentration.
Let us now consider the exact solution o f this problem w i t h o u t the
delta-function a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the initial d i s t r i b u t i o n . Such a s o l u t i o n
(3.24)
xl.ul
Fig. 3.10 The Gaussian: normalized concentration versus distance for successive times.
is shown i n Figure 3.12. in comparison to the corresponding d i s t r i b u t i o n
obtained w i t h the delta-function a p p r o x i m a t i o n . I n this figure the con-
centration normalized by the constant surface concentration present d u r i n g
the predeposition step is plotted as a function o f the distance normalized
w i t h the diffusion length o f the drive-in diffusion step. The parameter is
the ratio o f the diffusion length o f the predeposition step to that o f the
drive-in diffusion step. N o t e that for values o f this ratio as large as 0.25,
12
the delta-function a p p r o x i m a t i o n provides an excellent fit to the more
 53

Fig. 3.12 Two-step diffusion: predeposition followed by drive-in diffusion. Solid lines
12
are exact final distributions. Dashed lines correspond to case when predeposited
distribution is approximated by delta-function at x = 0.

etching the surface w i t h a solution w h i c h reacts selectively w i t h the t w o "

sides o f the j u n c t i o n , thus resulting i n a c o l o r variation between the
XP*/** p and the n sides as illustrated i n Figure 3.13. T h i s method makes possible
lized concentration versus normalized distance. the determination o f the j u n c t i o n depth X) w i t h about a 0.1-micron
Fig. 3.U The diffusion functions: norma
13
accuracy using optical techniques.
exact results. Only when this ratio becomes o f the order o f 1, does the- The j u n c t i o n depth x„ as illustrated i n Figure 3.13, is denned by the
delta-function a p p r o x i m a t i o n begin to lead to large errors. condition
C(*„ 0 = C .B (3.25)

c. E v a l u a t i o n of Diffused L a y e r s Thus, i f the j u n c t i o n depth and the b u l k concentration C are k n o w n ,

B

Routine evaluation o f diffused layers is relatively simple i f the diffused the surface concentration C as well as the rest o f the impurity d i s t r i b u t i o n
s

laver forms a p-n j u n c t i o n w i t h the underlying substrate. The depth o f can be calculated, provided we can safely assume that the concentration
this j u n c t i o n x, can be delineated by grooving into the semiconductor and . distribution follows one or the other simple diffusion functions. A n
54 Solid-State Diffusion Diffused Layers 55

logC which we can rearrange to yield

C* - Cj, + 4 " . (3.28)

Q.u p n

:
I f we take p = 85 and fi = 45 c m / v sec which correspond to the l i m i t i n g
ri m

mobility values reached at high i m p u r i t y concentrations in silicon, such

as we are likely to encounter i n the case o f diffused layers (see Chapter 4 ) ,

Fig. 3.13 Determination of junction depth by grooving and staining.

i m p o r t a n t and convenient check on the validity o f this assumption is

provided by a measurement o f the average resistivity o f the diffused
layer. The reciprocal of the average resistivity p o f an n-type layer (taken as
example) is

l = ± W n ( x ) d x (3.26)
p Xj Jo
where we are essentially adding up the parallel conductances o f the ele-
m e n t a l segments of the diffused layer as indicated i n Figure 3.14.
T o evaluate the integral appearing i n this equation, we must have
(i) a relationship between the m o b i l i t y and the i m p u r i t y concentration,
and (ii) the carrier concentration as a f u n c t i o n o f distance. F o r complete
ionization o f impurities (see Chapter 4), this w i l l be approximately the
same as the distribution o f the impurities.
W e n o w illustrate the procedure o f evaluating p by considering the
Ji (fl-cm i
simplest o f all possible distributions: t h a t corresponding to a " b o x "
profile illustrated i n the inset to Figure 3.15. I n the case o f a "box'" Fig. 3.15 Surface concentration versus average resistivity—"box" distribution.

distribution the,integral in E q u a t i o n 3.26 can be evaluated w i t h ease and

results i n we can obtain the relationships between surface concentration and
average resistivity for a " b o x " d i s t r i b u t i o n for both n- and />-type lavers.
\ = qu„{C s - C)
B (3.27) These are shown in Figure 3.15.
P
The box d i s t r i b u t i o n , o f course, is not usually a realistic one. The
integral in E q u a t i o n 3.26 has also been evaluated numerically for the t w o
diffusion functions, the complementary error function and the Gaussian,
14
for the case o f s i l i c o n . The resulting curves, analogous to the one in
Figure 3.15 for the "box*" d i s t r i b u t i o n , are shown in Figure 3.16. where
we again show surface concentration C as a function o f average resistivity
s

f . for different substrate concentrations C,.. Note that these curves,

Fig 3.14 Determination of the average resistivity of diffused layers. which are based on computer calculations and take the cxperimentaliv
 ¡1 lO-cm)

14
Fig. 3.16c Surface concentration versus average resistivity —p-Type layer, erfc dis-
tribution.

/" lO-cml
(d)
Fig. 3.16b Surface concentration versus average resistivity"—n-Type layer, Gaussian
Fig. 3.l6d Surface concentration versus average resistivity"—p-Type layer, Gaussian
distribution. distribution.

•y •" 56
57
4
58 Solid-State Diffusion
measured variation o f the electron and hole mobilities with i m p u r i t y con-
centration into account (see Chapter 4). have the same general tendency as
those obtained by the crude " b o x " profile
approximation.
The average resistivity o f diffused layers is
customarily measured by the four-point probe
15
technique illustrated i n Figure 3.17. I n this
technique four probes are placed on the surface
of the semiconductor. Current is passed t h r o u g h
the t w o outermost probes and the voltage—the
IR drop—due to this current flow is measured
between the two middle probes. Thus any p r o b -
lems due to probe-to-semiconductor contact
resistances are eliminated. I n order to relate
the measurements o f the voltage d r o p V and
the current / to the average resistivity p o f the
diffused laver we must solve the electrostatic
Top view problem which takes into account the spreading
Fig. 3.17 Measurement of
of the current from the t w o outside probes as
average resistivity using a
shown in the top view i n Figure 3.17. T h i s
four-point probe.
has been done and the result for layers whose
lateral dimensions are large and whose w i d t h x> is small in comparison to
l c
the spacing of the probes i s
77 V V m o t i o n o f the ionized donors (or acceptors) and electrons (or holes).
P = 4.52 (3.29)
ln2 7 j
I '
Since a typical probe spacing is s = 1000 u. this condition is amply met
for diffused layers.t I f surface concentrations based on measurements o f
the average resistivity agree w i t h those obtained from j u n c t i o n depth
measurements, we can conclude that our diffusion profile does indeed
follow the assumed distribution.
3.4 DEVIATIONS FROM SIMPLE DIFFUSION
THEORY
We now examine some o f the causes o f deviation of the i m p u r i t y
distributions from the simple theory considered in Section 3.3.
•f Because semiconductor wafers are generally sliced 200 to 400.» thick. Equation 3.29
can also be used to calculate wafer resistivity from four-point probe measurements bv
substituting the wafer thickness for .r,. If either the wafer thickness or ihe lateral
dimension of the semiconductor sample is comparable to the probe spacing, corrccuon
factors must be applied."
Deviations f r o m S i m p l e Diffusion T h e o r y
a. T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l Diffused Layers
I n the planar technology, the diffusion process is usually carried out
through w i n d o w s cut in a diffusion mask (usually an S i O , layer). A s a
result, the i m p u r i t i e s w i l l diffuse parallel \o the surface as well as n o r m a l to
the surface. The resulting j u n c t i o n shape near the edge o f the w i n d o w is
observed experimentally to be approximately cylindrical.
17
The results o f detailed calculations of this two-dimensional diffusion
problem for the predeposition case are shown in Figure 3.18. Here we
plot the n o r m a l i z e d concentration distribution as a function o f distance
parallel to the surface from the edge o f the opening, and also as a f u n c t i o n
of distance n o r m a l to the surface. The latter is identical w i t h the c o m -
plementary error-function type o f distribution. The d i s t r i b u t i o n parallel
to the surface deviates from the error-function d i s t r i b u t i o n b u t this
deviation leads t o no more than about 15 or 2 0 % error in the location o f a
j u n c t i o n . T h u s , w i t h i n this error, the j u n c t i o n shape can indeed be
regarded as cylindrical. The calculations for the case o f a drive-in diffu-
sion lead to similar conclusions.
b. F i e l d - A i d e d Diffusion
W h e n d o n o r or acceptor impurities enter the silicon crystal, they
become ionized. Consequently, we have to consider the simultaneous
We have already discussed the simultaneous m o t i o n o f t w o charged
species in S i 0 in connection w i t h oxidation kinetics i n Chapter 2. We
2
concluded then that whenever t w o charged species which have different
mobilities move simultaneously, a built-in electric field w i l l result, aiding
the m o t i o n o f the slower o f the t w o species.
Detailed consideration o f the problem o f the m o t i o n o f d o n o r or
16
acceptor ions i n a semiconductor leads to a modified formula for the
flux o f the ions. _ _
F = -D 1 + 1
. I f g (3.30)
J
v'.l + 4(n,/C)- 02-
where C is the concentration o f the ions and «, denotes the concentration
of electrons or holes i n a semiconductor containing no donors or acceptors
at a l l , at the temperature o f diffusion. (This quantity, called the intrinsic-
carrier concentration, is discussed in Chapter 4.)
E q u a t i o n (3.30i can also be written in the form
F = - D c l l
d
S - (3.3D
ox
60 Solid-State Diffusion Deviations from Simple Diffusion T h e o r y 61

wnere We can now consider the two limiting values o f the effective diffusivitv
1
DM =D 1 D,, . A t a given temperature, hence at a given value o f n , i f the impurity
(( (

\ I -r Mn.,0-- concentration is relatively low. i.e.. C « n D, = D. Thus, the built-in

n a

is the effective diffusivity o f the impurities, which incorporates the effect field has no effect. I n the opposite case, when the impurity concentration
o f the built-in electric field. Note that this effective diffusivity is a function is high, i.e.. C » n„ D = 2D. Thus, the electric field can bring about
e t f

o f the concentration. an effective d o u b l i n g o f the diffusion coefficient.

The effect o f the built-in field on the shape o f the concentration distri-
l I i i r b u t i o n is illustrated in Figure 3.19 where the results o f numerical calcu-
18
l a t i o n s based on the equations for field-aided diffusion, are shown for a
particular case. F o r comparison, we also show a complementary error-
function distribution, which does not take the field-aiding effect into
O(etfc)
consideration and which is fitted to the correct distribution at low con-
centrations. I t is apparent that the field-aiding effect brings about a-
smaller gradient near the surface. This is because the electric field aids
Parallel to s u r f a c e ( 2 ) the m o t i o n o f the ions to the largest extent in the region o f highest impurity
concentration. Thus i n this region the concentration gradient does not
A L
need to be so steep to maintain the same- flux flowing into the semi-
x, \ Dc conductor.
19
Experimentally measured concentration distributions o f b o r o n i n
silicon under various surface-concentration conditions are shown in
Fiaure 3.20. I t is evident that for the lowest surface concentration the
distribution closely follows the complementary error-function distri-
bution. I t also appears that the d i s t r i b u t i o n begins to deviate from the
19 - 3
error-function shape as the surface concentration exceeds 10 c m . (Note
that n i n silicon at 1100°C, the diffusion temperature, is approximately
i

19 - 3
10 c m . ) The intermediate profile could be accounted for in terms o f the
field-aided diffusion effect as shown in Figure 3.19. However, as the
20 - 3
surface concentration o f boron is increased further to exceed 10 c m ,
the profile begins to deviate from the complementary error-function distri-
b u t i o n to a much larger extent than could be accounted for i n terms o f the
field-aiding effect. I t is evident that we must consider other causes o f
deviation in such a case.

c. Effect of L a t t i c e S t r a i n

One important anomaly that is observed when the surface concentration

exceeds a certain value is the c o m m o n l y k n o w n "emitter-push" effect.
( I t is alternately called the " e m i t t e r - d i p " effect or "cooperative diffusion"
.0 1 2 3 effect.) This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 3.21. I t consists o f the
enhanced diffusion o f a diffused layer i n regions where a second, high-
Fig. 3.I8 Comparison of the concentration distributions{T) normal, and ( 5 ) parallel to
concentration diffused layer penetrates the silicon. I t is often observed in
the surface, for conditions corresponding to predeposition." transistor structures which, by necessity, must employ two consecutive
 Solid-State Diffusion Deviations f r o m S i m p l e Diffusion T h e o r y 63
62

* (/<)

Fig. 3.19 Illustration of the effect of a built-in field on the concentration distribution
in a semiconductor."
diffusions w i t h the second one, the emitter, having a high surface concen-
Fig. 3.20 Experimentally measured distribution of boron in silicon for various surface
concentrations."
sample. I t is evident that the phosphorus diffusion "pushes" the b o r o n
d i s t r i b u t i o n ahead o f it. This brings about the irregular j u n c t i o n b o u n d a r y
illustrated i n the inset.
20

t r a t i o n (hence the name). Several possible explanations o f this effect have been p r o p o s e d . It
I n Figure 3.21 the b o r o n d i s t r i b u t i o n in silicon is shown both under a appears most likely that straining o f the lattice by the high concentration o f
20

high concentration phosphorus-diffused region and elsewhere in the impurities is involved. This p r o p o s i t i o n was supported by an e x p e r i m e n t
 uixuaiun i neory 65

d. E x t e r n a l Rate L i m i t a t i o n of S o l i d - S t a t e Diffusion

I n our treatment o f the problem o f predeposition. we have assumed

that the surface concentration o f the i m p u r i t y C is a constant throuahout
s

the time o f predeposition. Initially, however, there are no impurities in the

semiconductor and therefore the surface concentration must also be zero.
Because physically the surface concentration c a n n o t j u m p instantaneously
from zero to its final constant value, there w i l l have to be a period "of
adjustment during which the simple boundary condition C(0. /) = C s

will not hold. The duration o f this initial period is determined by the
relative rates o f (i) transport o f impurities from the bulk of the gas to the
surface, and (ii) solid-state diffusion f r o m the surface into the interior o f
the semiconductor. Thus an external l i m i t a t i o n to the rate o f transport o f
the impurities will influence the solid-state diffusion process.
We next consider the solution o f the predeposition problem subject to
such an external rate limitation. The initial c o n d i t i o n subject to which we
have solved the predeposition problem.

Ox. 0) = 0 (3.32)

as well as one o f the boundary conditions.

C(».r)-0 (3.33)

remain unchanged. However, we now replace the second boundary

condition, that of a constant surface concentration, with the condition

h[C s - C(0, f ) ] - -Dp- (3.34)

ox (o-.o

which specifies that the flux to the surface via mass transfer in the gas w i l l
equal the flux away from the surface via solid-state diffusion. As" i n
Chapter 2, h denotes the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient in terms- of-
concentrations in the solid.
21

X I/II The solution to this p r o b l e m

Fig. 3.21 The "emitter-push" effect: anomalous diffusion due to a second, high con- C±*j _ e x
__ AhtlVDIY. ht x_
= r r
e r f c
r
ewi v Dty. ¿lhtl\
M
DtUziWD
, v 0.11«/! v on e r f c

centration, diffusion.- 0

C 2^'Dt v Dt '• 2 ' ] D i - l

v
s

(3.35)
in w h i c h a pressure probe was placed on the silicon surface d u r i n g the
This solution consists o f a complementary error function from which a
diffusion process. I t was found that under the pressure probe the i m p u r i -
correction term is subtracted. As the parameter htjsi Dt becomes very
ties d i d indeed penetrate deeper into the silicon than elsewhere.
large, the subtracted term vanishes. Calculations based on Equation 3.35
T h i s effect leads to a very serious l i m i t a t i o n in the fabrication o f high-
are shown in Figure 3.22. I t is evident that as /if/v Dt approaches approxi-
frequency transistors which, as we shall see later, require close spacing
mately 10, the solution merges into the complementary error function.
between two diffusion fronts.
66 Solid-State Diffusion
Deviations from Simple Diffusion T h e o r y 67

Thus the dimensionless parameter htj\ Dt provides a simple estimate

of the period o f time during which this adjustment o f the surface concen-
tration takes place. This time w i l l be o f the order o f / ^ 100(Z),/;-). A s
an estimate, we can take h = 5 cm/sec for the gas-phase mass-transfer
G

coefficient, f r o m Chapter 1. The mass-transfer coefficient in terms

o f concentrations i n the solid h = h IHkT. I f we base the value G

of the Henrv's law constant on the b o r o n data shown in Figure 3.8.

25 3 - 6
H = 2 x 1 0 atm/'cm , we get / i c ^ 2 x 1 0 cm/sec, or about 70 p/hr. F o r
2
D ^ 1 /v /hr, this leads to r ^ 0.02 hr or a little over a minute. Since pre-
depositions are often o f onlv a few minutes d u r a t i o n , the influence o f gas-
phase rate l i m i t a t i o n may become appreciable.
The complementary p r o b l e m to that o f predeposition is the escape o f
impurities f r o m a semiconductor, often referred to as " o u t - d i f f u s i o n . "
The initial c o n d i t i o n for this p r o b l e m w i l l be a u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n cor-
responding t o the bulk concentration C . B

C(x, 0) = C B (3.36)
and the boundary conditions w i l l be
C(cc. t) = C B (3.37)
and

;iC(0, t) = - D ^ . (3.38)
CX 1(0.(1
Here we assume that the concentration o f the i m p u r i t i e s in the b u l k o f the
gas is zero. The solution o f this p r o b l e m is very similar to the one for the
2 1
case o f predeposition. I t is given b y

ll _ c r f X
__ + e[ht:\DtY M!XDtHzl2\~Dt)
e e r r c j + I
C B 2 /.Dr '
N L % D: ' 2 N I)J'
(3.39)
N o t e that this solution consists o f a simple error function to w h i c h a
term dependent upon the parameter hlj\ Dt is added. A s this parameter
becomes large, the additional term becomes very small. Calculations
based on E q u a t i o n 3.39 are shown in Figure 3.23. I t is evident that the
solution converges to the simple error function for htl s Dt > 10.
22
Experimental measurements o f the i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n in a silicon
sample resulting after exposure to a hydrogen ambient are shown i n
Figure 3.24. I t is evident that most o f the experimental points lie below the
theoretical curve corresponding to htj\ Dt = 5. F o r the time and temper-
ature o f these experiments, this indicates that the value o f h in this case is
larger than about 1 0 « / h r . which is consistent w i t h the above estimate o f
70^/hr.
n e a i s t n o u t i o n 01 impurities during I nermal Oxidation 6?

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

.v. 2 Di
N

Fig. 3.24 Outdiffusion of impurities from silicon after exposure to H . ambient for 30
:::
minutes ac I27S°C.'

3.S REDISTRIBUTION O F IMPURITIES

DURING THERMAL OXIDATION

Whereas the previous considerations dealt w i t h deviations from the

boundary condition applied during the predeposition step, in this section
we consider a phenomenon which can cause deviations from the boundarv
condition applied in our treatment o f the drive-in diffusion step, BClox = 0
at x = 0.
To arrive at this boundary c o n d i t i o n we have reasoned that, because
most impurities diffuse much slower in silicon dioxide than in silicon, the
oxide layer grown d u r i n g the drive-in diffusion step will effectively seal the
impurities into the silicon. In reality, the situation at the g r o w i n g silicon
dioxide-silicon interface is considerably more complex.
3
It has been f o u n d - that impurities in the silicon will be redistributed
near a growing thermal oxide. This is due to several factors. I f any two
phases—solid, gas. or liquid—are brought into contact, an i m p u r i t y con-
tained in one o f the two phases w i l l be redistributed between the two u n t i l
equilibrium is reached. I n equilibrium, the ratio o f the concentrations in
the two phases will be a constant. The ratio o f the equilibrium concen-
tration in the silicon to that in the silicon dioxide is denoted by the term
segregation coefficient and is defined as

E q u i l i b r i u m concentration o f i m p u r i t v in silicon
m - —• .
E q u i l i b r i u m concentration o f impurity in SiO.-.

Another factor that influences the process o f impurity redistribution

during thermal oxidation-is that the i m p u r i t y may have a tendency to
70 Solid-State Diffusion Redistribution of I m p u r i t i e s during T h e r m a l Oxidation 71

escape through the oxide layer. I f the diffusivity o f the i m p u r i t y i n the
oxide is small, this factor w i l l be u n i m p o r t a n t ; however, i f the diffusivity
is relatively large, this factor can significantly affect the i m p u r i t y distri-
b u t i o n in the silicon.
A t h i r d factor entering into the redistribution process is the fact that the
oxide layer is growing and therefore the boundary separating the oxide
Oxide takes up impurity |m < 1)
24
F o u r possible cases o f the redistribution process are illustrated i n
Figure 3.25. These cases can be considered in t w o groups: in one. the
oxide has a tendency to take up impurity, and in the other the oxide has a
tendency to reject the i m p u r i t y . I n each case the situation can be different
for slow and for fast diffusion in the oxide. I n Figure 3.25 an experimentally
observed example is listed for each of the four cases.
We n o w consider the starting premise and the results o f the theory o f the
24
redistribution process. This theory is based on a solution o f the diffusion
equation w i t h a m o v i n g boundary and describes the redistribution o f an
initially u n i f o r m d o p i n g concentration in the silicon. The boundary c o n d i -
tions applied to the problem are: (i) the concentration o f the i m p u r i t y at
the gas-oxide interface is a constant, C„; (ii) far w i t h i n the silicon sub-
strate the concentration approaches the bulk concentration C . In B

a d d i t i o n , we have to satisfy two matching conditions. The first is that the

concentrations at the t w o sides o f the oxide-silicon interface must be i n the
ratio prescribed by the segregation coefficient m, and the second is that, as
(a) Diffusion in oxide slow (b) Diffusion in oxide fast the oxide grows, the i m p u r i t y must be conserved at the m o v i n g oxide-
(boron) (boron with H , ambient) silicon interface. I t is also assumed that the oxide growth w i l l proceed
p r o p o r t i o n a l l y to the square root o f the oxidation time, i.e.. x = Bt 0 N

Oxide rejects impurity |m >
]| where B is the parabolic oxidation rate constant (see Chapter 2).
The solution giving the i m p u r i t v distributions in the silicon and in the
silicon dioxide laver is in terms o f error functions and complementary
error functions. I t is not reproduced here. The most i m p o r t a n t feature
of this solution is the resulting formula for the concentration o f the i m p u r -
ity on the silicon side o f the interface.

Cg = l + (CJCJM .
C £ 1 - f (1/m - x ) - w exp
v {o'BjAD) erfc U N /3/4Dj N B -4D + ijm
/i)
(3.40)
(cl Diffusion in oxide slow (dl Diffusion in oxideJ'usi where
(phosphorus) (gallium!
2
/. = r exp [(v.-r- - 1)5/4 .Dr ] erfc ( a ' £ / 4 £ i ) . / e r f ( V 5 / 4 £ > )
v 0
.Fig. 3.25 Four different cases of impurity redistribution in silicon due to thermal
and
oxidation."
' = sDJD.

and silicon phases is m o v i n g as a function o f time. The relative rate o f this D . D are diffusivities o f the i m p u r i t y in oxide and silicon, respectively,
0

m o t i o n as compared to the diffusion rate is i m p o r t a n t in determining the and v. is the r a t i o o f the thickness o f silicon consumed d u r i n g o x i d a t i o n to
extent o f redistribution. - the oxide thickness. Its value is 0.45.
N o t e that even i f the segregation coefficient o f a n ' i m p u r i t v m = 1 , One interesting feature o f the'theory o f redistribution is that, as evident
some redistribution o f the i m p u r i t y i n the silicon w i l l still take place. As from E q u a t i o n 3.40. the concentrations at the m o v i n g oxide-silicon inter-
pointed out i n Chapter 2. the oxide layer w i l l fill up more space than the face will be independent of oxidation time. I n simple terms, both o x i d a t i o n
silicon used in the o x i d a t i o n . Thus the same amount o f i m p u r i t v w i l l now and diffusion proceed with v t i m e and. because o f this, the time variable
be distributed in a larger volume, b r i n g i n g about a depletion o f the impur- disappears f r o m the expression for surface concentration. Thus a steady
ity near the silicon surface. state is reached at the interface.
 E q u a t i o n 3.40 shows that, in line w i t h our earlier qualitative discussion, disturbance o f the originally u n i f o r m i m p u r i t y distribution. This, i n turn,
the surface concentration i n the silicon is a function o f (i) the segregation is given approximately by the diffusion length o f the impurity, 2 £r.
v

coefficient m. (ii) the relative rates o f diffusion in the silicon and in the
Figure 3.28 shows the calculated b o r o n distribution profiles i n silicon
oxide DJD, and (in) the relative rates o f oxidation to diffusion. BID.
The role o f the first t w o o f these factors has already been illustrated i n
1 I l I \ I l i—l—i—I—r
Figure 3.25. The t h i r d one is illustrated in Figure 3.26 for phosphorus
and in Figure 3.27 for b o r o n where the surface concentrations o f these

1 I | I I i i I I I I i

i i i i I i i i i ! i . i i
900 1000 1100 1200
Oxidation temperature C O

Fig. 3.27 Surface concentration of boron in silicon after thermal oxidation. Calculated
using Equation 3.40. and m = 0.3.

900 1000 1100 1200

Oxidation temperature i*Cl

Fig. 3.26 Surface concentration of phosphorus in silicon after thermal. oxidation.

Calculated using Equation 3.40, and m = 10.

impurities, calculated by using E q u a t i o n 3.40 and the experimentally

determined values o f the segregation coefficient m, are shown as a function
o f o x i d a t i o n temperature, for oxidation in 0 and H , 0 ambients. I t is
;

apparent that as the speed o f oxidation is increased—for example, by

oxidizing i n water vapor rather than in oxygen at a given temperature—the
extent o f redistribution w i l l be increased as evidenced bv the higher surface
concentration o f phosphorus and by the lower surface concentration o f
boron.
These t w o figures give the surface concentration as a function o f o x i -
d a t i o n temperature. The amount o f i m p u r i t y lost from the silicon as a 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
resulc o f redistribution is another matter. Whereas the surface concen- Distance from S i - S i O , interface un
t r a t i o n depends on oxidation temperature as shown i n the above t w o
Fig. 3.28 Calculated boron concentration distribution in silicon after oxidation at
figures, the amount o f impurity lost w i l l depend also on the extent o f the various temperatures (O., x, = 0.2 u ) . :s
74 Solid-State Diffusion Diffusion through a Silicon Dioxide Layer. . 75

after oxidation at various temperatures, w i t h each oxidation resulting i n an

25
oxide layer 0.2 fi t h i c k . N o t e that as the oxidation temperature is
decreased, the surface concentration o f boron decreases in accordance w i t h
Figure 3.27. However, because the diffusivitv o f b o r o n also decreases,
the extent o f the depression i n concentration w i l l also be smaller at the •

lower temperatures. These calculations were fully verified by experimental

25
measurements.
Table 3.2 shows the segregation coefficients o f i m p o r t a n t acceptor and
donor impurities as determined by several experimental techniques. F o r (
comparison, we also list values o f these segregation coefficients w h i c h were
26
predicted on the basis o f solubility thermodynamic considerations.
(
TABLE 3.2
SEGREGATION COEFFICIENTS OF IMPURITIES AT

c
Si/SIO. INTERFACE

m O
Impurity Based on Based on (
Thermodynamic redistribution
c
26
oxide masking
estimate experiments experiments * 2

c
Ga >10 3
-20
3 2 1 2 5 2
B IfrMO _0.3 ' ~io-
0.1 c
3
In >10
P, Sb, As >10 3
—10 - 24 25
c

c
Distance from Si-SiO_- interface i/ij
So far we have considered only the relatively simple problem o f the
: C i
redistribution of an originally u n i f o r m i m p u r i t y concentration present in Fig. 3.29 Redistribution of diffused boron layer after thermal oxidation.
\<
the silicon. A n even more i m p o r t a n t practical problem is the redistri-
b u t i o n o f a predeposited layer d u r i n g the drive-in diffusion step. Because C
the initial distribution is more complicated, this problem is more difficult to 3.6 DIFFUSION T H R O U G H A SILICON
study both experimentally and theoretically. The results o f a s t u d y o f the 27
DIOXIDE LAYER (OXIDE MASKING) c
redistribution of diffused boron layers after thermal oxidation is shown in
c
Figure 3.29. Here the theoretical line represents the results o f numerical The fact that the silicon dioxide layer is relatively impermeable to
computations for an assumed segregation coefficient m = OA while the 6
several acceptor and donor i m p u r i t i e s has been an exceedingly i m p o r t a n t c
experimental points were obtained by sectioning and successive measure-
ments of the average resistivity o f the boron-diffused layer. The solution is
factor in the development o f the planar technology. I n order to get a €
more quantitative picture o f the masking phenomenon, we n o w c o n -
normalized to the surface concentration d u r i n g the predeposition step sider the predeposition o f an i m p u r i t y through a silicon dioxide laver. c
which preceded the drive-in diffusion. I t is evident that the results shown We assume that the thickness o f this layer remains constant t h r o u g h o u t
in this figure are in general agreement w i t h what we would expect from the predeposition. The expected distribution o f the impurities after pre-
the studies o f the redistribution o f a u n i f o r m l y doped silicon substrate. deposition is illustrated schematically in Fieure 3.30.
76 Solid-state Diffusion Uirtusion through a Silicon Dioxide Layer 77

T h e initial c o n d i t i o n for this diffusion problem is t h a t the concentration which, when substituted i n t o E q u a t i o n 3.41. results in
o f the impurity is zero both i n the oxide and in the silicon. The boundary
X,- 1 X,
conditions are (i) that the concentration at the outer surface o f the oxide
(3.42)
is a constant €„ throughout the predeposition step (corresponding to the r v t
where
constant C i n the case o f predeposition onto a bare semiconductor sample
3

considered earlier); and (ii) that the i m p u r i t y concentration vanishes deep

/ = lyJD arg erfc (m + r)C,
inside the semiconductor. I n a d d i t i o n , we must satisfy the t w o matching
2mrC.
9
Computer calculations- o f the j u n c t i o n depth x, as a function o f the
oxide thickness x„, based o n the infinite series, are shown in Figure 3.31 for

Fig. 3.30 Schematic illustration of the impurity distribution resulting alter predeposi-
tion througn an oxide layer. 0 i 1 ! 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

c o n d i t i o n s : (i) that the ratio o f concentrations at the oxide-silicon inter-

Fig. 3.3I Comparison between theoretical calculations and experimental results for
face is determined bv the segregation coefficient in; and ( i i ) that the flux
gallium predeposition at I IOO°C.-'
o f impurities t h r o u g h this interface is continuous.
23
T h e solution o f this problem is i n the f o r m o f an infinite series.
the specific case o f the predeposition o f g a l l i u m at 1100°C. The curves
H o w e v e r , for relatively small values o f x such that x « \i DfD x , we can 0
were calculated for various assumed values o f the segregation coefficient
approximate the infinite series by its first term alone. This results i n m. N o t e that regardless o f the value o f m all curves approach the
straight-line relationship. E q u a t i o n 3.42. for small values o f x,. The slope
C(x, t) Imr o f this straight-line asymptote directly yields r. The shape o f the experi-
• erte (3.41)
m + r ;Dj- 2 DfJ
V mental Xj versus x relationship at relatively large values o f x in compari-
0 t

son w i t h the family o f theoretical curves enables the estimation o f the

where r = V DJD.
A particularly i m p o r t a n t question is the depth o f a j u n c t i o n formed in
the silicon under a protective oxide layer when the i m p u r i t y has diffused
t h r o u g h this [aver. The position o f this j u n c t i o n is defined by the c o n d i t i o n
segregation coefficient in. Segregation coefficients estimated in this
29 3 0
manner f r o m the experimental data on g a l l i u m and b o r o n predeposition
through an oxide film are included in Table 3.2.
A technologically i m p o r t a n t quantity, the m i n i m u m oxide thickness
required to prevent the f o r m a t i o n o f a j u n c t i o n in.the silicon, the masking
thickness, is readily calculated from E q u a t i o n 3.42 by setting x, = 0.
 •

78 Solid-State Diffusion The Redistribution of Impurities in Epitaxial G r o w t h . 79

The solid-state diffusion problem corresponding to the substrate

3.7 T H E REDISTRIBUTION O F IMPURITIES i m p u r i t y is solved subject to the initial c o n d i t i o n
IN E P I T A X I A L G R O W T H
Cjix, 0) = C S U D (3.43)
I n epitaxial growth the film contains either different impurities than the and the b o u n d a r v c o n d i t i o n .
•
substrate, or the same impurities but i n different concentrations. I t is
usually desirable that the d o p i n g concentration gradients between film and d C - c o , r ) = Çsub (3.44)
substrate be sharp. However, epitaxial g r o w t h has to be performed at
which designate that the i n i t i a l distribution i n the substrate is a constant
I"—Substrate- -Film- •Gas • C S U D corresponding to the substrate d o p i n g concentration and that the
i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n deep inside the substrate remains undisturbed as the
ICA c
Metallurgical epitaxial g r o w t h proceeds.
/ " interface
The second b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n is given by
Initial
distribution Film surface (moving
boundary) -D 2
- z = (h + K ) C , at X-mm X.mm Vl. (3.45)
OX •

C,(XJ 1 Impurin ùiffusiiie

^*tr from he substrate where h is the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient in terms o f concentra-
tions i n the solid, and V is the film-growth rate. E q u a t i o n 3.45 is a •

statement o f the conservation o f impurities at the advancing film surface.

C . l v . n External Because o f its importance we w i l l derive this b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n carefully.
doping impuriiv
The total a m o u n t o f substrate impurities per unit area contained w i t h i n
the semiconductor substrate and film is siven bv

x = u x — Xj <
0(1) s Cj(a\ I) dx. (3.46)
Fig. 3.32 Impurity distribution in epitaxial growth.

elevated temperatures (see Chapter 1) and therefore the diffusion o f The time rate o f decrease o f 0(1) is. in t u r n , given bv
impurities will be relatively r a p i d . Since diffusion w i l l tend to even out
the concentration gradients at the interface between epitaxial film and
do r* 3C
1
}

- -J- - - — - VC,(x„ t) = hCiLx,, 1) (3.47)

substrate, the diffusion o f impurities d u r i n g epitaxial g r o w t h is o f obvious di J-T. oi
practical importance.
where we employed Leibnitz's rule o f differentiating integrals. The last
The impurity distribution near the epitaxial film-substrate interface
p o r t i o n o f the equation is the expression for the escape o f impurities f r o m
consists of two components as illustrated i n Figure 3.32. One, whose
a solid surface to a gaseous ambient, i f the concentration o f the i m p u r i t y
concentration is designated by d , is due to the i m p u r i t y diffusing out from
in the gas is zero.
the substrate; the other, whose concentration is designated by C . is the 2

Next, we note that because o f the diffusion equation we have

external doping i m p u r i t y w h i c h is intentionally incorporated into the
growing film and w h i c h , d u r i n g g r o w t h , diffuses inward into the substrate. 0

_ 3C,
The total distribution o f impurities is determined by the sum o f these t w o •3C,
components i f they are impurities o f the same type and by their difference —• dx = D I — 7 dx = D (3.48)
-tr. 01 f—fn CX~ ox T-T, / OX r=—a:->
if they are impurities o f opposite types. In the latter case a p-n j u n c t i o n >
will be formed at the intersection o f the t w o i m p u r i t y concentration Thus, by c o m b i n i n g E q u a t i o n 3.48 with 3.47, we arrive at our b o u n d a r y
distributions. c o n d i t i o n . E q u a t i o n 3.45.
 impurities in epitaxial G r o w t h
31
The solution-- o f this problem is fairly complicated, especially since this 1.0
i r 3 i 1 1 ;
last boundary c o n d i t i o n is specified at a moving boundary. For our
0.8
—
purposes, this solution can be represented as
.1 0.6 ht
—
lit Vt
h
(3.49) S 0.4
c ~ Vt \ \
*- but)

y
0.2 \ 5\V
w h i c h shows that the normalized concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n is a function -
o f the dimensionless distance, an escape-rate parameter, and a g r o w t h - 0
1
rate parameter. F o r V = 0. the solution reduces to the externally rate-
x ; 2 Dr
v
l i m i t e d outdiffusion case which we discussed earlier in this chapter.
M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , however, the solution has a very simple l i m i t i n g f o r m
for the case o f F7/V Dt » 1 . I n that case the solution is given to a very
good a p p r o x i m a t i o n by 10-'f—
d(x, t) x
— = i ertc — — , (J.DO)
C b
s u - v Dt
10-21—
regardless o f the value o f A.
Calculations based o n the complete solution, for the case htj\j Dt » 1
and for various values o f theparameter Vtf\ Dt, are shown i n Figure 3.33. 10"
I t is evident that-tfre i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n approaches the simple f o r m
given by Equation 3.50 for values o f Vtfx Dt larger than about 5. Since
typical epitaxial film:thicknesses are o f the order o f about 10,u. whereas 10-->b
typical values ofW-X>^might-beof the order o f less than 1 u , typical values
o f the g r o w t h parameter Vtjs Dt w o u l d be larger than 10-—thus ' ' i n -
finitely" large for the purposes o f these calculations. Hence, the simple 10-s
s o l u t i o n given by E q u a t i o n 3.50 provides a very good a p p r o x i m a t i o n for -L 0 1 2

practical epitaxial g r o w t h conditions. (The same conclusion was reached X/2y/Dt

Fig. 3.33 Distribution of the impurity diffusing from the substrate."
on the basis o f calculations performed for values o f the escape rate p a r a m -
eter hti\ Dt between 1 0 - 3
and 10 .) 3
and the boundary conditions
I t is easy to give an interpretation to this simple l i m i t o f the exact Cj(-co, t) = 0 (3.52)
solution. The film g r o w t h rate is,so high relative to the rate o f diffusion C,(x , t) = C.
f f
(3.53)
f r o m the substrate that, insofar as the diffusion profile is concerned, the
f i l m grows to an " i n f i n i t e " thickness almost instantaneously. Thus the The first boundary c o n d i t i o n states that deep inside the substrate the
concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be very close to that w h i c h is obtained i n concentration o f the external doping i m p u r i t y vanishes. The second
the problem o f diffusion between two semi-infinite slabs —Equation 3
specifies that the concentration o f the external doping i m p u r i t y at the
3.50. growing film surface is a constant C, (C, is determined by the concentration
The diffusion o f the external d o p i n g i m p u r i t y is described by a s o l u t i o n If o f the i m p u r i t y in the gas mixture). The solution to this p r o b l e m is also 22

o f the diffusion equation subject to the initial c o n d i t i o n fairly complicated. I t can be represented as

Cijx, t) Vt
C.(x, 0) = 0 (3.51) -A (3.54)
ily/Dt ' jDtJ '
 Solid-State Diffusion References C i t e d 83

In the above treatment we assumed that the i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the

I
epitaxial film is determined by the process o f solid-state diffusion alone.
This is indeed the case p r o v i d e d precautions are t a k e n to eliminate c o n -
Substrate concentration tamination both from the reactor and f r o m the back-side o f the heavily
31
doped substrates. I m p u r i t i e s from the back-side o f the substrates have
been shown to be carried by the gas stream and incorporated into the
3 2
growing epitaxial film on the f r o n t , resulting i n a m u c h more gradual
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the substrate i m p u r i t y t h a n solid-state diffusion would.
This p h e n o m e n o n is often referred to as " a u t o d o p i n g . "

READING REFERENCES

General treatments of solid-state diffusion are given by P. G . Shewmon, Diffusion

in Solids, McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 1963; R . M . Barrer, Diffusion In and Through
Solids, Cambridge Universitv Press, 1941; and W. Jost, Diffusion in Solids, Liquids,
Cases. Academic Press, 1952.
A treatise on Diffusion in Semiconductors is given bv B. I . Boltaks, Academic Press,
1963.
A review of diffusion data specifically dealing with silicon and of diffusion technology
is found in Volume 4 of a series of review-reports on "Integrated Silicon Device Tech-
nology," by the Research Triangle Institute, A S D - T D R - 6 3 - 3 1 6 (1964).
Diffusion data in glasses is reviewed bv R. H . Doremus, "Diffusion in Non-crvstalline
Silicates." Chapter 1 in Volume 2 of Modern Aspects of the Vitreous State. J . D .
Mackenzie. E d . . Butterworths. 1962.
An extensive compilation of the solutions of the diffusion equation under a wide
variety of conditions can be found in H . S. Carslaw and J . C . Jaeger, Conduction of
Heal in Solids, Oxford Universitv Press. 2nd ed., 1959.

x (_«)
Fig. 3.34 Impurity distribution after epitaxial growth (antimony, 20 min. at I275°C)". REFERENCES CITED

For Vti\!
Dt >> 1 and for distances x » 2\jDi this solution can be 1. These diffusivities are based on Volume 4 of a series of review-reports on "Integrated
Silicon Device Technology," bv the Research Triangle Institute, ASD-TDR-63-316
approximated simply by setting
(1964).
C.(x, 0 = C,. (3.55) 2. These diffusivities are based on:
a. D . E . Swets. R . W. Lee. and R . C . Frank. "Diffusion Coefficients of Helium in
The combined solution describing the net d i s t r i b u t i o n o f impurities Fused Quartz." J. Chem. Phys.. 34, 17 (1961).
in epitaxial growth can then be obtained from b. R. W. Lee. R. C . Frank, and D. E . Swets, "Diffusion of Hydrogen and Deuterium
in Fused Quartz." J. Chem. Phys.. 36, 1062 (1962).
C(x, t) = C,(x, 0 ± C (x, r) (3.56)
2
c. R . C . Frank. D . E . Swets. and R . W. Lee, "Diffusion of Neon Isotopes in Fused
Quartz," J. Chem. Phys.. 35, 1451 (1961).
where the positive sign is taken f o r i m p u r i t i e s o f the same type and the
d. F . J . Norton. "Permeation of Gaseous Oxvgen through Vitreous Silica,"
negative sign for impurities o f opposite type.
Nanirc. 171. 701 (1961).
Extensive experimental measurements- have verified the solution given e. T . Drury and J . P. Roberts. "Diffusion in Silica Giass Following Reaction with
above. A n example o f these results is shown i n Figure 3.34. Tritiated Water Vapor." Phys. Chem. Glasses. 4, 79 (1963).
84 Solid-State Diffusion
f. A . S. Grove. 0 . Leistiko. and C . T . Sah. '•Diffusion of Gailium through a
Silicon Dioxide Layer." J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25. 985 (1964).
g. A . E . Owen and R . W. Douglas, "The Electrical Properties of Vitreous Silica."
J. Soc. Class Tech.. 43, 159 Ü959).
h. M . O. Thurston and J . C . Tsai. "Diffusion of Impurities into Silicon through
an Oxide Layer," Signal Corps Contract, Final ReDOrt DA-36-039-SC 87426
(1961).
i. C . T . Sah, H . Sello, and D . A . Tremeré, "Diffusion of Phosphorus in Silicon
Oxide Film." / . Phys. Chem. Solids. 11, 288 (1959).
j . S. Horiuchi and J . Yamaguchi. "Diffusion of Boron in Silicon through Oxide
Layer," Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 1. 314 (1962).
3. B . I . Boltaks. Diffusion in Semiconductors, Academic Press, 1963.
4. w . K Wilcox and T . J . LaChapclle, "Mechanism of Gold Diffusion into Silicon."
/. Appl. Phys., 35, 240 (1964).
5. H . S. Carslaw and J . C . Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, Oxford University
Press. 2nd ed., (1959).
6. C . J . Frosch and L . Derick, "Surface Protection and Selective Masking During
Diffusion in Silicon," J. Electrochem. Soc, 104, 547 (1957).
7. A n extensive review of silicon diffusion practices is given in Reference 1.
3. C . J . Frosch and L . Derick, "Diffusion Control in Silicon by Carrier Gas Composi-
tion." J. Electrochem. Soc, 105, 695 (1958).
9. G . E . Moore, unpublished.
10. F . A . Trumbore. "Solid Solubilities of Impurity Elements in Germanium and
Silicon." Bell System Tech. J.. 39, 205 (I960).'
11. T . H . Yeh and W. Armstrong, "Diffusion of Boron in Silicon," Electrochemical
Society Spring 1961 Meeting, Abstract No. 69. Indianapolis.
12. D . P. Kennedv and P. C . Murley. "Impurity Atom Distribution from a Two-Step
Diffusion Process." Proc. IEEE (Corresp.), 54, 620 (1964).
13. W . L . Bond and F . M . Smits. "The Use of an Interference Microscope for Measure-
ment of Extremely Thin Surface Layers," Bell System Tech. J., 35, 1209 (1956).
14. J . C . Irvin. "Resistivity of Bulk Silicon and of Diffused Layers in Silicon," Bell
System Tech. J., 41, 387 (1962).
15. L . B . Valdes, "Resistivity Measurements on Germanium for Transistors," Proc.
IRE. 42. 420 (1954).
16. F . M . Smits, "Measurement of Sheet Resistivities with the Four-Point Probe,"
Bell System Tech. J., 37, 711 (1958):
17. D . P. Kennedv and R . R. O'Brien, "Analysis of the Impurity Atom Distribution
Near the Diffusion Mask for a Planar P-iV Junction." IBM Journal, 9, 179 (1965).
18. K . Lehovec and A . Slobodskoy, "Diffusion of Charged Particles into a Semi-
conductor under Consideration of the Built-in Field," Solid-State Electron., 3, 45
(1961).
19. S. Maekawa and T . Oshida. "Diffusion of Boron into Silicon." J. Phys. Soc Japan,
19, 253 (1964).
Problems 85
20. K. H . Nicholas, "Studies of Anomalous Diffusion of Impurities in Silicon."
Solid-State Electron., 9, 35 (1966).
21. F . M. Smits and R. C . Miller. "Rate Limitation at the Surface for Impurity Diffusion
in Semiconductors." Phys. Rev.. 104, 1242 (1956).
22. A . S. Grove, A . Roder, and C . T . Sah, "Impurity Distribution in Epitaxial Growth,"
J. Appl. Phys., 36, 802 (1965).
23. M. M. Atalla and E . Tannenbaum. "Impurity Redistribution and Junction Forma-
tion in Silicon by Thermal.Oxidation," Bell System Tech. J., 39, 933 (1960).
24. A . S. Grove, O. Leistiko, and C . T . Sah. "Redistribution of Acceptor and Donor
Impurities During Thermal Oxidation of Silicon," / . Appl. Phys., 35, 2695 (1964).
25. B. E . Deal. A . S. Grove. E . H . Snow, and C . T . Sah. "Observation of Impurity
Redistribution During Thermal Oxidation of Silicon Using the MOS Structure,"
J. Electrochem. Soc, 112, 308 (1965).
26. C . D. Thurmond, "Distribution Coefficients of Impurities Distributed Between Ge
or Si Crystals and Ternary Alloys or Surface Oxides," in Properties of Elemental
and Compound Semiconductors, H . C . Gatos, E d . . p. 121, Interscience, 1960.
27. T. Kato and Y . Nishi, "Redistribution of Diffused Boron in Silicon by Thermal
" Oxidation," Jap. J. Appl. Phys., 3, 377 (1964).
28. C . T. Sah. H . Sello, and D. A. Tremere. "Diffusion of Phosphorus in Silicon Oxide
Film." J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 11. 288 (1959).
29. A . S. Grove, O. Leistiko. and C . T . Sah. "Diffusion of Gallium Through a Silicon
Dioxide Layer." J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25, 985 (1964).
30. S. Horiuchi and J . Yamaguchi. 'Diffusion of Boron in Silicon Through Oxide
Layer," Jap. J. Appl. Phys., 1, 314 (1962).
31. H . Basseches. S. K . Tung, R. C . Manz, and C . O. Thomas, "Factors Affecting the
Resistivity of Epitaxial Silicon Layers," Metallurgy of Semiconductor Materials,
15, 69 (1962).
32. B. A . Joyce. J . C . Weaver, and D . J . Maule, "Impurity Redistribution Processes
in Epitaxial Silicon Wafers." J. Electrochem. Soc, 112, 1100 (1965).
PROBLEMS
3.1 Derive the transport equation in a manner similar to that employed in Section 3.2
for the case when the transported species is being consumed by a chemical reaction.
Assume that the rate of this reaction at any point is proportional to the concentra-
tion of the species.
3.2 Verify that Equations 3.13 and 3.21 satisfy the diffusion equation and the appropri-
ate initial and boundary conditions.
3.3 1
A phosphorus predeposition into silicon containing 10 * acceptor atoms/cm 3
resulted in an average resistivity of 4 x I 0 ~ ' Q cm. Evaluate the phosphorus
surface concentration, assuming
(a) erfc )
(b) Gaussian distribution.
(c) "box" J
Which is most realistic?
86 - Solid-State Diffusion Problems

3.4 A p'n junction diode was fabricated as follows: 3.11 The base region of a pnp transistor is fabricated as follows:
3
Starting material: n-type. 5 x 10" phosphorus/cm . Starting material: /Mype, 10" boron/cm 3

Predeposition: B C I . 990"C. 15 minutes.

3
Epitaxial growth: 20 min. at 1250""C
:
Drive-in diffusion: Dry O . . 1200 C. 9 hours.
Film growth rate: 1 ^/min.
Measured V/I = 60 h Film doping: 5 x 10" boron/cm s

Measured x = 7.0 //
s Oxidation: 80 min. at f200"C, water vapor.
Calculate the impuritv concentration as a function of distance, the total amount Base window opened.
of diffused impurities per unit area (Q). and the impurity concentration gradient Predeposition: P . O . 30 min. at 800°C.
s

at the junction. Drive-in diffusion: 50 min. at 1200°C, dry oxyeen

Measured V\l = 1.4 0.
3.5 A commercial diode is fabricated as follows:
1J 3
Measured x, = 4 p
Starting material: n-type. 4 x 10 phosphorus/cm .
Calculate:
Predeposition: B B r , , 1 ISO'C, 6 minutes.
C
Drive-in diffusion: Dry O , 1280 C, 16 hours.
s (a) The oxide thickness over the base window and elsewhere.
Measured V/I = 0.8fi (b) The impurity distribution after drive-in diffusion, including the distribution of
Measured = 37 p the substrate impurity.
Evaluate as in Problem 3.4. (c) What is the total number of impurities in the base ( Q ) ? The gradient at the
Compare the two diodes. collector-base n-p junction? The distance over which the acceptor impurity
concentration is uniform?
3.6 Derive Equation 3.30. In this derivation, assume that (i) the electric current is
zero, (ii) space-charge neutrality prevails, and (iii) the product of electron and hole
concentrations pn — n,~.

3.7 Using the intermediate results of the above problem, estimate the built-in electric
fie;c near the surface associated with the predeposition of boron at 1200°C, after
1 hour.

3.8 The different redistribution tendencies of impurities during thermal oxidation can
be employed in the fabrication of useful device structures. A s an example, oxida-
tion of silicon initially containing both gallium and phosphorus in concentrations
- 3 - 3
of 2 x 10" c m and 1 x 10" c m , respectively, will lead to the formation of an
n-type skin under the oxide. If the oxidation is performed at 1200°C in dry oxygen,
for 2 hours, calculate:
(a) The resulting impurity distributions.
(b) The depth of the junction, and the impurity concentration gradient at the
junction.
(c) The average resistivity of the n-type skin.

3.9 Estimate the thickness of the silicon dioxide laver required to mask against the
predeposition of boron at 1100°C, for a predeposition time of 1 hour. Assume that
the solid solubility of boron in silicon dioxide is (1/m) times its solid solubility in
silicon. (Justify this assumption.)

3.10 A n epitaxial film doped to. contain 10" boron atoms/cm?, is grown upon four
different substrates simultaneously. Tbese substrates contain:
11 3
(a) 10 phosphorus atoms/cm
3
(b) 10" phosphorus atoms/cm
3
(c) 10" phosphorus atoms/cm
3
(d) 10" antimony atoms/cm .
=
Growth conditions are 20 minutes at 1250 C.
Calculate the junction depth for each wafer.
aa

TABLE 3.3

IMPORTANT FORMULAS IN DIFFUSION

Flux:

+ charge
dC
F = — D -— + fi<fC PART I I
ox

dC

SEMICONDUCTORS A N D
— charge F = — D- fitTC
ox

Einstein's relationship: D =
kT
—ix SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ,
ac dF
Transport equation:
dt dx

for S = constant, ac d-c ac

+ charge
— = D—
dt ox-
- ix e —
ox
• Elements of Semiconductor
OC 3' c2
ac
Physics
— charge — = D — r -+-,<«<? —
dt dx- ox • Semiconductors under
Non-Equilibrium Conditions
1
Diffused layers • p-n Junctions
.r
constant C s
C O , t) — C o erfc • Junction Transistors
2 v Dt
1 • Junction Field-Effect
2(0 = — v Dt C<s Transistors

dC 1
CO, t)
dx (x,() v „Dt IDt

Q z-HDt
constant Q C(x, t) =
v-Dt
 O
THE BAND THEORY O F SOLIDS
0 -\ ELECTRONS AND HOLES
IN SEMICONDUCTORS
M FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
FUNCTION
• IMPORTANT FORMULAS

" P h y S t e S e*^ "Tec" noiosi TRANSPORT

AND HOLES
OF ELECTRONS

o»"T S e w n ca/i d o c t o r t > e \ X e e s

4
Elements of Semiconductor
Physics

I n this chapter we present and discuss some i m p o r t a n t results o f the

physics o f semiconductors. We consider only those aspects o f semicon-
ductor physics that are essential for the treatment o f semiconductor devices
and surface phenomena.
We begin with a qualitative discussion of the band theory o f solids
and of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Then we discuss the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function and the concept o f Fermi level, and
present those i m p o r t a n t formulas o f semiconductor physics which we w i l l
use throughout this book. Finally, we discuss the transport—drift and
diffusion—of electrons and holes in semiconductors.

4.1 T H E B A N D T H E O R Y O F SOLIDS

- T h e most important result o f the application o f q u a n t u m mechanics to

the description of electrons in a solid is that the allowed energy levels o f
electrons w i l l be grouped into bands. The bands are separated by regions
which designate energies that the electrons in the solid cannot possess.
These regions are called forbidden gaps. The energy bands and a forbidden
gap are illustrated schematically in Figure 4.1._The electrons in the outer-
most shell o f the atoms comprising the solid, the valence electrons, are

91
 Elements of Semiconductor Physics The Band Theory of Solids
93

shown here in their lowest energy states. The band o f these states is called band are empty. Because small electric fields cannot raise the uppermost
the valence band. electron in the valence band to the conduction band, it will be impossible
The phenomenon o f conduction is o f principal interest in the study o f to impart energy to any o f the electrons shown in the band picture. For
semiconductor physics. Conduction consists o f the m o t i o n o f electrons. this reason, silicon dioxide will be an insulator—it will not conduct
Thus conduction is possible only i f we can get electrons into motion. I n electricity.
terms o f energy considerations, this means that conduction is possible only The intermediate case o f a semiconductor, with silicon taken as an
if we can impart kinetic energy to an electron. We can now examine example, is shown in Figure 4.2c. The bonds between neighboring silicon
three different classes o f solids—metals, insulators, and. semiconductors—
in terms o f both an atomistic representation and the energy-band represen- Sea of conduction 8onds hard to break : Some bonds are broken :
tation from the viewpoint o f whether or not it is possible to energize an electrons : free to move no conduction electrons few conduction electrons
electron. and holes result
3 0 0 S Ì O O O S Ì O O C

-Conduction band [ 0 0 DSi d'siCE

o o
.Al" AI - -
+

\
0
30osiooosiooc
0 0 >0
3Si<5Z2>Si<I
Forbidden gap

Valence band
•—

Valence electrons

Fig. 4.1 Schematic energy band representation for electrons in a solid illustrating the
energy bands and a forbidden gap.

(a) (b) (c)

Metal:
I n metals the valence electrons are free and constitute a sea o f electrons Insulator: Semiconductor:
Bands overlap
which are free to move upon the application o f even a small electric field. Very large reparation Separation between bands
and even infinitesimal
between bands : con- moderate—few electrons
The corresponding energy-band representation w i t h a l u m i n u m taken as added energy loads to duction impossible. appear in conduction band,
an example is shown i n the lower portion o f Figure 4.2a. The two bands conduction. equal number of holes in
corresponding to the previous figure here overlap. Thus there is h o for- valence band. Limited
conduction possible.
bidden gap. As a consequence, it is possible to move the topmost electron
Fig- 4.2 Schematic atomistic and energy band representation of a conductor, an insulator,
shown i n this figure to the next level and then to the next and then to the and an intrinsic semiconductor.
next; in other words, it is possible to impart a kinetic energy to the
electrons. Hence, conduction is possible.
I f we now turn to the example o f an insulator such as silicon dioxide, atoms are only moderately strong. Therefore, due to the thermal vibration
shown i n Figure 4.2b, we are faced with a different situation. The valence of the silicon atoms, some bonds will be broken at any temperature above
electrons here form strong bonds between neighboring atoms. These absolute zero. When a bond is broken, a free electron results which is
bonds are difficult to break and, because o f this, there w i l l be no free capable o f conducting electricity. Such an electron is called a conduction
electrons that could participate in conduction, I n terms o f the energy- electron. In addition, there is now a "deficit" where the electron had been
band picture, this means that there is a large forbidden gap between the before the bond was broken. This deficit is referred to as a hole. Valence
valence band and the next higher band, the conduction band. A l l levels in electrons can j u m p from neighboring bonds into the position o f the hole
the valence band are occupied by electron;,, all levels i n the conduction and therefore additional conduction can take place. I t is easy to think o f
94 E l e m e n t s of Semiconductor Physics
this a d d i t i o n a l conduction as the movement o f the positively charged hole
in the opposite direction.!
I n terms o f the band representation, the forbidden gap of a semicon-
ductor is n o t as large as that o f an insulator. Because of this, some
electrons w i l l be able to make the j u m p f r o m the valence band to the
conduction band, leaving behind holes i n the valence band. U p o n the
application o f an electric field, the electrons i n the conduction band w i l l
be able to gain kinetic energy; hence, they w i l l be able to conduct elec-
tricity. A t the same time the holes i n the valence band w i l l also be able
to take on kinetic energy and conduct electricity.
„.'"', • . , Potential energy of electron
Kinetic energy of electron f
L £ _ r- "j
5 for the breakage o f bonds. The intrinsic carrier concentration should also
1
Kinetic energy of hole
t Potential energy
of hole
Fig. 4.3 Illustration of the meaning of the energy band diagram.
The energy-band diagram, such as shown i n Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
indicates electron energies. Thus when the energy o f an electron is i n -
creased, the electron will take on a hight r position in the band diagram.
When we say that the energy of a hole i ' . increased, what we mean is that
p
the energy of tne other electrons in t h valence band is increased. Thus
some o f the valence electrons will take on higher positions in the band
diagram. Accordingly, the increase in the energy o f a hole is represented
by the hole moving downward i n the valence band. (Recall the "bubble
analogy".)
I t is i m p o r t a n t to note at this point that the lowest level i n the conduc-
tion band designates the energy o f a conduction electron which is at rest.
The energy o f an electron at rest is, o f course, the potential energy o f an
electron, so the lower edge o f the conduction band £ designates the poten-
r
tial energy o f an electron. Similarly, the upper edge o f the valence band
£,. designates the potential energy o f a hole. I f an electron is at a higher
energy than the level £,, or a hole at a lower electron energy than the level
t The concept of a hole is analogous to that of a bubble in a liquid: although it is
actually the liquid that moves, it is much easier to talk of the motion of the bubble in
the opposite direction.
Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 95
£,.. these electrons and holes have kinetic energies designated by the
difference between their energies and the respective band edges, as i l l u -
strated in Figure 4.3.
4.2 ELECTRONS AND HOLES
IN S E M I C O N D U C T O R S
In absolutely pure semiconductors, conduction electrons and holes
result only through the breakage o f bonds. Thus the concentration o f
electrons ?? equals the concentration o f holes p. These concentrations are
called the intrinsic carrier concentrations n o f the semiconductor. W e
i
would expect the intrinsic carrier concentration to be a function o f the
vibrational energy o f the lattice (hence the temperature) that is responsible
be a function o f the energy required to break a b o n d , which in terms o f the
band diagram corresponds to the w i d t h o f the forbidden gap. or energy
gap. £&•
Both of these dependences are borne out by the experimental data shown
in Figure 4.4. Here the intrinsic carrier concentrations o f three i m p o r t a n t
semiconductors—gallium arsenide, silicon, and germanium—are shown as
a function o f temperature. The energy gaps o f these semiconductors are
also indicated in the figure. I t is evident (i) that for any given semicon-
ductor, H , increases very sharply w i t h increasing temperature; and (ii) that
at any given temperature, decreases very sharplv w i t h increasing energy
gap. M o r e detailed examination o f these data indicates that both depen-
dences can be summarized by the exponential temperature dependence,
£ lkT
n cc e~ ' where the activation energy E is approximately £ / 2 . This
t a G
important relationship w i l l be discussed further at a later stage.
Let us now consider the case where an i m p u r i t y is incorporated i n t o
the single crystal semiconductor in concentrations which are much larger
than 7i,. I n particular, let us first consider the case that arises when we add
an i m p u r i t y which has five valence electrons, such as phosphorus, to silicon
which has four. This case is illustrated in Figure 4.5a. (Phosphorus
occupies a place in the fifth c o l u m n o f the periodic table o f the elements,
while silicon occupies a place i n the fourth c o l u m n , in accordance w i t h
the respective number-of their valence electrons.) The extra electron o f the
phosphorus atom cannot be accommodated i n the regular b o n d i n g ar-
rangement o f the silicon lattice and, since it is out o f place, it is easier to
tear off. Thus the ionization energy o f phosphorus in silicon is much
smaller than the silicon energy gap. I n fact, this ionization energy is only
about 0.05 ev.
 fclements ot Semiconductor Physics Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 97

c o n d i t i o n is called complete ionization. Thus, under the condition o f com-

plete ionization, we can write that the concentration of electrons n = N D

where N denotes the concentration o f the donor impurities. (Column V

D

impurities in silicon are called donor impurities because they donate an

electron to the conduction band o f the silicon crystal.) This again is
illustrated in the energy-band representation o f Figure 4.5a where equal
concentrations o f electrons and donor ions are indicated. The donor ions
are denoted by positive charges slightly below the conduction band edge
in energy.

W W W W

P
3 Si ( E 3 S i d 5Si<E3SiG
p| Extra electron : fi\ Extra hole :
(Jy easy to remove jj easy to remove
3Si(IZE)P€ DSicn-DBd

Ionization energy
E.
•+•+-++++++-«— Donor ions
-t', /•;,
Acceptor
-/-' ions —-—-r—^—^—/
r
T
-,.- o o o o
Ionization energy
lal lb)
d-Typo semiconductor p-Type semiconductor
Fig. 4.5 Schematic atomistic and energy band representation of extrinsic semi-
conductors.

A n analogous argument can be made for the case when an i m p u r i t y

which has three valence electrons (a c o l u m n I I I impurity), such as boron,
is introduced i n t o the silicon lattice. Because a column I I I i m p u r i t y has
one less electron than silicon, we can consider i t to carry a hole. This hole
can then be removed relatively easily, w i t h an ionization energy o f ap-
proximately 0.05 ev.
I f the ionization is complete, the concentration o f the holes p == N A

where N denotes the concentration o f acceptor impurities. ( C o l u m n I I I

A

HtOO/Tl'K) impurities i n silicon are called acceptor impurities because they can accept
Fig. 4.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration of gallium arsenide, silicon, and germanium as an electron f r o m the valence band o f the crystal. This, o f course, is equiv-
1
a function of temperature. alent to supplying a hole to the valence band.) This situation is illustrated
in Figure 4.5b, b o t h i n the atomistic and in the energy-band representa-
I n a silicon crystal at r o o m temperature there is usually enough lattice
tions. Since we are considering the case o f complete ionization, the
v i b r a t i o n a l energy available to supply this amount of energy and, there-
concentration o f holes in the valence band is shown to be equal to the
fore, c o l u m n V I m p u r i t i e s i n silicon w i l l generally be all ionized at room
concentration o f acceptor ions in the crystal. The acceptor ions are de-
temperature, p r o v i d i n g an equal number o f conduction electrons, unless
1 8 5
noted by negative charges slightly above the valence band edge in energy.
they are present i n relatively h i g h - ( > 1 0 c m " ) concentrations. This
98 Elements of Semiconductor Physics F e r m i - D i r a c Distribution Function 99

I n the first of the above t w o cases, the concentration o f electrons is much
larger than that o f holes. Because current in such a case is carried predom-
i n a n t l y bv electrons, we say t h a t the conductivity type of the semiconductor
is 77 (for negative). I n the second case, the concentration of holes is much
lareer than the concentration o f electrons and current is predominantly
carried by holes. The c o n d u c t i v i t y type in such a case is p (for positive).
I n eeneral, both acceptor- and donor-type impurities may be present
simultaneously. The conductivity type of the semiconductor is then deter-
mined by that impurity which is present in the greater concentration. The
concentration of the corresponding majority carrier will then be given by
„ = N - Nj i f N > N ; and by p = N - N i f N > N .
D D A A D A D
The F e r m i - D i r a c d i s t r i b u t i o n function is symmetrical around the
Fermi level E . r Thus, i f the number of energy states in the conduction
and valence bands is the same, and i f the number o f electrons in the con-
duction band and the number o f holes in the valence band is also the same,
the Fermi level must be located in the middle o f the energy gap. This is
approximately what happens i n an intrinsic semiconductor. The F e r m i
level in an intrinsic semiconductor is often referred to as the intrinsic
Fermi level and is denoted bv the svmbol
I n an 77-type semiconductor the concentration o f electrons in the con-
duction band is larger than in the intrinsic case. Since, however, the density

4.3 FERMI-DIRAC D I S T R I B U T I O N FUNCTION

I n the previous sections we have discussed various electronic energv

states in semiconductors: states i n the conduction and valence bands, and
states introduced into the forbidden gap by the addition o f donor or
acceptor impurities. We n o w discuss what determines the probability
that a given energv state is occupied by an electron.
(a! Intrinsic. (bin-Type (c) p-Type
The energy distribution o f electrons in a solid are governed by the laws
of Fermi-Dirac statistics. The principal resuh of these statistics is the Fig. 4.6 Illustration of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function for intrinsic, n- and p-type
Fermi-Dirac distribution function which gives the probability that an elec- semiconductor.

tronic state with energy E is occupied by an electron,

of energv states in the conduction band is the same as in the intrinsic case,
- j jjpggi •
+ fti) it follows that in an n-type semiconductor the F e r m i level, and with i t the
entire F e r m i - D i r a c d i s t r i b u t i o n function,, will be shifted upward in the
This function contains a parameter, E . which is called the Fermi level.
F energy-band picture. In contrast, in a /"-type semiconductor the F e r m i
A rigorous definition o f the F e r m i level describes it as the chemical poten- level and the F e r m i - D i r a c distribution function w i l l b o t h be shifted d o w n -
tial o f electrons in a solid. However, for our purposes it is sufficient to w a r d . These t w o cases are illustrated in Fig. 4.6b and c.
note that the Fermi level is that energy at which the probability of occupa- For energies that are at least several kTunils above or below the F e r m i
tion of an energy state by an electron is exactly one-half. level, the F e r m i - D i r a c d i s t r i b u t i o n function can be approximated by the
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is illustrated in Figure 4.6a for simpler formulas
the case of an intrinsic semiconductor. A t the left side of this figure we
show the probability o f occupation o f states by electrons as a function o f /(£) * e - t B
-* r i n T
for £ > E F (4.2)
the energy o f the states. I n the conduction band there are a large number and . .
o f states. However, the probability o f occupation of these states is small; { E f E ) l k T
/(£) = 1 - - ~ for £ < E . (4.3)
hence, there will be only a few electrons in the conduction band. By con- e F

trast, there are also a large number o f states i n the valence band. M o s t o f It is useful to regard the second term o f the last expression as the proba-
these are occupied bv electrons since the probability o f occupation o f states bility o f occupation o f a center located at energy E by a hole.
there is nearly unity: Thus there will be only few unoccupied electron If. instead o f F e r m i - D i r a c statistics. B o l t z m a n n statistics had been
states, i.e., holes, in the valence band. employed in the derivation o f the distribution function, these expressions
 ' C l e m e n t s ot S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics
1 < J W
Important Formulas for Semiconductors in Equilibrium 101
w o u l d have resulted directly. Thus Boltzmann statistics provide a good 1 9 3
concentration reaches about 1 0 c r r r , Equations 4.4 and 4.5 lose their
a p p r o x i m a t i o n for F e r m i - D i r a c statistics for energies at least several kT validity. Under such conditions we refer to the semiconductor as de-
away from E. F generate.
A n alternate set o f formulas which are more useful when symmetry in
the mathematical expressions is desirable can be derived from Equations
4.4 IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR 4.4 and 4.5. These are
SEMICONDUCTORS IN E Q U I L I B R I U M n = /Kr-E,mT
n ( 4 6 )

a. E l e c t r o n and H o l e C o n c e n t r a t i o n s p = faM*-*w* - • ( 4 7 )

where
I f the densities o f states i n the c o n d u c t i o n and valence bands are cal-
culated on the basis o f q u a n t u m mechanics, and i f the probability o f £,. • i(Ec + E ) + { S T In ^
v .' (4.8)
occupation of these states by electrons is taken into account, the electron
a n d hole concentrations in a semiconductor can be calculated. Such a is the intrinsic Fermi level. The intrinsic Fermi level is-thus seen to be i n
calculation yields the concentration o f electrons, the vicinity o f the middle o f the gap, displaced from it by a term which is
usually very small. Consequently, for most purposes we can regard the
n = \pjf**r**M (4.4) intrinsic Fermi level to be in the middle o f the energy gap.
and the concentration of'holes

p m ^Er-E>V«T
N (4.5) b. T h e pn Product in E q u i l i b r i u m

We can recognize the exponential factor i n the first o f these expressions It is evident from Equations 4.4 and 4.5 as well as from Equations 4.6
and 4.7, that the product o f electron and hole concentrations is independ-
as the probability o F d c c u p a t i b n by an electron o f a state located at the
ent o f the Fermi level; hence, it is independent o f the type o f the semi-
conduction-band e d g e _ £ . The-exponential factor in the second expression
c

conductor as well as o f the individual electron and hole concentrations.

is the probability o f occupation by a hole o f a state located at the valence-
Thus,
b a n d edge E . A c c o r d i n g l y - w e - « a n assign a simple interpretation to the
v
EalkT
pre-exponential factors: they designate the effective densities of states pn = v = N N e- .c v (4.9)
i n the conduction and valence bands, respectively. B o t h ;V and N„ are C
- This very important relationship can be derived on the basis o f the law
p r o p o r t i o n a l to T*-.
of mass action without even obtaining the individual carrier concentration
The values o f the effective densities o f states for germanium, silicon, equations. I t always holds, provided the semiconductor is under equilib-
a n d gallium arsenide at r o o m temperature (27°C) are given in Table 4 . 1 , rium conditions. Thus we can employ it as the criterion for e q u i l i b r i u m
along w i t h other i m p o r t a n t properties o f these semiconductors and o f an in semiconductors.
insulator, silicon dioxide.
Equation 4.9 also indicates that the intrinsic carrier concentration
Equations 4.4 and 4.5 show, in accordance w i t h the discussion in the
should depend on temperature approximately in an exponential manner
previous section, that as the F e r m i level E moves close to the conduction- Bati T
F
n cc e~ * ,
( in agreement with the experimental results shown in
b a n d edae E , the concentration o f electrons increases and the concentra-
c
Figure 4.4. (The actual temperature dependence is somewhat stronger
t i o n o f holes decreases. I n contrast, when the F e r m i level moves closer to because N and N„ themselves also increase with temperature.)
c

the valence-band edce E , the electron concentration decreases and the

v

hole concentration increases.

As the Fermi level approaches either the c o n d u c t i o n - or the valence- c. Space-Charge N e u t r a l i t y
b a n d edge within a few kT units, the a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to the Fermi-Dirac
A semiconductor in which impurities are uniformly distributed w i l l
d i s t r i b u t i o n function that we use in the above formulas will become i n -
obey the condition o f space-charge neutrality, which means that the net
accurate. For this and some a d d i t i o n a l reasons, when the impurity
charge density p in any volume element o f the semiconductor will be zero. -
TABLE 4.1 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF GERMANIUM, SILICON, GALLIUM ARSENIDE, A N D OF SILICON DIOXIDE AT 27X.

Gc Si GaAs SiO,

Atomic or molecular weigh! 72.60 28.09 144.63 60.08

72

Atoms or niolecules/cnv 1
4.42 x IO 22
5.00 x 10 22
2.21 x IO 22
2.3 x IO

Crystal structure Diamond, Dinmoncl, Zinc-blende, R a n d o m network of SiO,|

8 a(onis/iini( 8 a(oms/uni( 8 atoms/unit (ctrnhed in.
cell cell cell 50% cova lent, 50% ionic
bonding

Lattice constant (A) 5.66 5.43 5.65

rn
•

Density, p (g/cm") 5.32 2.33 5.32 2.27 3

Energy gap (cv) 0.67 I.I 1 1.40 ~8 o

m

Effective density of states 3

conduction band A ( c m " ) r :l
1.04 x'lO'" 2.8 x I 0 , n
4.7 x 10" n
r o
1.04 x 10'" 7.0 x I 0 ' R •J
valence band N v (enr") 6.0 x IO'" O-
c
Intrinsic carrier concentration
/;,- (cm" ) -1
2.4 x 10 n
1.45 x 10'" —9 x 10" •v

Lattice (intrinsic)
2
mobili!ics (cm /v sec)
electrons 3900 1350 .8600 Insulator; p > 10'" fl-cm
holes 1900 480 250 al 300 K .

Dielectric constant 16.3 1 1.7 12 3.9

Breakdown field (v//i) -8 -30 -35 —600

Meiling point ( " Q 937 1415 1238 — 1700

V;ipor pressure 10 7
a( 880 C 10 "'al 1250'C 1 al I050"C 10 3
at 1450 C
(ton) IO"" nl 750 C 10 7
al I 0 5 0 X 100 at 1220 C 10 ' nl 1700 C

Specific heal, C„
(Joulc/g"C) 0.31 0.7 0.35 1.0

Thermal conduclivily, /,•„,

(wn(l/cm'C) 0.6 1.5 0.81 0.014

T h e r m a l cliffusiviiy 3
• = ts. (at) 0.36 0.9 0.44 0.006
pC „ \sec 1

Linear cocfficicn! of
llicrmal expansion
5.8 x 10•* 2.5 x 10' 5.9 x 10 !
m 0.5 x 10 "

. . I . ! .« J M M | >»M » * « I-»-» <•—1 « • • £ >—X-«»»Y.

 Elements of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics Important F o r m u l a s f o r S e m i c o n d u c t o r s " in Equilibrium 105

and
P p = ' V A - X D . (4.15)

A g a i n , combining the above formulas for the concentration o f majority

carriers with the equilibrium relationship yields the concentration o f the
minority carriers:

1
Pn = - (4.16)
*-N -Nj D - -
and

K = Z "'" - • (4.17)
N A - N D

I n the above formulas the subscripts refer to the type of the semiconduc-
tor (for example, n denotes the concentration o f electrons in an /i-type
n

semiconductor). The carrier whose concentration is the larger o f the two

200 300 400 500
100 is referred to as the majority carrier and the other one is referred to as the
Temperature ( ° K )
minority carrier.
Fig. 4.7 The Fermi level in silicon as a function of temperature, for various Impurity Using Equations 4.12 and 4.13 together w i t h 4.6 and 4.7, we can cal-
concentrations. culate the position of the Fermi level w i t h i n the forbidden gap as a function
o f temperature, for a given acceptor or donor concentration. Such
T o obtain the net charge density, we add up all posittve and negative calculations are shown in Figure 4.7 for silicon. Note that as the tempera-
charges. Thus, i f the donors and acceptors are fully ionized. ture increases, the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic Fermi level, i.e..
the semiconductor becomes intrinsic. (This figure also indicates the slight
4 10
P=q{p-n + N D - N ).
A (- ) variation o f the silicon energy gap with temperature.)
Conversely, we can consider the concentration o f majority carriers as a
Hence, the c o n d i t i o n o f space-charge neutrality implies that • 2
function o f temperature. Figure 4.8 shows experimental measurements
o f the electron concentration in rt-type silicon as a function o f temperature.
A t low temperatures the thermal energy in the crystal is not sufficient to
We can combine the c o n d i t i o n o f space-charge neutrality w i t h the ionize all o f the donor impurities present. Thus the electron concentration
e q u i l i b r i u m relationship, np - This leads to the concentration o f is less than the donor concentration. As the temperature is increased,
electrons i n an n-type semiconductor, in e q u i l i b r i u m . the c o n d i t i o n o f complete ionization, where the electron concentration
equals the donor concentration, is approached. As the temperature is-
(4.12) further increased, the electron concentration remains practically constant
over a considerable temperature range. However, as the temperature is
and the concentration o f holes in a /7-type semiconductor
increased even further, we reach the condition where the intrinsic carrier
(4.13) concentration becomes comparable to the donor concentration. Beyond
this temperature the semiconductor becomes intrinsic. Thus it is evident
W e can see that when the magnitude o f the net i m p u r i t y concentration that a semiconductor may be intrinsic even i f it is doped with a relatively
| / y - 2VJ is much larger than the intrinsic carrier concentration n
D (
high concentration o f donors or acceptors i f the temperature is high
(this is generally the case for silicon at r o o m temperature), the above enough so that the intrinsic carrier concentration exceeds the donor or
relationships simplify to acceptor concentration. (This is evident also from the calculations shown
n ^ V - N n D A - (4-14) in Figure 4.7.) The temperature at which the semiconductor becomes
106 E l e m e n t s of Semiconductor Physics T r a n s p o r t of Electrons and Holes 107

T o see what factors influence the drift velocity o f electrons, we can con-
sider the f o l l o w i n g simplified picture. The magnitude o f the drift velocity
at a given time 1 after a collision will be given by r ( r ) = t>(0) + at where
r(0) is the drift velocity immediately upon collision. We will take i t as
zero. This is equivalent to assuming that the electrons suffer collisions

R a n d o m thermal
m o t i o n of

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

7TK)
5 Electric field Dritt c o m p o n e m
Fig. 4.8 Electron concentration in n-type silicon as a function of temperature.
due t o electric
field
intrinsic o f course depends on the concentration o f donors or acceptors (bj
i n the semiconductor.
T h e above formulas pertaining to semiconductors i n thermal equilibrium
are summarized in Table 4.2 at the end o f this chapter.

Combined motion
of electron in
4.5 TRANSPORT OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES electric f i e l d

a. Drift

Let us consider an n-type semiconductor, w i t h u n i f o r m donor concen-

t r a t i o n , i n the absence of an applied electric" field. The electrons in the
semiconductor will undergo a continual r a n d o m thermal m o t i o n inter-
rupted by collisions, as illustrated in Figure 4.9a. The thermal motion
leads to no net displacement o f the electrons over a long enough period of
time.
I f an electric field is applied to the semiconductor sample, an additional
velocity component will be superimposed upon the thermal m o t i o n of
the carriers. This additional velocity component, called the drift velocity,
w i l l have a direction opposite to (for electrons) the electric field. The
Fig. 4.9 Illustration of the motion of an electron in a crystal.
which completely randomize their m o t i o n . The magnitude o f the accelera-
t i o n a is given by Newton's second law as a = qtf/m*, where m* is the
effective mass o f the electrons in the semiconductor crystal. The effective
mass is a quantity which takes the place o f the mass o f a free electron m
in various calculations. I t essentially corrects for the effect o f the presence
of the semiconductor crystal lattice on the behavior o f the electron.
I f the time interval between collisions is f . then the average drift
c o l )

displacement of the electron due to this component is shown in Figure velocity o f the electrons will be
4.9b. W h e n we add these two components, we obtain the combined
displacement o f electrons, as illustrated in Figure 4.9c.
 E l e m e n t s of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics T r a n s p o r t of Electrons and Holes 109
108
is the sum o f the probabilities o f collisions due to the various such scatter-
where ing mechanisms, i.e.,
L'clritt q'cou (4.19)
2m* 41. ! + _ J _
'coll 'coll, impurity 'coll, lattice
is the mobility o f the electrons.!
or
' Thts treatment assumes that the time interval between collisions f c o l l

is independent of the applied electric field. This is a reasonable assumption

^ - F ^ (4.20)
onlv so lono as the d r i f t velocity is small i n comparison to the thermal . . . . M P-i P-L
velocity o f carriers w h i c h is about 10' cm/sec for Si at r o o m temperature.
which correspond to the two most important scattering mechanisms,
impurity and lattice scattering.
I I I I I I I I
!
10 X 1 0 1

I m p u r i t y scattering is due to the fact that when an electron travels past

electrons a fixed charged particle, e.g., an ionized acceptor or donor, its path will be
deflected by the charge on that fixed particle. The probability o f i m p u r i t y
/ ^
_ / ^ — scattering will depend on the total concentration o f ionized impurities
C present in the crystal, i.e., the sum o f the concentrations o f negatively
T

/ and positively charged ions. The mobility dominated by impurity scatter-

^ — ^ — "
¿Z.— ing fti can theoretically be shown to be p r o p o r t i o n a l to T^-jCj.
Lattice scattering is due to the thermal vibration o f the atoms o f the
crystal lattice which disrupts the periodicity o f the lattice and thereby
- f " 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 impedes the m o t i o n o f electrons. Theoretical analysis shows that the
W 0.2 0.4 '.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2x10* m o b i l i t y dominated by lattice scattering u is p r o p o r t i o n a l to 1/7**.
L
0
1
Experimentally measured' electron and hole mobilities in silicon at r o o m
c?' (v/cml
temperature are shown in Figure 4.11 versus the total ionized i m p u r i t y
F i g . 4.10 Effect of e l e c t e e field o n t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e d r i f t v e l o c i t y of c a r r i e r s i n
concentration C . (t is seen that the mobility reaches a m a x i m u m value
T

silicon. 3
As the drift velocity becomes comparable to the thermal velocity, its
dependence on electric field will begin to depart from the simple relation-
ship given above. T h i s is illustrated by the experimental measurements
o f the d r i f t velocity o f electrons and holes in silicon as a function o f the
electric field, shown i n Figure 4.10. Evidently an initial straight-line
dependence is followed by a less r a p i d increase as the electric field is
increased. A t large enough fields, a m a x i m u m drift velocity seems to be
approached.
b. Mobilities of E l e c t r o n s and H o l e s
The time interval between collisions is determined by the various mech-
anisms by which the electrons or holes can lose their acquired drift
velocity. The p r o b a b i l i t y o f a collision taking place in a unit time, l / f ,
at low impurity concentrations corresponding to the lattice-scattering
l i m i t a t i o n , and that both electron and hole mobilities decrease w i t h i n -
creasing impurity concentration, eventually approaching a m i n i m u m value
3
at high concentrations. I t can also be seen that the mobility o f electrons
is larger than the mobility o f holes. This is the case in many semiconduc-
tors.
5
Experimental measurements o f the influence o f temperature on the
m o b i l i t y o f holes in silicon are shown i n Figure 4.12 for two different
i m p u r i t y concentrations. We can distinguish two regions: at low tem-
peratures, i m p u r i t y scattering dominates and separate curves are observed
for the different doping concentrations. A t high temperatures, lattice
scattering dominates and the impurity concentration has little effect on
the mobility as evidenced by the merging of the curves. The mobility is
seen to decrease with increasing temperature in this range. Experimentally,
c o l l mobilities have been found to follow a 7"~-- dependence rather than 5

f
the theoretically predicted. 7" - dependence in the lattice scattering
-1 5

This argument is actually rather oversimplified. A more careful analysis would lead
ranee.
to a similar formula but without the factor 2 appearing in the denominator.
I IO E l e m e n t i of S e m i c o n d u c t o r . Physics T r a n s p o r t of Electrons and Holes II I

c. C o n d u c t i o n in Homogeneous S e m i c o n d u c t o r s ; Resistivity
1 0 3
—

Let us n o w examine the representation o f the conduction process i n

terms of the band diagram, taking an n-type semiconductor as an example.
Figure 4.13a shows an n-type semiconductor sample w i t h no bias applied.
Figure 4.13b shows the same sample w i t h - f 2-volt bias applied to one o f
the terminals.! I n the lower half of the figure we show the corresponding
2
energy bands as a function o f position along the semiconductor sample.
i IO

JD »-Type n-Type
c 1-1
5

',0'« 10 '-
1
1 0 1 6
1 0 " 1 0 1 6
10'* 1 0 2 0
1 0 2
' -*—Er
- 3
Tola! impurity concentralion C ( c m ) T

Fig. 4 . I I The effect of the total ionized impurity concentration on the mobility of
carriers In silicon at room temperature.' Also shown are the corresponding values of
difiusivity.

200

(a) lb)
Fig. 4.13 Illustration of the conduction process in an n-type semiconductor.

150 -
The electrons in the conduction band will accelerate, as a result o f the
applied field. D u r i n g acceleration, they will neither gain nor lose a signifi-
cant amount o f their total energy so they will proceed along a more or
less horizontal p a t h i n the energy band representation. W h i l e the t o t a l
100 energy of the electrons does not change significantly d u r i n g the acceleration
process, they w i l l lose potential energy, and w i l l increase their kinetic
energy at the expense o f this loss in potential energy. This is evidenced by
the fact that the electron trajectory takes the electron some distance above
the conduction-band edge (recall that the conduction-band edge represents
the potential energy o f the electron).
When an electron suffers a collision, it loses some or all o f its kinetic
energy and imparts it to the semiconductor lattice. I n this manner tl:c
kinetic energy o f the electrons will be convened to heat. After the electron
has lost some or all o f its kinetic energy, it will again begin to accelerate

100 200 3U0 400 500 600 700 t We ignore any effects associated with the entry or exit of the electrons into and out of
T CK) the semiconductor, i.e., we will ignore metal-semiconductor contact effects.
1
Fig. 4.12 Illustration of the effect of temperature on the mobility of carriers in silicon.
I 12 E l e m e n t s of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics
113

and the same process will be repeated many times. This is how the conduc-
tion process appears in the band d i a g r a m . Conduction by holes can be
pictured by a similar but opposite process.
In this discussion we have considered a homogeneous semiconductor,
i.e., a semiconductor in which the i m p u r i t y concentration is spatially
uniform. I n order to keep the electron concentration spatially uniform
also, we had to indicate the Fermi level i n Figure 4.13 at the same distance
from the conduction band at all points. Thus" the Fermi level follows the
conduction-band edge in a parallel fashion.
The current flowing in the semiconductor sample w i l l be given by

V
I = q • n • Pfetn • A = qnu n - A (4.21)

where V is the voltage applied across the semiconductor sample which has
a length L and a cross-sectional area A and ,u„ is the electron mobility.
The resistance o f such a sample is given by

R = P - . (4.22) Impurity concentration ( c m " ) J

,4
F i g . 4.14 R e s i s t i v i t y o f s i l i c o n at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e as a f u n c t i o n o f a c c e p t o r o r d o n o r
Thus by comparison o f the two formulas we find that the resistivity p o f impurity concentration.*

the >i-type semiconductor sample is

Figure 4.14. This figure is based on an extensive survey o f large numbers o f
1
(4.23) measurements on samples which contain either acceptor or donor i m -
P = •
purities. *
Similarly, the resistivity o f a /'-type semiconductor sample is
Diffusion
1
(4.24)
P ~
qpvP The discussion in this section has so far dealt only with the case when
I n general, when both carriers are taken into consideration, the resistivity the electron concentration w i t h i n the semiconductor sample is u n i f o r m
and the electrons move under the influence o f an electric field. I f the elec-
is given by
tron concentration is not uniform, electrons will also diffuse under the
p = . • (4.25)
u influence o f the concentration gradient. As in the case o f ions, this w i l l
<f(rV' + , vP)
lead to an additional contribution to the expression for the flux. This
The mobilities, as discussed above, depend o n the total concentration o f
c o n t r i b u t i o n is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the concentration gradient, and the pro-
ionized impurities, hence, on the sum o f the acceptor and donor concentra-
portionality constant is the diffusivity o f electrons, D„. The diffusivity o f
tions. The electron and hole concentrations, on the other hand, depend on electrons, in turn, is related to the electron mobility by Einstein's relation-
the difference o f the acceptor and d o n o r concentrations. Thus, in a general ship.
case, the resistivity must be calculated by using the mobility data given i n
Figure 4.11 and carrier concentrations based on Equations 4.14 or 4.15. n k T

However, i n the case when only one type o f i m p u r i t y is present in the semi-
conductor, the resistivity will become a simple function o f the concentra-
tion o f that i m p u r i t v .
The resistivity o f b o t h p- and n-type silicon at r o o m temperature as a
function o f acceptor or donor concentration, respectively, is shown i n
(4.26)
Similar considerations apply TdThe transport o f holes.
The diffusivity o f electrons and holes at r o o m temperature can be
obtained from Figure 4.11 where the right-hand axis is labeled in terms o f
diffusivities-.
I M Elements of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Physics Problems I 15

READING REFERENCES
The band theory of. and electronic conduction in, solids is discussed in detail in a
varietv of texts on solid-state and semiconductor physics. See. for instance. Chapters
10-13 in A . J . Dekker, Solid Swie Physics, Prentice-Hall. 1957: and Chapters 1-5 in
J. L . Moll, Physics of Semiconductors. McGraw-Hill Book Co.. 1964. A tutorial
"treatment of band theory is given bv F . Herman, "The Electronic Energy Band Structure
of Silicon and Germanium," Proc. IRE. 43,1703 (1955).
For the electronic properties of semiconductors, see E . M . Conwell. "Properties of
Silicon and Germanium," Proc. IRE, 46, 1281 (1958); and O. Madelung. Physics of
III-V Compounds. Wiley, 1964.
REFERENCES CITED
1. These intrinsic carrier concentrations are based on:
a. R . N . Hall and J . H . Racette. "Diffusion and Solubility of Copper in Extrinsic
and Intrinsic Germanium, Silicon, and Gallium Arsenide." J. Appl. Phvs.. 35,
379 (1964).
b. F . J . Morin and J . P. Maita, "EJec:rical Properties of Silicon Containing Arsenic
and Boron." Phys. Rev., 9fi, 28 (1954).
c. F . J. Morin and J . P. Maita, "Conductivity and Hall Effect in the Intrinsic Range
of Germanium," Phys. Rev., 94, 1525 (1954).
level as a reference, label the electron energy E, and the electrostatic potential
<h corresponding to each level.
4.3 Draw the energy band diagram corresponding to the above cases with 20 volts
applied across the silicon sample. Keep the diagrams to scale. Calculate the
current flow in each case if the length of the sample is 100 fi, and its cross-sectional
-3
area is 1 0 cm".
4.4 Prepare plots of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function at — 78°C, room tempera-
ture, and 500°C. Compare the three curves.
4.5 A small concentration of minority carriers is injected into a homogeneous semi-
conductor crystal at one point. A n electric field of 10 v/cm is applied across the
crystal, and this electric field moves these minority carriers a distance of 1 cm in
a time 250//sec. Determine the drift velocity and the diffusion coefficient of the
minority carriers.
!
4.6 For an electron mobility of 500 cm /v sec, calculate the lime between collisions.
For anelectric field of 100 v/cm. calculate also the distance traveled by an electron
between collisions. Take m* ~ m in these calculations.
4.7 Calculate the electron and hole concentrations, the resistivity, and the position of
3
the Fermi level of a silicon crystal containing 1.1 x 10" boron atoms/cm and
3 C
9 x 10" phosphorus atoms/cm , at 2 7 C .
lf 3
4.8 Calculate the Fermi level of silicon doped with 10". 1 0 , and 10" donor atoms/cm
at room temperature, assuming complete ionization. Then, using the Fermi levels
you have found, check if this assumption is justified in each case. In these cal-
culations, take the donor level to be 0.05 ev below the conduction band edge.

2. F . J . Morin and J. P. Maita, "Electrical Properties of Silicon Containing Arsenic 4.9 Give the equilibrium electron and hole concentrations, mobilities, and resistivity
C
and Boron," Phys. Rev., 96, 28 (1954). for silicon at 27 C. for each of the following impurity concentrations:
3
(a) 3 x l O " boron/cm .
3. E . J . Ryder, "Mobility of Holes and Electrons in High Electric Fields,"' Phys. Rev., 3 3
(b) 1.3 x 10" boron/cm -r 1.0 x 10" phosphorus/cm .
90, 766'()953). 3 3
(c) 1.3 x 10" phosphorus/cm + 1.0 x 10" boron/cm .
4. E . M . Conwell. "Properties of Silicon and Germanium." Proc. IRE. 46. 1281 (1958). 1 3 l:
(d) 3 x lO^phosphorus/cnv' -j- 1.0 x 10 ' gallium/cm -f i.O x 10 arsenic/cm . 3

5. G . L . Pearson and J . Bardeen, "Electrical Properties of Pure Silicon and Silicon C

4.10 Repeat, at 300 C. Compare the two cases and discuss.
Alloys Containing Boron and Phosphorus." Phys. Rev., 75, 865 (1949).
4.11 Gold in silicon introduces an acceptor level 0.54 ev below the conduction band
6. J . C . Irvin, "Resistivity of Bulk Silicon and of Diffused Layers in Silicon," Bell edge, and a donor level 0.35 ev above the valence band. What will be the state of
System Tech. J., 41, 387 (1962). charge tor occupation) of the gold levels in silicon doped with:
(a) High concentration of donor atoms (with respect to the gold concentration) ?
(b) High concentration of acceptor atoms?
What is the effect of gold on the electron and hole concentrations, respectively?
PROBLEMS
4.12 Using the information given in the previous problem, determine the charge state
of the gold levels and the position of the Fermi levels in a silicon crystal containing
4.1 (a) Verify the formula for the intrinsic Fermi level, Equation 4.8. gold atoms only. Is the crystal p- or H-type ?
C
(b) Calculate the location of the intrinsic Fermi level of silicon at —78 C. 27°C,
,:
and 300 C. Is it reasonable to assume it is in the center of the forbidden gap?
4.2 Draw the energy band diagram:
C
(a) at - 7 8 C , '
(b) at room temperature, and
C 3
(c) at 300 C for silicon doped with 10" boron atoms/cm . Show the band edges,
;
the intrinsic Fermi level, and the actual Ferm level. Using the intrinsic Fermi
 Elements of Semiconductor Physics 9 INJECTION
lié
• KINETICS OF T H E
RECOMBINATION PROCESS
• LIFETIME FOR LOW-LEVEL
INJECTION
• SURFACE RECOMBINATION
• ORIGIN OF RECOMBINATION-
GENERATION CENTERS

5
T A B L E 4.2
IMPORTANT FORMULAS IN SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Semiconductors under
Complete ionization of impurities- Non-Equilibrium Conditions
Thermal equilibrium

Charge neutrality p == q{p - n + N D - <V,i) = 0

Equilibrium condition p" = "t

Fermi-Dirac distribution function

Most semiconductor devices operate u n d e ^ n o n j ^ u ^ b r i u m conditions.
i.e., under conditions in which the carrier concentration product pn Qg^
Carrier concentrations in E.—Zyì> kT
n e* differs f r o m its equilibrium value, nf. The performance of many semi-""
non-degenerate semiconductors: t

conductor devices is determined by their tendency to return to equilibrium.

In the extrinsic case, In this chapter we derive and examine the quantities which characterize
this tendency: lifetime, diffusion length, and surface recombination velocity.
/ 7
" - Y - tfj
D
We begin by discussing the concept o f injection o f excess carriers. The
process o f return to equilibrium then is considered through examples o f
two types: transient cases, and steady-state cases in which the distribution
of excess carriers is non-uniform. We show that both types o f cases can be
characterized by the lifetime o f the excess carriers, their diffusion length,
and the surface recombination velocity. In order to relate these quantities
to characteristics o f the semiconductor, we then study the mechanism o f
recombination, both in the bulk and at the surface. Finally, we discuss the
physical origin o f bulk and surface recombination centers.

5.1 INJECTION

Let us consider non-equilibrium situations in which the condition

r.p = nf is violated. Accordingly, we can distinguish between two types
of deviation from equilibrium. I n the first type, when np > n,-, we talk
117
118 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Injection 119

of injection of excess earners. I n the second, when np < n, . we talk o f 2

preserve space-charge neutrality. I n the example shown i n Figure 5.1b
the extraction of carriers from the semiconductor. we have increased the m i n o r i t y carrier concentration a h u n d r e d - m i l l i o n
J 12 - 3
fold, from 10 to 10 c m . A l t h o u g h at the same rime we have also added
1 2 - 3
approximately 1 0 c m majority earners to the semiconductor, this
a. Injection Level
concentration o f excess electrons is negligibly small i n comparison to the
The meaning of injection level is illustrated in Figure 5.1. Here we concentration o f electrons already present in the n-type semiconductor.
1 6
indicate the donor concentration N — 1 0 c m and the majority and
D
- 3
Thus, while the magnitude o f the change in the concentration o f electrons
m i n o r i t v carrier concentrations in an n-type semiconductor under equilib- is the same as the change in the concentration o f the holes, the percentage
r i u m , and low- and high-level injection conditions.! A s we have seen in change in electron concentration is negligible. T h i s c o n d i t i o n , i n which
the excess carrier concentration is negligibly small i n comparison to the
7
d o p i n g concentration, i.e., A n = Ap « A ^ , is referred to as low-level
injection.
For comparison, we also illustrate the case o f high-level injection in
Figure 5.1c. I n high-level injection the injected excess carriers are i n
larger, or at least in comparable, concentrations t o the concentration o f
the donor ions. Thus in this case the percentage change in m a j o r i t y carrier
concentration is no longer negligible. Even though high-level injection is
a, for Si at
300 K often encountered in semiconductor device operation, because o f the
complexities involved i n its treatment we shall consider only low-level
injection.

b. Return to Equilibrium

Whenever the carrier concentrations are disturbed f r o m their e q u i l i b r i u m

(a) Equilibrium (b) Low-level injection (c) High-level injection values they w i l l attempt to return to equilibrium. I n the case o f injection
Fig. 5.1 Illustration of the concentration of electrons and holes in an n-type semicon-
o f excess carriers, return to e q u i l i b r i u m is t h r o u g h recombination of the
ductor in-equilibrium and under low- and high-level injection conditions. injected m i n o r i t y carriers with the majority carriers. I n the case o f extrac-
tion o f carriers, return to e q u i l i b r i u m is through the process o f generation
Chapter 4. under equilibrium conditions the product o f majority and o f electron-hole pairs.
2 20 - 6
m i n o r i t y carrier concentrations must equal n , . or approximately 10 c m We now develop the parameter which characterizes the rate o f r e t u r n
i n silicon at r o o m temperature. The majority carrier concentration approx- to e q u i l i b r i u m . This parameter, as well as certain other concepts o f the
imately equals the donor concentration. Hence, utmost importance in semiconductor device operation, can best be
and 4 3 developed by considering specific examples, starting with the simplest
Pm = 10 c m -
1 6 3
= 10 cm-
case.
as shown in Figure 5.1a. I n this notation the first subscript refers to the
type o f the semiconductor. The subscript o indicates an equilibrium D e c a y o f I n j e c t e d C a r r i e r s . Consider a uniformly, illuminated
quantity. Thus n, tv and p nB denote the electron and hole concentrations, semiconductor slice as shown in the inset to Figure 5.-2. We assume t h a t
respectively, i n an n-type semiconductor in equilibrium. the light is so energetic that i t creates electron-hole pairs w i t h i n the semi-
Let us now consider the case when we somehow introduce excess carriers conductor. Furthermore, we assume that the light is absorbed u n i f o r m l y
o f both types into the semiconductor, in equal concentrations in order to throughout the semiconductor sample, resulting in a u n i f o r m rate o f
t Throughout this chapter we will use an n-type semiconductor as an example. All generation G _ o f eiectron-hole pairs per unit v o l u m e t h r o u g h o u t the
y

results, nowever, are equally applicable to a />-type semiconductor. crystal. The resulting spatially uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i n o r i t y carriers
 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m Conditions Injection 121
120

U n i f o r m l y absorbed light This assumption has the correct feature that U = 0 in equilibrium. The
constant of proportionality | / r , will have to be determined f r o m a study
of the mechanism o f the recombination process. The constant r (or
r „ for a p-iypz semiconductor) is referred to as the lifetime o f the excess
minority carriers. The form o f this equation is similar to others we have
used earlier in the treatment o f solid-state processes. In all o f them we have
assumed that a rate is proportional to a driving force—a measure o f the
•PL deviation from equilibrium. .... . .
Combining the above relationships, we get the differential equation
describing the minority carrier concentration in the semiconductor as a
function o f time.

dPj, _ P j L ^ P . .4)
• X = G L (5

dt T V
Fig. 5.2 Illustration of the steady-state minority carrier distribution in a uniformly
illuminated semiconductor sample, in the absence of surface recombination. I n steady state, dpjdt = 0. Thus the steady-state concentration o f
minority carriers during illumination is given by
in the semiconductor specimen is illustrated in Figure 5.2. Because o f the
increased generation rate resulting from illumination, the concentration ' P L = P n o + ' , G L . (5.5)

o f minority carriers w i l l build up to a steady-state level high enough to

I f the light is now turned off, i.e., G = 0, the excess minority carrier
L

make the rate o f recombination o f the carriers just equal to the rate o f
concentration will begin to decay. This decay is described by the solution
generation.
of the differential equation.
To calculate the-steady-state m i n o r i t y carrier concentration reached
under illumination we first note that the time rate o f increase o f minority D
M = _ UZZJM ( 5 .6)
carrier concentration dpjdt equals the total generation rate o f minority dt T,

carriers minus the. total recombination rate, or subject to the initial condition,

pM = PL- (5-7)
(5.1)
dt The solution is given by . .

where Gr. is the rate o f generation due to the absorbed light, G,„ is the PnC) = ~P% + {p L - pje-'l". (5.8)
rate o f seneratibn i n dark, due to thermal mechanisms, and R is the total This solution is illustrated for various values o f the lifetime r p in Figure'
rate o f recombination ( a l l per unit time and unit volume). I t is convenient 5.3.
to define the net rate o f recombination, U = R — G , and rewrite the
tK

above equation to give Surface R e c o m b i n a t i o n in Steady S t a t e . Let us again consider

a semiconductor slice which' is uniformly illuminated as i n the previous
U. (5.2)
dt case. Let us further assume that the recombination rate o f the excess_
carriers is enhanced at o n e l i d e o f this slice, as illustrated in the inset to
By this definition the net rate o f recombination U — 0 in the steady state
Figure 5.4. Because o f the enhanced rateoT recombination at the surface
if there is no injection by light or other means.
corresponding to the plane x — 0. the concentration o f the excess m i n o r i t y
Before we can solve this equation, we need a relationship between U
carriers will be lower at this plane than in the body o f the semiconductor
and the m i n o r i t y carrier concentration. We assume the simplest possible
sample. _As a result, minority and majority carriers will flow to this surface
relationship, namely that U is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the excess m i n o r i t y carrier
and recombine there. Because one electron recombines w i t h one hole, the
concentration, or t
1 , flux o f holes ojhe_sjJrface^ _wilI precisely equal the flux o f ejectrons F .
a n
U (Pn ~ Pnoi- (5.3) v
T h u s there will be no net current flowing.

V
ft M
122 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m C o n d i t i o n s . Injection 123

including the generation and recombination terms i n t o the balance over

the control-element in Fisure 3.6. The flux o f holes is siven by

• D
P*
Ú

— -
, UÓ
T
r
pr¡ (5.10)
CX

where £> and u , are the diffusivity and m o b i l i t y o f holes, respectively

P }

(see Chapters 3 and 4).

This p r o b l e m would be greatly simplified i f we could neglect the drift
term. i.e.. the second term-of the fluv equation. T o show that for minority
zzr\ ie/'j in low-level injection the drift term is in fact negligible in comparison
to the diffusion term, we recall that the flux o f holes to the surface equals
the flux o f electrons, which is given by

3 4 5 6 7 8 S 1 0
r„ = - D „ ~ p„6n r: (5.11)
t (arbitrary units)
ox
Fig. 5.3 The decay of excess minority carrier concentration as a function of time in
the transient case, for various values of the lifetime. where D and /u are the diffusivity and m o b i l i t y o f electrons, respectively.
n v

F r o m the equality o f the t w o fluxes F, = F„, and from the requirement o f

space-charge neutrality due to which dnjox = dpjcx, we o b t a i n the
I D this problem b o t h minority and majority carrier distributions vary
expression for the electric field,
spatially. Thus the hole distribution is described by a solution o f the
transport equation, (D, - D )(opJBx)
£=-
; v

(5.12)
Mr, + Pv",,
(5.9)
di dx I n low-level injectior « « „ : thus the drift term in E q u a t i o n 5.10 is
where F. denotes the flux of holes. eiven bv
Equation 5.9 can be derived by considerations exactly like those we s OPr. P-v Pr, £2
D •D (5-13)
employed in the derivation of the transport equation i n Chapter 3, but ox u, r... ex n
4>
v
* fn "n "* *s .'
r "«

Since p « n„, this term is clearly negligible in comparison to the diffusion

n
Uniformly absorbed light
term.
I n contrast, i t can be readily shown by using a similar argument that the
drift term for majority carriers is not negligible in comparison to the
Surface diffusion term. Since diffusion and drift contributions to the m a j o r i t y
recombination
carrier flux are o f opposite sign, the net flux o f majority carriers to the
surface is given by their difference.
"" F.
P.(x) A graphical illustration o f the relative magnitudes o f the four flux terms
•PL
i n l o w - and in high-level injection is given in Figure 5.5. I t is evident that
whereas i n high-level injection all four flux terms are o f comparable
magnitude, in low-level injection only the diffusion term provides an
i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to the flux o f minority carriers.
A l t h o u g h the above argument is for a case with no current flowing, this
Fig. 5.4 Illustration of the steady-state minority carrier distribution in a uniformly
result is o f general validity and greatly simplifies the study o f the m o t i o n o f
illuminated semiconductor sample, vcith surface recombination. m i n o r i t y carriers in low-level injection. Thus the transport o f m i n o r i t y
124 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Injection 125

. All four terms

comparable

Majority carrier
diffusion term
Maiority carrier
drift term Minority carrier
diffusion term

Minority carrier
drift term

s
10
fa) Low-level injection (b) High-level injection
Fig. S.3 Illustration of the relative magnitudes of the diffusion and drift terms for the
case of steady-state surface recombination. This solution is shown in Figure 5.6 for various relative values o f surface
recombination velocity s . I n the l i m i t when the surface r e c o m b i n a t i o n ^ ^
s
carriers is described simply by the diffusion equation w i t h the generation
velocity s -— 0, the solution reduces to the case illustrated in Figure 5.2. '
p

^0 In the other limit, when s„ — co, the minority carrier concentration at the
O'Pn Pno (5.14) surface approaches its equilibrium value. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of minority
= D G, -
dt " dx* carriers for this case reduces to
Returning now to the p r o b l e m o f surface recombination, in steady state ?.(*) IL
- PL ~ (PL ~ Pno)e-* °. (5.18) . .
dpjdt = 0. We then seek a solution to the resulting ordinary differential
This d i s t r i b u t i o n is shown in Figure 5.7 for various values o f L„.f
equation subject to the b o u n d a r y conditions
S t e a d y - S t a t e I n j e c t i o n f r o m O n e B o u n d a r y . A case corre-
/>„(«>) = PL - fc Pno + rfif, (5-15) sponding to a different physical situation is illustrated in Figure 5.8. Here
and we illuminate the semiconductor sample from one side only, and in such a
OPn
D = s [p {0) - p ]. (5.16) way that all o f the light is absorbed in a very t h i n layer next to the semi-
v n na

conductor surface. Thus in this thin layer a large excess minority carrier
The second boundary c o n d i t i o n states that the m i n o r i t y carriers. which concentration is set up. The excess minority carriers diffuse inward i n t o
reach the surface recombine there. As in the case o f bulk recombination, the undisturbed body of the semiconductor from this surface layer as
we assume that the r e c o m b i n a t i o n rate at the surface, is p r o p o r t i o n a l to \ illustrated i n Figure 5.8. Since no net current is entering the semiconductor
the concentration o f excess m i n o r i t y carriers (p n — p„„) there. The propor- sample, the majority carrier concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n must again be such
tionality constant s„, w h i c h has the units centimeter per second is called . that the net flux o f electrons and o f holes w i l l be i n the same direction and
the surface recombination velocity. The solution o f this boundary value 1 equal in magnitude. -V)
problem is
* - IT -tIL,
f
It is interesting to note how similar this problem is to diffusion of impurities subject
(5.17)
x
Pn( ) = PL — (PL ~ Pno) to external rate-limitation which we considered in Chapter 3. Accordingly, these two
limiting cases could be called 'surface-recombination controlled' and 'diffusion con-
where L v = yjD„T v is called the diffusion length o f minority carriers. trolled,' respectively.
126 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Kinetics of the Recombination Process 127

which is shown in Figure 5.9 as a function o f distance, for three different

values o f the diffusion length L . p

Note the complete analogy between the steadv-state d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

excess m i n o r i t y carriers as a function of distance, given by E q u a t i o n 5.22
and shown in Figure 5.9. and the time-wise decay o f the excess m i n o r i t y
carrier concentration, given by Equation 5.8 and shown in Figure 5.3.
I n each case there is a disturbance o f m i n o r i t y carrier concentration. I n
one case, the disturbance occurs at a given p o i n t i n space; in the other, at
a given'point in time. W i t h increasing distance, or w i t h a passage .of t i m e ,

l I I I — I — I I I — r

"0 TO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
,\ (arbitrary units)

Fig. 5.7 The steady-state distribution of excess minority carriers for various values of
the diffusion length, for —•• oo.

The steady-state m i n o r i t y carrier distribution within the b u l k o f the

semiconductor sample must satisfy the equation

p p P n 0
n ^' " _ * " - n (5.19)
dx- T„

subject to the boundary conditions,

^ „ ( 0 ) = constant, function o f light intensity (5.20)
X (arbitrar) units)
and
Fig. 5.9 The steady-state distribution of excess minority carriers for various values of
(5.21) the diffusion length.
The solution is
P (z) - Puo + [p„(0) - p o)e~zlLr
(5.22)
n n
the e q u i l i b r i u m m i n o r i t y carrier concentration is then approached. I n
each case the rate o f approach to equilibrium is related to the same
parameter, the lifetime (or, equivalent))', the diffusion length) o f m i n o r i t y
carriers.

5.2 KINETICS OF T H E RECOMBINATION

PROCESS

Fig. 5.8 Illustration of the minority carrier distribution in a sample illuminated on one
side with non-penetrating light.
In the previous section we have seen that the rate o f return o f the m i n o r -
i t y carrier distribution to equilibrium—whether such return takes place
with passing time or with increasing distance—depends on the rate con-
slant characterizing the recombination process 1/TJ,. This resulted from
our assumption that the net rate o f recombination i n the bulk o f an « - t y p e
 semiconductor can be described by the linearized expression
• U = ( I/T„)(p n - p
In this section we attempt to relate the lifetime - . ; to the physical^
characteristics o f the semiconductor-by. considering the mechanisms ot
the recombination process.
a. Band-to-Band R e c o m b i n a t i o n
When electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band
recombine directly, we talk of a band-to-band recombination process which
is illustrated schematically in Figure 5.10.
Altnougn lrtsome semiconductors, e.g., gallium arsenide, band-to-band
recombination can be very important, in germanium and in silicon the
J . detailed structure o f the energy bands makes this process extremely
unlikely. I n fact, early w o r k with both germanium.and silicon indicated
that the lifetime is extremely structure sensitive in such materials, i.e.. it
is sensitive to the method employed in the preparation o f the semiconductor
samples. We w o u l d expect the rate o f the band-to-band recombination
process to be dependent only on the band structure o f the semiconductor.
Thus the fact that the_method o f sample preparation has an effect on the
lifetime indicates that the recombination process involves imperfections
or impurities in the semiconductor whose concentration could indeed
depend on the fabrication technique.
Here we indicate generation We now consider the recombination-generation process taking place
through the action o f such imperfections.

b. Recombination-Generation
Light or . through I n t e r m e d i a t e Centers"
Light heat
Imperfections w i t h i n the semiconductor can disrupt the perfect periodic-
ity o f the crystal lattice, and as a result can introduce energy levels into the
forbidden gap much as donor and acceptor impurities do. These energy
F i g . 5.10 The band-co-band recombination process. levels then act as "stepping-stones" in the transition o f electrons and holes
between the conduction and valence bands. Because the probability o f
due to light absorbed in the semiconductor, which has a rate G , and the transitions depends on the size o f the step, imperfections can make such
L

net band-to-band recombination, which has a rate U. In such a recombin- transitions more probable and, therefore, can exert a drastic influence on
ation process the electron must lose energy of the order o f the energy gap. the lifetime in the semiconductor.
>CJ This energy can be emitted in the form o f light or in the f o r m of heat. The theory o f the recombination-generation process taking place
W p would ftifflgct, the rate o f the band-to-band recombination process through the action o f such intermediate energy-level recombination-
to be p r o p o r t i o n a l to both the concentrations o f electrons and o f holes. generation centers has been worked out by H a l l , and by Shockley and
1
Read. This theory has been remarkably successful in explaining a wide
Thus for an /t-type semiconductor,
variety o f phenomena in many semiconductors and semiconductor devices.
R = *».Pn, (5-23) Because of this we now consider it in some detail.
The various steps that occur in the recombination and generation process
_ O where x is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant. through intermediate-level centers are shown i n Figure 5.11. I n particular,
V p? I n e q u i l i b r i u m , R = G, h = xn p .
no no I n low-level injection, the majority we illustrate the state o f the center before and after each of the four basic
y
carrier concentration does n o t change significantly, i.e., n n = n. no Thus processes takes place. The arrows in this figure designate the transition o f
the electron d u r i n g the particular process. This illustration is for the case
'po -^\J: » ixffr- U = R - G, = y.n [p
h no n - p ).
n0 (5-24) of a center w i t h a single energy level which can have two charge states:
negative and neutral.
Hence, the lifetime for the band-to-band recombination process becomes
Process (a) is the capture of an electron from the conduction band by the
center. Process (b) is the reverse process—the emission of an electron from
the center into the conduction band. Process (c) is the capture of a hole
y-n„„
 130 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m Conditions Kinetics of the Recombination P r o c e s s . 131
r j
the center. The capture cross-section of the center a is a measure o f K

7
h o w close the electron has to come to the center to be captured." " JWe i y | r,
rnight expect that the capture cross section would be o f the order o f atomic. C^Vb
:
dimensions, i.e.. o f the_order o f ) Ó ~ " c m . S
The rate o f electron emission—process ( b ) — w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
concentration o f centers which are occupied by electrons, i.e., K,f. Thus,
Before
(a)
After Before
(bl
After Befoie
ic)
After Before
(d)
After
r. - e„NJ. (5.29) ( X
C§ Electron
capture
Electron
emission
Hole
capture
(~.
^
Hole
emission
* V
Fig. 5.11 Recombination and generation through intermediate centers. Arrows desig- The p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant e . called the emission probability., is the
v *
nate direction of electron transition. probability of a j u m p from an occupied center i n t o the conduction band. ,
Thus it depends on the density o f unoccupied states w i t h i n the conduction £
f r o m the valence band by a center. This process can also be described as band and also on the location o f the cemer w i t h i n the forbidden gap. ^
the transition of an electron f r o m the center i n t o the valence band. Intuitively, we w o u l d expect that i f the center is shallow, i.e., i f it is close i
Finally, process (d) is the emission of a hole f r o m a center into the valence to the conduction-band edge, this j u m p - p r o b a b i l i t y and hence e„ would be
band. This can also be described as the transition o f an electron from the large, and vice versa. We will see later that the theory indeed bears out *~
valence band to the center, leaving behind a hole i n the valence band. this guess.
(a) be given by _ ñ
Let us now consider the rates o f these individual processes. The rate o f The rate o f capture o f holes—process (c)—will by analogy to process CT
electron capture—process (a)—should be p r o p o r t i o n a l to the concen- c r = r«/i<vA\/ (5.30) ? ~%
e J

tration o f free electrons i n the conduction band and also to the concen- Since capture o f holes by a center corresponds to the transition o f an • ii
tration of centers which are no: occupied by electrons. This is because only electron from a center to the valence band, this process is p r o p o r t i o n a l to T
one electron can occupy a given center; thus once a center is occupied by the concentration o f centers occupied bv electrons. A , f. 7
.- -

an electron i t cannot capture another one. I f the concentration o f centers Conversely, the rate o f hole emission—process ( d ) — w i l l be given bv A '. . rf

i n the semiconductor is A ' , the concentration o f unoccupied centers is

(

given by N,(l — f) where / designates the p r o b a b i l i t y o f occupation o f a r , = e N,(] F -f) . (5.31) 7 6 : \Z ,

4
center by an electron. I n e q u i l i b r i u m , where e is the emission probability o f holes and depends on factors
T • ,,
analogous to those that enter into determining e„. fa
First we would like to evaluate the emission probabilities. e and e . Jt p ' { C_7
T o do this, we consider the equilibrium case: w i t h o u t any external . ? '_
where E, is the energy level of the center and E F is the Fermi level. generation mechanism acting, i.e.. when G = 0. I n this case, the rates o f
L

Thus the rate o f process (a) w i l l be given by the t w o processes through which transition into and out o f the conduction C-
r . cc ,;A' (1 - / ) .
( (5.27) band takes place must be equal. Thus r, = r ,. Substituting the proper t ' 1
CT
equations for these rate's and recalling from Chapter 4 that the electron ^cj
We designate the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant by the p r o d u c t v ,.a„. t i.e., >
concentration in equilibrium is given by '
r = L
a ! f t a^A (l - / ) .
( (5.28)
V^-'Ec-AXA-r _ „ lEr-E¡)/l:T_ e , j C ~|
:
Here v is the thermal velocity o f the carriers, i & v'3A.-77w ^ 10 cm/sec
ih a
we obtain /- ~"; £ - *
at r o o m temperature. The quantity c can be interpreted as follows. I n
ri
en = v„.o N e-*>-E,mT
n c = w l / B l - E l m T (5.32) < l 4 ) C *
1

order to be captured, the electron must come to the physical vicinity o f

t Strictly speaking, we should base the value of the thermal velocity on the ejieciive " ^
j The subscript ; has been traditionally employed to denote quantities pertaining to mass of the carrier whose capture we are considering rather than on the mass of a free i ~ T~ r
'
recombination-generation centers, it originates from the term nap which we shall not
electron, m. However, for simplicity, we include the correction factor, 'wi/»itri. with v J f6*»x '/'ff*"—
use in order to avoid confusion.
the respective capture cross sections. ' 'I
|32 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Kinetics of the Recombination Process 133

Noce chat, in agreement w i t h our intuitive.argument, the emission proba- steady-state non-equilibrium conditions we can eliminate G L between the
bility o f electrons e„ indeed increases exponentially as the center energy above expressions and write
level E, approaches the conduction band edge E . r

Similarly, i n e q u i l i b r i u m the two processes by which holes enter and f« - = - r.d (5.36)
leave the valence band, processes (c) and (d), must have identical rates.
By substituting the proper rates into Equation 5.36 we can solve for the
Thus r = r j . Again substituting the appropriate equations and noting
c
occupancy f a c t o r / o f the centers under a given non-equilibrium condition
from Chapter 4 that the concentration o f holes in equilibrium is given by
in terms o f the electron and hole concentrations. Note that n e i t h e r ^ e "
p - Njie-<Er-E,mT - n^E,-E kT
Flf t - expression f o r / , Equation 5.26, nor those for n a n d p are meaningful under
we o b t a i n non-equilibrium conditions since the concept o f the Fermi level is only
{E E )lkT E E m T valid in e q u i l i b r i u m . The electron and hole concentrations instead w i l l V
«, = v a N e- '- '
th p v = v.^^ '- ' . (5.33)
dependent on the injection level, i.e., on G , thereby m a k i n g / a l s o depend L

A g a i n we note that the emission probability e increases exponentially as P on the injection level. Thus.f
the center level E approaches the edge o f the valence band E .
t v
t g E
, o»n 4- , , V , - ' - - ' ' * r '
g e

iE E ,lkT ,E (
o [nn + N e- '- ' ]
c + o„[p + i V „ e - ' - ^ > ' « ' ] °' '
or. in an alternate form,

T f = G
" n
~ a
* '
h e

< r , r T 1
a [n
n + n , e * * " ] + a,[p + n^*'~*^ ]' '
We can substitute these values o f / into the rates of the individual

Fig. S.I2 T r a n s i t i o n s t a k i n g place u n d e r n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s .

processes and obtain the steady-state net rate o f recombination through
the action o f intermediate centers U.
Let us now consider the situation pertaining to non-equilibrium con- U = r„
ditions, such as, for instance, the case o f a uniformly illuminated semi-
a o v N,[pn
B n th — n?]
conductor w i t h a u n i f o r m generation rate per unit volume G - The (5.39)
-(E-/>;,i/*Ti
L
-tK,-E,)!lcT\
transitions taking place under such conditions are illustrated i n Figure c °ÀP + NJ
5.12. N o t e that in a d d i t i o n to the processes (a),'(b), (c), and (d) o f Figure or, alternatively.
5.11, electrons now also leave the valence band and enter into the con- ",a v, N.[pn
n h — nr]
U = (5.40)
duction band through the action o f the illumination process. I n steady
state, t h e r a t e by w h i c h electrons enter the conduction band w i l l equal the
To see the principal features o f this extremely important relationship,
rate by which electrons leave the conduction band. Thus
let us consider a special case when the capture cross sections for electrons/
and for holes are equal, i.e., a„ = o„ = a. I n this case Equation 5.40
— - GL - (r - f r j - 0. (5.34) reduces to
dt
Similarly, in steady state the rate by w h i c h holes leave the valence band U = ou, N • h t (5.41)
equals the rate by which holes enter the valence band and. therefore. —) p -r 2n, cosh ( —
V IcT I
G -(rL c - r , ) = 0. (5.35) We can identify the " d r i v i n g force" for recombination as pn — n -, which t

dt is in fact the deviation f r o m the equilibrium condition. The "'resistance''

Equations 5.34 and 5.35, o £ c p u r s e . reduce to the equilibrium case when * We assume here [hat the illumination does not change the rates of the emission and
we set G == 07 ~(Note that steady state does not imply
L equilibrium!)~r~6f~ capture processes other than through the changed carrier concentrations.
 134 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions
for this recorrrbination process increases w i t h 7? and with p. thus that part
o f the resistance will be smallest when the sum (n + p) is at its m i n i m u m
value.
The third term in the denominator increases as £ , moves away from the
middle o f the energy gap £ , and approaches either the conduction-band
or the valence-band edge. I n such a case one o f the emission processes
becomes increasingly probable and this reduces the effectiveness o f the
recombination center. This is because after an electron is captured by
the center, a hole must be captured by i t next in order to complete
the recombination process. If, however, the energy level of the center is
very near the conduction-band edge, it will be more likely to re-emit
the captured electron into the conduction band, thereby preventing the
completion o f ths recombination process. ( A similar argument holds
for centers near the valence-band edge.)
Thus a recombination center is most effective i f the two emission proba-
bilities are about the same, i.e.. when its energy level is near the middle o f
the energy gap. In the next chapter we w i l l s e e that such_a center is also
most effective in general ing^arr]tr_s. We can summarize this argument in
simple terms by recalling what we have said earlier: that the centers
provide "stepping stones" between the conduction and valence bands. F o r
a stepping stone to be most effective it should halve the total distance
between the two bands.
Let us n o w consider special forms o f Equations 5.39 and 5.40 applicable
to the specific cases we have studied in the earlier part of this chapter.
-5.3 LIFETIME IN LOW-LEVEL INJECTION
I n the various cases involving recombination o f injected excess carriers
i n an n-type semiconductor, we have assumed that the net recombination
rate per u n i t volume is given by the relationship U = (p , — p ,o)' v r T
can now apply Equation 5.40 to an n-type semiconductor in low-level injec-
tion. Under these conditions. n » p .
ri n Furthermore. n » n^ '~ *
forcenters that are efficient recombination centers, i.e., that are^oT'boo
near the conduction-band edge. Thus U can be approximated by
V = = o v h [p
v t!l t n - p„„].
Accordingly the lifetime o f holes i n low-level injection in an n-type semi-
conductor is
V - r - t - .
av h
v ih t
Lifetime in L o w - L e v e l Injection 135
This and other important formulas relating to semiconductors under
non-equilibrium conditions are summarized in Table 5.1 at the end o f
this chapter.
N o t e that the lifetime is independent of the concentration o f electrons.
This is because there is a great abundance of electrons in an n-type semi-
conductor. Thus, as soon as a hole is captured by a center, an electron
w i l l immediately be captured by the same center and the recombination
process thereby completed. I n other words, the raie-limiiing step in the
recombination process is the capture of the minority carrier.
E E
/<£,i = 1 /(£,! = 0
<ai fbl
11-Type semiconductor f>-Type semiconductor
F i g . 5.13 T h e c h a r g e - s t a t e of m i d g a p centers in n- and p - t y p e s e m i c o n d u c t o r s , in
equilibrium.
This can also be seen in another way. I f the recombination rate w i l l
be limited by the rate o f capture o f the injected holes, we w o u l d expect V
to equal the rale o f process (c). However, for the rate o f process (c) to
r
lead to Equation 5 . 4 2 , / m u s t approximately equal 1. This means that in
Q an n-type semiconductor in low-level injection most o f the centers w i l l be
n
E B,il T
occupied by electrons. ( O f course, this is w h a i we would expect in an
w-type semiconductor in e q u i l i b r i u m for centers near the middle of the
forbidden gap. since then E > £ , as illustrated in Figure 5.13a.) Thus,
F
on the average, the centers are occupied by electrons, and are waiting to
capture holes. When one does capture a hole, it immediately captures an
(D.42)
electron again and is occupied by an electron for a longer period o f time
until it again captures a hole, and so on.
A similar argument for a />-type semiconductor leads to the rate of
recombination o f excess m i n o r i t y carriers in low-level injection as
(5.43)
V = ^ ' / I A I K ~ ">J- (5-44)
I /

fk • ... ^ Surface Recombination

137
136 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions
% • - - -
w h e r e
we replaced (iV^xj with J V , , , the total number o f centers (per unit
x Thus the lifetime ot electrons i n a p-i\pe semiconductor is given by surface area) within the boundary r e g i o n '. C^v
/•i . - ' -
Thus it is evident that surface recombination can be considered as a
special case o f bulk recombination for a high density o f centers distributed
r = { 5 4 5
H « ~ V - > w i t h i n a very thin region near a surface.
C o m p a r i s o n o f Equation 5.44 w i t h the rate o f electron capture, process Uniformly absorbed light
* (a), shows that the probability o f occupation o f a near-midgap center by
V an electron i n a />-type semiconductor is approximately zero, just as we
^ w o u l d expect for a-/?-type semiconductor in e q u i l i b r i u m (see Figure 5.13b). •'rnorricï/

5.4 SURFACE RECOMBINATION en sjfîcî.-» "+'Y° >^

So far we have considered only recombination at centers distributed

\
N

u n i f o r m l y w i t h i n the semiconductor. We now consider what happens i f

*i we have an increased concentmUon__of recombination centers i n a thin
layer o f thickness x near the surface o f the semiconductor sample, as -PL
x
\ Y-
illustrated in Figure 5.14. I n such a case we expect that the recombination t ^ * ) ;
y . rate U w i l l be enhanced near the surface vvith the result that the excess In
^ carrier density w i l l be smaller there. I n an attempt to even out the dif-
ferences i n excess carrier concentration i n this surface layer and in the
V rest o f the semiconductor, carriers w i l l diffuse from the body o f the semi-
' . conductor. la)
The fluxes o f carriers that flow to this region of enhanced recombination
•»<( rate supply all the carriers that recombine in this region. T h e total
> ' number o f carriers recombining i n the surface layer per u n i t area and unit
" , tirhe is given by
" (
m

U ~ W.V,(xilp.m - Pno\
t (5.46) r \s
J
where />„(0) designates the average m i n o r i t y carrier concentration in the
J ' £> ) surface layer, and iV * is the concentration (per cubic centimeter) o f centers
(

^ iv^ * there. SJnce the flux o f ' m i n o r i t y carriers to this region must equal 6',..
lb)
'"5^> we arrive at the c o n d i t i o n
Fig. S.14 Enhanced recombination race near a surface due co a high center density, and
,\ —
the resulting distribution of excess minority carriers. (No surface space-charge region.)
= tTMiNfxMO) - p ].
no (5.47)
x=0 I n the case o f real surfaces, an additional complication may enter into
2 N o t e that the f o r m o f this c o n d i t i o n is identical to Equation 5.16: the description o f the surface recombination process. If, for example,
IV negatively charged ions are present on the surface o f the «-type semi-
conductor sample, as shown in Fig. 5.15. the carrier distribution w i t h i n
^ OX 'i=fl the sample w i l l be disturbed by these ions: .electrons w i l l J 3 e j ^ h j ^ d _ a w a y
f r o m the surface and holes will be attracted^ there. Consequently, space-
By c o m p a r i n g Equations 5.47 and;'5.16 we see that the surface recom-
charge neutrality w i l l ^ S ) longer hold in a region o f thickness x near the 4
b i n a t i o n velocity o f holes s„ is given by
surface. This region V c a l l e d a surface space-charge region.i
1'
x

(5.48) Surface space-charge regions are discussed in detail in Chapters 9 and 10.

0
I gfk <2/A-> :
' 9 „ . "r>*t" I» apro y ¡ooj f/tjeVrvj
138 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Surface Recombination 139

Uniformly absorbed light are located at energy £ , = £ , (such centers w i l l , in fact, be the most
effective), and that the capture cross sections are equal, i.e., a, = a = a, n

U becomes
s /• ,~

P,»,
V, = ov N lft s (5.50)
n, + V, + 2n,-

where s s av N
D th is the surface recombination
s1 velocity of a surface
without a surface space-charge region, as given by E q u a t i o n 5.48.
T h e flux o f m i n o r i t y carriers reaching the surface must equal L\. I f
the recombination rate w i t h i n the surface space-charge region is n o t too
high, this flux can be approximated by the flux o f m i n o r i t y carriers
reaching the edge o f the surface space-charge region. Thus,

°Pn
D = s„ (5.51)
ox , + p + In,
s

The above relationship is really a boundary c o n d i t i o n for the diffusion

A', p r o b l e m w h i c h describes the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i n o r i t y carriers w i t h i n the
b u l k o f the semiconductor sample. A boundary c o n d i t i o n is useful only i f
-N* it is expressed i n terms o f concentrations and concentration gradients at the
boundary, i.e., at the plane x — x i n this case. T h u s we must express the
6

right-hand side o f Equation 5.51 i n terms o f concentrations at the edge o f

the surface space-charge region rather than at the surface.
W e can accomplish this by assuming that the p r o d u c t o f electron and
hole concentrations will be constant throughout the surface space-charge
(bl
region even t h o u g h equilibriurrTdoes not p r e v a i l T h i s constam^jwni^of
Fig. 5.15 Enhanced recombination rate near a surface due to a high center density, and , , n
^?H£i ^i™i3£I£ 2i.i™ L2A Such an assumption is consistently employed
the resulting distribution of excess minority carriers. (Surface space-charge region
in the treatment o f space-charge regions, and w i l l be discussed in the next I
induced by negative ions.)
chapter. I n the present case it leads to """^

I f we now shine light on the sample and generate electron-hole pairs ps"s = PÀx )n (x ) d n â =5= p (x )N
n d D (5.52)
uniformly throughout its interior, the carriers will move to the surface to
recombine there as in the previous case. However, because of the presence, where N D is the donor concentration in the semiconductor sample.
of _the_ surface space-charge regjon,_aidditional care must be taken i n N o t i n g that p N
no = n,-, we obtain
D

establishing the.balanc€_between the flux o f minority carriers, to the

swface and the surface recombination r a t e ^ X
[Pn( d) ~ P»oi (5.53)
x=i n, + p + 2/i,
The total number o f carriers recombining at the surface per unit area s s

or
and unit time will be
dp
a-a-v„.N [p,n,
H — n,*] D, X
s[Pr,( d) ~ Pno] (5.54)
(£,-E,)/):T (E,-E,)/kT (5.49) ox
n.e ] + Cp[P s + where
by analogy to Equation"5.40, where n, and p denote the electron and.hole.
s
(5.55)
concentrations at the surface.- I f for simplicity we assume that the centers ss s„
T Pi T 2n,
 O r i g i n of R e c o m b i n a t i o n - G e n e r a t i o n Centers 141
Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions
140

is the surface recombination velocity. T h u s the surface recombination a. Impurities

velocity w i l l take o n a more complicated f o r m when a surface space-charge
region is present; i t w i l l depend not o n l y o n the density o f surface recom-
bination centers b u t also o n the d o n o r concentration and on the amount
of surface charge which determines n a n d p . A s the charge o n the surface
s s
is. varied, n, and p and consequently the surface recombination velocity
s valence- and conduction-band edges. Thus column I I I and c o l u m n V
itself, w i l l vary.
The surface recombination velocity w i l l go through a m a x i m u m when
(/J, -+- p ) is at a m i n i m u m . T h i s w i l l happen when they are b o t h relatively
s elements, introduce energy levels nearer to the middle of the forbidden
close to the intrinsic carrier concentration n v The m a x i m u m surface
recombination velocity w i l l then be given by
(5.56)
Smax —
5.5 ORIGIN O F RECOMBINATION-
GENERATION CENTERS
We have now seen h o w energy levels introduced into the forbidden gap
can facilitate therrecambmarion o f excess carriers w i t h i n a semiconductor
by acting as ''stepping stones'' between conduction band and valence band.
We have also shown:, that the theory o f the recombination-generation
1
process relatestheicharacteristic constants o f the recombination rate to
the density of recombination-generation centers. Thus we have seen that
the lifetime in low-level injection is given by
When introduced into a silicon sample, column I I I and c o l u m n V
impurities lead to energy levels w i t h i n the forbidden gap. Because these
elements are relatively similar to silicon (a column I V element), the energy
levels associated w i t h them w i l l be shallow, i.e., they w i l l be close to the
impurities become acceptors and donors in silicon.
There are other impurities which, in contrast with column I I I and V
gap. Such impurities, examples o f which are copper i n germanium and
gold in silicon, will therefore act as efficient recombination-generation
centers.
3
The properties o f gold in silicon have been studied extensively. I t is
known that there are actually two energy levels associated with each g o l d
a t o m : an acceptor level (which can be either neutral or negatively charged)
near the middle of the energy gap, and a donor level (which can be either
neutral or positively charged) about 0.2 ev below the middle. The theory
of the recombination mechanism taking place through the action o f such
multi-level centers is more complicated than the theory o f a single-level
center given i n this chapter; however, in low-level injection we may apply
the latter to describe gold in silicon as a reasonable approximation by
considering only the acceptor level in n-type, and the donor level in p-type
silicon.
The lifetime of silicon samples can be varied by the controlled a d d i t i o n
of gold. This is done by depositing gold onto the surface o f the sample and
then heating the sample at a certain temperature. After a period o f time t
such that t » Wf-'\D, where W is the thickness of the sample and D is
s

the gold diffusivity, gold w i l l be uniformly distributed in the sample.in a

for the example o f an /i-type semiconductor, where N is the concentration
t
o f the centers per u n i t volume, and a, is their capture cross section f o r
holes. Similarly, by extending the theory to recombination taking place
concentration corresponding to its solid solubility at that temperature.
(The diffusivity and solid solubility o f gold are shown as a function o f
temperature i n Figures 3.4 and 3.7, respectively.)
The experimentally observed relationship between gold concentration
4

at a surface, we have seen that the surface recombination velocity i n the
absence o f a surface space-charge region is given by
for an /i-type semiconductor, where N, t is the density o f the centers per
unit surface area.
I n this section we n o w briefly consider some examples o f the physical
o r i g i n o f recombination-generation centers, both in the bulk and at the
and lifetime i n silicon is shown in Figure 5.16. I t is evident that the data
follow the inverse relationship indicated by Equation 5.57. The "constant
1S
of proportionality corresponds to a capture cross section o f ~ 5 X 10~
2
cm . Several other investigators have reported values within an order o f
3
magnitude o f this one. Also shown in this figure are the respective
temperatures at which the silicon sample was saturated with gold.
As the gold concentration in the silicon sample is increased sufficiently
to become comparable to the concentration o f the donor or acceptor
impurity, another effect has to be taken into account. Each o f the deep

surface.
142 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions O r i g i n of Recombination-Generation C e n t e r s 143

l y i n g energy levels associated w i t h the gold atoms w i l l , in effect, remove

b. Radiation D a m a g e
one "majority earner from the conduction-band in the case o f an n-type
semiconductor, or from the valence band i n the case o f a /"-type semi- A n o t h e r manner in which energy levels can be introduced into the
conductor. This effect is sometimes referred to as carrier removal. Thus. forbidden gap is by exposure to high-energy radiation—electrons, protons,
gamma rays, or neutrons. The high-energy particles can displace atoms
Gold saturation temperature ("Cl from their n o r m a l positions in the semiconductor lattice, resulting first
o o c o o in the f o r m a t i o n o f a vacancy and an interstitial a t o m . These, in t u r n ,
o o o o © in o io c
o m o m o o ,- .- r\j
5
co co cx> o-.
10" I I I I M I I H 1 0
" pn
£
rrr\ i mr|—i—TTT|—i .i rq—i—rrr

10" 1er —
u —
1 •
r
with ir.
o t r lt A',
(7. = 5 x 10" 15
enr y 10'«-
% -

10"' -

10-eI I I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I I
2 13 15 6 17
10'- 10 10*' 10 10' 10
:
Eleclron bombardmem A,. ( c m ~ l
Fig. 5.17 Effect of high energy electron irradiation on the lifetime of holes in n-type
6
silicon.

17
10 15
10" TO w i l l rapidly f o r m more complex lattice defects which behave much like
- 3
N, ( c m ' impurities introduced into the semiconductor; they w i l l have energy levels
•Fig. 5.16 Relationship between lifetime of holes and gold concentration in n-type within the forbidden gap and can act as acceptors, donors, and recom-
silicon.* bination centers.
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f recombination centers by high-energy electron
6
for example, in an n-type semiconductor the electron concentration w i l l i r r a d i a t i o n is illustrated by the experimental data shown i n Figure 5.17.
become naiN D — N,. As a result, the resitivity of the sample w i l l Here the lifetime o f holes i n an n-type silicon sample is shown as a function
increase with the addition o f gold. A similar phenomenon takes place i n of the total number o f bombarding electrons h i t t i n g a unit area o f the sur-
the case o f a p-xype semiconductor/!" face o f the sample, N . I t is evident that as b o m b a r d m e n t proceeds, the
t

lifetime begins to decrease. I f we assume that the incident electrons create

t This simple description loses its validity once the concentration of deep-lying levels recombination centers uniformly w i t h i n the semiconductor, the total
approaches the donor or acceptor concentration. Exact calculations of the resistivity concentration o f recombination centers A', w i l l be given by
s
of silicon as a function of gold concentration were oerformed by Boltaks el a l . Their
results are reproduced also in Bullis's paper. 3
N, = N t0 + KN t (5.59)
144 Semiconductors under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Origin
of Recombination-Generation Centers
I4S
where N is the concentration o f recombination-generation centers before
t0

irradiation, and K is the probability that an incident electron w i l l create a

new recombination center. M a k i n g use o f Equation 5.57, we then obtain

1 2 2
r„ = (5.60)
1 + KNJN t0

which predicts that the lifetime should decrease from its initial value r in p 0

an inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l manner w i t h increasing radiation dose. This

relationship is borne o u t by the experimental observations shown in
Figure 5.17.
The radiation-induced centers w i l l bring about a decrease in the majority
carrier concentration (carrier removal) much the same way as gold does
in silicon. Thus the resistivity o f semiconductors will increase w i t h
increasing r a d i a t i o n dose.
A t the present time irradiation cannot be readily employed to c o n t r o l
the lifetime o f semiconductor devices as is possible w i t h impurities like
gold. This is because the radiation-induced centers have a tendency to
anneal out after a p e r i o d o f time, even at a relatively l o w temperature.
However, the influence o f radiation on the lifetime and resistivity o f
semiconductors is i m p o r t a n t because many types o f semiconductor devices The cause o f such a reduction is u n k n o w n at present; it is evidently
are intended for operation in nuclear reactor or space environments. brought about by the presence o f even a very thin oxide layer such as forms
on both germanium and silicon surfaces upon exposure to r o o m air.
c. Surface S t a t e s Surface recombination velocity s values observed on germanium and
n

2
silicon surfaces are o f the order o f 10 cm/sec; on thermally oxidized
We have seen that a foreign element or even a lattice defect w i t h i n the silicon, 1 to 10 cm/sec.f U p o n irradiation, the magnitude of s as well as
0

semiconductor crystal can introduce energy levels into the forbidden gap. the density o f surface states has been found to increase. Figure 5.18 shows
I t might be expected that the drastic irregularity associated w i t h a surface a comparison between measured values o f 5, and independently estimated
of the crystal, where the semiconductor lattice is altogether terminated, values o f the surface state density N„ o f thermally oxidized silicon samples. 3

should also result in the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a large density o f levels into the
forbidden gap. Such levels, the existence o f which has been predicted
7
theoretically by T a m m and by Shockley, are called surface states. I f
some o f these surface states should have energy levels near the middle o f
the forbidden gap, we w o u l d expect them to act as efficient surface
recombination centers.
Theoretical estimates o f the density o f surface states yield values o f the
l 5
same order as the density o f surface atoms, ~ l O c m . Such densities
have indeed been observed on very clean semiconductor surfaces obtained
by cleaving samples under high vacuum. However, germanium and
silicon samples after exposure to air for only a few minutes show surface
1 1 2
state densities o f the order o f only ~ l 0 c m ~ , and thermally oxidized
silicon surfaces can show densities yet another order o f magnitude smaller.f
T h e straight-line relationship observed is in agreement with Equation 5.58,
w i t h the slope corresponding to a capture cross section o f the same order
as that o f bulk recombination-generation centers. . .
READING REFERENCES
_ i
A rigorous and thorough treatment of the transport of excess carriers is given by
A . K . Jonscher, Principles of Semiconductor Device Operation, Wiley, 1960, Chapters
2 and 3.
f Actual measured values of the surface recombination velocity s will not necessarily be
the same as s„, but will be related to it by Equation 5.55. Thus, depending on the par-
ticular semiconductor and the temperature (through n<), on the impurity concentration
in the semiconductor, ; V , and on the surface charge density (through n, + p,), s may
0

*• Surface states are. discussed in further detail in Chapters 9 to 12. be smaller, larger, or the same as s,.
146 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m Conditions
Band-to-band recombination and recombination through multiple-level centers are
discussed in further detail in Chapter 6, J . L . Moll. Physics of Semiconductors, McGraw-
Hill Book C o . . 1964.
A review of and extensive bibliography on "Recombination in Semiconductors" is
given by G . Bemski. Proc. IRE. 46,"990 (] 958).
Surface recombination is discussed in further detail by A . Many, Y . Goldstein, and
N . B . Grover, Semiconductor Surfaces, Wiley, 1965, Chapters 5, 7. and 9.
REFERENCES CITED
5. R i N. Hall. "Electron-Hole Recombination in Germanium," Phys. Rev., 8", 387
-{1952); W. Shocklev and W. T . Read, "Statistics of the Recombination of Holes
and Electrons," Phys. Rev., 87, 835 (1952).
2. D . T . Stevenson and R . J . Keyes, "Measurements of the Recombination Velocity
at Germanium Surfaces," Physica, 20, 104] (1954).
3. A review of the "Properties of Gold in Silicon" is given by W. M . Bullis, Solid-State
Electron., 9, 143 (1966).
4. A . E . Bakanowski and J . H . Forster. "Electrical Properties of Gold-Doped Diffused
Silicon Computer Diodes." Bell System Tech. J., 39, «7 (1960).
5. B . I. Boltaks, G . S. Kulikov. and R. Sh. Malkovich, "The Effect of Gold on the
Electrical Properties of Silicon," Soviet Physics—Solid State, 2, 167 (1960).
6. G . K . Wertheim, "Energy Levels in Electron Bombarded Silicon," Phys. Rev.. 105,
1730 (1957).
7. See. for instance, A. Many, Y . Goldstein, and N . B . Grover, Semiconductor Surfaces,
Wiley. 1965, Chapters 1 and 5.
8. D . J . Fitzgerald and A . S. Grove, "Radiation-Induced Increase in Surface Recom-
bination Velocity of Thermally Oxidized Silicon -Structures." Proc. IEEE, 54, 1601
(1966).
PROBLEMS
5.1 Calculate the resistivity of an n-type silicon sample under illumination. The sample
has a lifetime of 1 ftsec and its resistivity in dark is 10 fi cm. The light is absorbed
uniformly in the semiconductor, leading to the creation of 10" electron-hole
3
pairs/(cm sec). What part of the conductivity is due to:
(a) Majority carriers?
(b) Minority carriers?
5.2 Verify that Equation 5.17 satisfies the appropriate differential equation and
boundary conditions.
5.3 A sample of 1 O.cm n-lype silicon is illuminated. The uniformly absorbed light
17 3
creates 10 electron-hole pairs /(cm sec). The lifetime is 10 /isec; the surface
recombination velocity 100 cm/sec. Calculate:
Problems 147
(a) The number of holes recombining at the surface, per unit surface area, in unit
time, and
fb) The number of holes recombining in the bulk within 3-difTusion lengths of the
surface, per unit surface area, in unit time.
5.4 (a) Estimate the electric field near the surface for the above problem.
(b) Estimate the percentage contribution of the drift-term to the flux of holes to
the surface.
3
5.5 A wafer of silicon doped with 2 x 10" donor atoms/cm has been saturated with
1C
gold at 920"C. It then was oxidized and treated in such a way that it now has ] 0
1
surface recombination centers/cm .
(a) Calculate the bulk lifetime the diffusion length, and the surface recombination
velocity in the absence of a surface space-charge region, and also the maximum
surface recombination velocity.
17
(b) If the sample is illuminated with uniformly absorbed light which creates ) 0
3
carrier pairs/(cm sec), what will the hole concentration at the surface and the
hole flux to the surface be in the absence of a surface space-charge region?
5.6 What is the electron concentration and the resistivity of the sample in Problem 5.5
before and after gold diffusion?
5.7 Derive the expression for the recombination-generation rate, and indicate if net
recombination or generation of carriers lakes place, under the following conditions:
(a) In a region of a semiconducior sample which is completely depleied of carriers
(i.e., both n and p « n,).
(b) In a region of a semiconductor sample which is depleted of minority carriers
only (for example.p„ « p , . but n , = n „ ) .
n ( r
(c) In a region of a semiconducior in which n = p = «„, where n„ »
(These formulas will be used in Chapter 6 in the derivation of the curreni-voliage
characteristics of p-n junctions.)
5.8 In a region of semiconductor which is completely depleted of carriers (i.e., n and
p « n,) electron-hole pairs are generated by alternate emission of electrons and of
holes by the centers. Derive the average lime that lakes place between such
emission processes. (This time is called the emission time constant of the centers.)
Estimate its value for centers with £ . = £ , . in silicon.
5.9 Considering a p-iype semiconducior, derive the energy level of those centers from
which a trapped electron is as likely to be re-emitted into the conduction band as it
is to recombine with holes. Will centers with energy above or below this level be
efficient recombination centers?
5.10 Consider recombination-generation centers uniformly distributed in energy
_ !
throughout the forbidden gap. with density D, ( c m ev" ). 1
(a) By superposition of the effect of such centers, and assuming o„ = c„ = c,
derive the formula for the net recombination-generation rate U.
(b) Derive the expression for the generation rate in a region which is completely
depleted of carriers (i.e., n and p « n,).
(c) Derive the expression for the lifetime in low-level injection.
Compare each of the above formulas with ihe corresponding ones for single
level centers located at £ , = £ , , and discuss the similarities and differences.
 Semiconductors under N o n - E q u i l i b r i u m Conditions • ELECTROSTATICS
148
• SPACE-CHARGE REGION FOR:
STEP JUNCTIONS
LINEARLY GRADED JU N C T I O N S
DIFFUSED JUNCTIONS
• CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS
• CURRENT-VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS
• J U N C T I O N BREAKDOWN
• TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR

IMPORTANT
UNDER
FORMULAS
TABLE

NON-EQUILIBRIUM
S.l

FOR S E M I C O N D U C T O R S
CONDITIONS _
6
Midgap recombination-generation centers, i.e., E t - £,
p-n Junctions
E q u a l capture cross-sections, i.e., o, - a n a

• • « - T y p e semiconductor 1
/)-Tvpe semiconductor

1 ,
Net bulk recombination 1 . (J = - (n v — n)
v0
U =-(p n - P-no) T
rate per unit volume
I n the preceding t w o chapters we have discussed the behavior o f h o m o -
Net surface recombina- U = s[n,(0) - 'hoi geneous semiconductor samples b o t h under e q u i l i b r i u m and non-equilib-
U t = [p (0)
s n - p„o\ s

tion rate per unit area r i u m conditions. M o s t semiconductor devices, however, incorporate b o t h
1
p- and /j-type regions, and i t is the junction between these regions that leads
1
to their useful electrical characteristics.
Lifetime av Nt
tll

A planar silicon n~p junction diodej is illustrated schematically in

Figure 6.1a. Such a diode may be fabricated by first growing a relatively
Surface recombination S S
~ ° n, + p, + 2*i
lowly doped />-type epitaxial film upon a highly doped substrate o f the
S S
" ° n + p + 2«<
velocity
s s
same type; and then thermally oxidizing the surface o f the silicon.
J, • av N tk st
Windows are then opened i n the silicon dioxide layer, and donor impurities-
are permitted to diffuse i n t o the silicon where the oxide layer had been
+
removed.{ This results i n the formation o f the n p j u n c t i o n illustrated i n
the figure. (The superscripts + or — indicate regions o f relatively high
or l o w impurity concentrations, respectively.) M a n y such junctions are
formed simultaneously o n a wafer. After they are cut apart by scribing,
contacts are attached to b o t h the b o t t o m side and to the diffused p o r t i o n
o f each diode, and the diodes are inserted into a package.

f The term junction denotes the boundary between the two semiconductor regions,
whereas the term diode refers to the finished semiconductor device incorporating a
single junction. These terms sometimes are used interchangeably,
t Epitaxial growth, thermal oxidation, and solid-state diffusion are discussed in detail
in P a n I.

149
 -p-n Junctions p-n Junctions 151
ISO

as rectifiers, or as switches i n digital computers. However, the importance

of p-n j u n c t i o n s is broader than the use o f diodes alone w o u l d indicate.
T w o o f the most i m p o r t a n t semiconductor devices, j u n c t i o n transistors
and j u n c t i o n field-effect transistors (which f o r m the subject o f the next
Epitaxial film •
( - 10;<)
6 3
C„ - 10' cm"
~ 1 0 " cm"*)

• a B B U mmB B
(C, u b
Substrate • -10
( - 100 tt)
—8
(a) Actual structure
— R 1 mmB flll mmB B
D
• mB B B E I mmmB
m• B B B mB B
—4

%
—2

o
• • B B B f l B mB B
B j H i EU m H M
-Â

B M
2 H H i « a BH B B B BEi t m
(b) Idealized one-dimensional model
Fig. 6.1 +
A typical planar n p junction diode. Representative impurity concentrations H
H
H
m •
EH M B B
m m
H
i
m BU
i l ES H i
and dimensions are indicated. 4

6
•BBBB B B B
For simplicity, we study an idealized one-dimensional model o f this
S
: -
8 • H B B Bfl B B m.
+
ti p j u n c t i o n , which is illustrated in Figure 6.1b. This model can be
considered as a section o f the planar diode along the dotted lines shown i n
Figure 6.1a. This idealized model also neglects the variation o f the
10
• •
80
B B B B E E B B
40 0 M)
•

30
Vjtv)
impurity concentration i n the />region due to the epitaxial construction.
Where this concentration v a r i a t i o n or the characteristic shape o f the
planar j u n c t i o n leads to deviations, we modify our discussion accordingly.
HflB II m
Hhbb
The most i m p o r t a n t characteristic o f p-n junctions is that they rectify,
i.e., they permit the passage o f electric current in only one direction. This Bl B

»
is illustrated in Figure 6.2 where we show the current-voltage characteristic
1 M B H B
Ii Im
of a typical silicon p-n j u n c t i o n diode whose structural parameters are
approximately as indicated i n Figure 6.1. I t is evident that when a B B
-negative voltage is applied to the n-region, a current begins to flow at a
"very small applied voltage. I n contrast, when a positive voltage is applied BPW 1
mm B
flT^*l^EB - 0 . 4 ESC
to the n-region. no current flow is perceived at the scale of this illustration. Vj (v)
Eventually, when a large enough positive voltage is applied to the n-region,
current does begin to flow again. This c o n d i t i o n is referred to as junction Fig. 6.2 The current-voltage characteristics of a silicon n*p diode. The structural
breakdown. The bias c o n d i t i o n corresponding to easy conduction is parameters of this diode are approximately as indicated in Fig. 6.1.

called forward bias, and the bias c o n d i t i o n corresponding to no conduction

is called reverse bias. The current-voltage characteristic under forward
bias is also shown w i t h an expanded voltage scale in the lower half o f
^Figure 6.2.
Diodes themselves are very i m p o r t a n t and useful because o f their
special current-voltage characteristics; for instance, they can be employed
two chapters), consist o f t w o p-n junctions in the vicinity o f each other.
Their characteristics w i l l be seen to be a direct consequence o f the charac-
teristics o f single p-n j u n c t i o n s . I n addition, in Part I I I we w i l l see that the
analysis o f surface phenomena and o f surface-controlled devices can be
greatly simplified by relating i t to the analysis o f p-n j u n c t i o n s .
152 p-n junctions Y -
Accordingly, in this chapter we consider p-n junctions i n detail. W e Comparison o f E q u a t i o n 6.3 w i t h 6.1 yields
begin w i t h a brief review o f the relevant principles o f electrostatics, and
, E,
then apply these principles to the study o f the space-charge regions o f <P= - - (6.5)
diffused j u n c t i o n s - a n d their two l i m i t i n g forms: step junctions and 1
linearly graded junctions. W e then consider the capacitance-voltage and which provides the relationship between the electrostatic potential and the
the current-voltage characteristics o f p-n junctions, and j u n c t i o n break- potential energy o f an electron.
d o w n . Finally, we give a brief discussion o f transient phenomena.

b. Poisson's E q u a t i o n

Poisson's equation states that

6.1 ELECTROSTATICS. 2
d d>
(6.6)
a. Connection between Band Structure dx 2
Kt
and E l e c t r o s t a t i c Q u a n t i t i e s or

T h e electric field S is defined as the force acting on a u n i t positive charge. d%

_ 31. (6.7)
A c c o r d i n g l y , the force acting on an electron, w h i c h has a charge —q, is dx'
-qS. or
I n general, we k n o w that a force is equal to the negative o f the gradient dS p_
(6.8)
o f potential energy. Accordingly, the force acting on an electron equals dx

— qg= —(gradient o f potential energy o f electrons).
W e saw in Chapter 4 that the potential energy o f an electron is repre-
sented by the lower edge o f the c o n d u c t i o n band, E . However, since we
c
are interested only i n the gradient o f the potential energy, we can also use
any part o f the energy bands that is displaced from the conduction-band
edge by a fixed amount. Thus we c o u l d equally well choose the gradient
o f the valence-band edge E or o f the intrinsic Fermi level E i n the above
v t
expression rather than the gradient o f E . I n practice i t is frequency c o n -
c
venient to use E,. Accordingly, we have the expression
g = - grad Ei
where p is the charge density per u n i t volume, conveniently expressed i n
3
semiconductor w o r k i n units o f e/cm where e is the magnitude o f the-
19
electronic charge, 1.60 x 10~ coulombs; K is the dielectric constant,
14
and «„ is the permittivity o f free space, 8.86 x 10~ f/cm = SSAejvp. i n
units convenient i n semiconductor w o r k .
I t is evident from E q u a t i o n 6.8 that the electric field is obtained by
integrating the charge d i s t r i b u t i o n as a function o f distance. Simple
examples o f such integrations are illustrated i n Figure 6.3.
I n Figure 6.3a w e s h o w a charge d i s t r i b u t i o n given by a delta function
containing a total charge per unit cross-sectional area o f 0. Integration
o f this charge d i s t r i b u t i o n results i n a step change i n electric field by the
(6.1) amount QlKe , as shown i n the figure. I n Figure 6.3b we show a u n i f o r m
0

charge distribution over the distance L . I n this case the electric field i n - -
or, i n one dimension,
creases linearly w i t h distance, b u t the t o t a l increase i n the electric field is
(6.2) again related only to the total charge contained i n the region, p L . 0

q dx
T h e electrostatic potential <j> is the quantity whose gradientis the nega-
five o f the electric field, i.e., i t is defined by the equation 6.2 SPACE-CHARGE REGION
FOR STEP J U N C T I O N S
g = —grad./. (6.3)
or, i n one dimension, M a n y i m p o r t a n t characteristics o f p-n junctions are associated w i t h a
i " " dd> space-charge region (a region where p ^ 0), formed between the n-type
and /'-type regions. Accordingly, we n o w consider what happens when a n
154 p-n Junctions Space-Charge Region for Step Junctions 155-

P P the j u n c t i o n as indicated by the arrows in Figure 6.4b. This electric field

is o f such direction as to keep the holes j n the /^-region and the electrons
in the ??-region. Thus, after a certain number of electrons and holes have
flowed from one region to the other, an electric field will be built up, prevent-
ing further net flow of the carriers.
This is the manner i n which e q u i l i b r i u m is reached. T o restate, i n
e q u i l i b r i u m the net flux o f both holes and o f electrons w i l l be zero; the

v
(Many electrons) ( M a n y holes)
la)

Before contact
(a) (b)
Metallurgical junction
Fig. 6.3 Illustration of the consequences of Poisson's equation for two simple one-
dimensional cases.

n-type semiconductor and a />-type semiconductor are brought i n t o i n t i -

mate contact. Bringing separate pieces o f semiconductor into intimate
contact is not a practical way o f m a k i n g useful p-n j u n c t i o n devices b u t
we employ this scheme to illustrate the principles involved.
a. Equilibrium Case
First we consider the case w i t h no bias applied to either semiconductor
region. The n-type and./>-type samples before contact are illustrated i n
Figure 6.4a. As we discussed i n Chapter 4, an n-type semiconductor is
(b)
After contact
Fig. 6.4 Schematic illustration of a p-n junction in equilibrium.
(a) n- and p-type semiconductors.
(b) Junction between the two.
diffusion flux of each carrier at the p-n junction will be precisely equal and
opposite to the flux of that carrier due to the electric field.
Let us n o w use this criterion to obtain the c o n d i t i o n for e q u i l i b r i u m i n
quantitative terms. The net flux o f holes F is given by v

characterized primarily by the fact t h a t i t contains a large concentration o f

• electrons. Similarly, a />-type semiconductor sample is characterized by
(6.9)
t h e fact that i t , in t u r n , contains a large concentration o f holes. I f these dx
two samples are brought i n t o i n t i m a t e contact, as illustrated in Figure
Substituting the expression for the hole concentration,
6.4b, a flux o f electrons and o f holes w i l l flow i n such directions as to even
out the large concentration gradients existing between the t w o regions. p = lE
n e >- r
i
E )lkT
(6.10)
I f the electrons and holes were n o t charged, these fluxes w o u l d continue and its derivative,
u n t i l a uniform concentration o f b o t h species was established throughout dp -dE, - dE F

the combined semiconductor sample. Because they are charged, and be- (6.11)
dx kT\-dx dx -
cause the semiconductor samples also c o n t a i n ionized i m p u r i t y ions, the
situation will be entirely different, as illustrated in Figure 6.4b. W h e n a net and i n c o r p o r a t i n g Einstein's relationship p v = qDJkT, the net flux o f
;fiow o f electrons from the n-region to the />-region. and o f holes from the holes is then given by
p-region to the n-region takes place, a space charge due to donor and D. dE*- 1 dE»
acceptor ions is formed. Hence an electric field results in the vicinity o f
 p-n Junctions Space-Charge Region for Step Junctions 157
156-

T h u s the c o n d i t i o n o f zero net hole flux means that the F e r m i level must small i n comparison to the i m p u r i t y concentration over most o f the space-
charge region. This is called the depletion approximation.!
be u n i f o r m as we pass f r o m the « - r é g i o n to the ^-region. Similar con-
The charge d i s t r i b u t i o n in the semiconductor sample as a function o f
siderations applied to the electron flux lead to the f o r m u l a
distance, subject to this simplifying assumption, is illustrated i n Figure
I dE 6.5a for the case o f u n i f o r m i m p u r i t y concentration in both p and n
F
(6.13)
Fn = n
dx regions. Such a j u n c t i o n is called an abrupt or step junction. The density
kT dx
of space charge o n the n and p sides o f the metallurgical j u n c t i o n w i l l be
given by qN D and by —qN , respectively. The widths o f the respective
A

\v - portions o f the space-charge region are designated by x and z „ , w i t h the n

-qN D — t o t a l w i d t h (x + x ) being denoted by W. The field distribution, obtained

n s

by integration o f the charge distribution, is illustrated in Figure 6.5b.

Integration o f the electric field distribution i n t u r n leads to the electron
- -qi*A energy E as a function o f distance as illustrated in Figure 6.5c. The con-
t

(a) d u c t i o n - and valence-band edges, o f course, follow the variation o f the

intrinsic Fermi level.
Let us now consider what determines the total amount o f bending o f the
bands, i.e., the total amount o f variation o f either electron energy or
electrostatic potential, as we cross f r o m the /7-region to the ^-region. I t is
evident from Figure 6.5c that, since the Fermi level is constant, this varia-
(b) t i o n w i l l consist o f the sum o f the absolute values o f the two Fermi poten-
-v. tials <p and <b which are defined by
Fv Fn

- < o
o 5
z w
>

-JE
±
—J—C F
•
?Fv
_
=
Et
Ip-region 9Fn
_
=
EF_ ~
q
Et
(6.14)

T'-T- Thus 6 F pis positive while <f> is negative. (Hence the need to take the
Fn

absolute value o f the latter.)

(c) T o calculate the Fermi potentials, we consider that i n the neutral p-
Fig 6.5 Schematic illustration of the (a) charge, (b) electric field, and (c) potential
region (i.e., outside the space-charge region) p == N , while i n the neutral A

distribution within a step junction in equilibrium (depletion approxunacon). rc-region n = N . Then, f r o m Equation 6.10 we get
D

<p , = — In ^ . (6T5)
according to w h i c h the condition o f zero net electron flux leads to the same r

requirement. T h u s in equilibrium the Fermi level must be constant through- Likewise,

out the semiconductor.*
— l A (6.16)
T o calculate the characteristics o f the space-charge region formed near q n t

the j u n c t i o n , we assume that i t consists entirely o f the charge o f the ionized

The total potential variation <p i n e q u i l i b r i u m then will be the sum o f
T
acceptors and d o n o r s . T h i s assumption is equivalent to saying that m o s t
the absolute values o f the Fermi potentials,
o f the space-charge region w i l l be completely depleted o f carriers or, i n
other words, t h a t the carrier concentrations n and p w i l l be negligibly

t As mentioned in Chapter 4, the Fermi level can be considered as the chemical potential This quantity is often referred to as the built-in voltage i B o f a p-n j u n c t i o n .
of electrons. Since the condition for equilibrium in any system is that the chemical t In this context, the terms space-charge region and depletion region are used inter-
potential should be constant as we pass from one part of the system to the other, the changeably.
constancy of the Fermi level in equilibrium follows.
I5g. p-n Junctions S p a c e - C h a r g e Region for Step Junctions 159

The magnitude o f the Fermi potential o n either side o f a j u n c t i o n is side o f the j u n c t i o n to the other 6 . T

given as a function o f the magnitude o f the net i m p u r i t y concentration

C = Wo — N \ i n Figure 6.6 for silicon at r o o m temperature, based on
B A
S
W= /—'—-^ 6 . (6.21)
Equations 6.15 or 6.16. This enables the calculation o f <p for any given B
T

step j u n c t i o n .
Because the electric field i n the neutral regions o f the semiconductor
must be zero, we can immediately see that the t o t a l charge per unit area
A p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t case o f step junctions w h i c h is often encoun-
tered i n practice is a step j u n c t i o n where the concentration o f the i m p u r i t y
on one side o f the j u n c t i o n is m u c h larger than that o n the other side o f the
j u n c t i o n , f o r example, N » N .D A This results i n the simpler f o r m o f
E q u a t i o n 6.21,

N qNj

, A n alloy j u n c t i o n and a very " s h a l l o w " diffused j u n c t i o n are b o t h very

m u c h like one-sided step, junctions. (We put the w o r d " s h a l l o w " i n q u o t a -
t i o n marks because what is " s h a l l o w " and w h a t is "deep" depends o n a
number o f factors as we shall see later.) The concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r
an example o f a shallow diffused n~p j u n c t i o n is shown i n Figure 6.7a.
The calculations shown i n this figure are for a-complementary error-func-
t i o n type i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h a relatively h i g h surface c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
20 - 5 1 4 - 3
C — 1 0 c m : l o w b u l k concentration, C = 1 0 c m , and a relatively
s B

shallow j u n c t i o n depth o f x = 1 u. i

The charge d i s t r i b u t i o n due to such a concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n as w e l l

1 £ 1
10'^ 10 10 10 as the corresponding one-sided step-junction a p p r o x i m a t i o n are s h o w n i n
- 3
C B (cm ! Figure 6.7.b, b o t h assuming complete depletion o f carriers. T h e corre-
Fig. 6.6 Fermi potential versus net impurity concentration (Silicon, 300°K). <j> > 0 for
sponding electric field and potential distributions are shown i n F i g u r e 6.7c
r

p-type region; $ < 0 for n-type region.

T _ and d.
These distributions were calculated as follows. First, Poissons e q u a t i o n
o n either side o f the p-n j u n c t i o n must be precisely equal and opposite. was integrated to obtain the electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n . This yields
Thus,

N ^ = N ^.
A • (6.18) £{x) . <f(0) - q& (6.23)
-Mo
The m a x i m u m electric field in the p-n j u n c t i o n is then
where the o r i g i n , x = 0, is taken to be at the j u n c t i o n .
<^max — (6.19) A p p l y i n g the boundary c o n d i t i o n &(W) — 0 yields

Inspection o f Figure 6.5b shows that the t o t a l potential variation—the

cf(0) = c f m a x = (6.24)
area under the field triangle—is given by c
0
and
<PT = M L ^ k 6 2
( - °)
<?max( 1 - — I (6.25)
W e can n o w readily obtain the total depletion region w i d t h W of a step WJ
junction as a function of the total electroslatic p o t e n t i a l variation from one which is shown in Fiaure 6.7c.
 Space-Charge Region for Step Junctions ". 161

Integrating once again to obtain the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f electron energy

yields

£ ( 0 ) = q ^max^a: - —j + constant. (6.26>

T a k i n g as an arbitrary choice o f zero electron energy the electron energy

in the neutral ^-region or E^W) — 0 and e m p l o y i n g E q u a t i o n 6.20 yields

or

1 - -^J (6.28)

where
2
nC W

<p = <r
T Fv + \4> \ = Fn ~ - • (6-29)

T h i s distribution is shown i n Figure 6 . 7 d . |

Important relationships pertaining to one-sided step junctions are
summarized i n Table 6.1 at the end o f this chapter.
b. R e v e r s e Bias and F o r w a r d Bias

I f we apply a positive voltage V to the rc-region w i t h respect to the

R

/"-region, the total electrostatic potential v a r i a t i o n across the j u n c t i o n <p T

w i l l increase by that amount. T h u s ,

j> =4>T B + V. R (6.30)

As a result, the w i d t h o f the space-charge region on b o t h the rc-side and o n

the /7-side w i l l increase. This situation is-illustrated i n Figure 6.8 where

Id)
Fig. 6.7 The one-sided step-function approximation, (a) Concentration distribution for
a "shallow" diffusion, (b) Charge distribution, (c) Electric field distribution, (d) Poten-
tial distribution. Calculations are for silicon at 300°K. •
t It is difficult to actually calculate the Fermi potential on the heavily doped side of
such a junction. In practice, we can assume that the Fermi level will just touch the
appropriate band edge so that the Fermi potential on the heavily doped side will be
just half of the energy gap, or 0.55 ev for silicon. A n alternative assumption, which
often leads to results in closer agreement with experiment, is to take (f> = 2<j> where B r
<f>r is the Fermi potential on the lowly doped side. . "-
 Space-Charge Region for Linearly G r a d e d Junctions 163

manner. I n this case V is negative and therefore the t o t a l v a r i a t i o n o f

F

electrostatic potential across the j u n c t i o n 4> is smaller than i n e q u i l i b r i u m ,

T

bringing about a n a r r o w i n g o f the space-charge region. However, as we

shall see i n a later section, i n this c o n d i t i o n large currents—many orders
of magnitude larger than i n the reverse-bias case—flow across the p-n
j u n c t i o n . Corresponding to these large currents, the carrier concentrations

1 1 1 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 j 1 1 11 1 1 l>"L

- -
10

CB = lO^cm-J^--^''^ ^

- 1
10 j_____-—- ^>

lO'* —

- l
10 " ——-^"^ ^
y ^

III.
10"'
lp
10 ^—-—

-
1 i i l l i I M ! i i i 11 1 1 11 1 l I I I
2 3
10"- 10"' 1 10 10 10
»ir(v)

Fig. 6.9 Depletion region width versus applied reverse bias In the one-sided step-
we indicate the increase in b o t h the m a x i m u m electric field and the total junction approximation. (Silicon, 300 K.) 5

potential variation f r o m one side o f the j u n c t i o n to the other as well as

the widening o f the space-charge region. in the space-charge region w i l l become less and less negligible i n c o m p a r i -
Substitution o f E q u a t i o n 6.30 i n t o 6.21 or 6.22 yields the w i d t h o f the son to the i m p u r i t y ion concentration so that the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n
space-charge region as a function o f applied reverse voltage V . R Calcula- loses its validity.
tions are shown i n Figure 6.9 for the one-sided step-junction approxima-
t i o n w i t h substrate i m p u r i t y concentration as parameter. The depletion
region width is relatively constant while the reverse bias V is small in 6.3 SPACE-CHARGE REGION FOR LINEARLY
GRADED J U N C T I O N S
B

comparison to the built-in voltage i . W h e n the applied reverse voltage

B

becomes large in comparison to the b u i l t - i n voltage, the depletion region

Whereas the one-sided step-junction a p p r o x i m a t i o n provides an ade-
w i d t h increases w i t h the square r o o t o f the applied reverse voltage.
quate description for alloy junctions and for " s h a l l o w " diffused j u n c t i o n s ,
The quasi-Fermi levels associated w i t h the reverse-biased p-n j u n c t i o n ,
in the case o f "deep" diffused junctions we must use another simple
E and E , are also indicated i n Figure 6.8. Their significance w i l l be
Fn Fp
a p p r o x i m a t i o n , called the linearly graded junction approximation. I n
discussed i n relation to f o r w a r d currents i n Section 6.6.
Figure 6.10 a complementary error-function d i s t r i b u t i o n is shown w i t h
The forward-bias c o n d i t i o n , i n which a negative voltage V is applied
F
the same surface concentration and the same substrate concentration as
to the n-region relative to the /^-region, can be considered i n a similar the one in Figure 6.7. The only difference is that the diffusion i n this case
 p-n Junctions Space-Charge Region for Linearly G r a d e d Junctions 165
164

is continued long enough to make the j u n c t i o n depth 100 u instead o f the where W Q is the- w i d t h o f the zero-bias (equilibrium) depletion region,
and
1 ,u as i n Figure 6.7.|
While it is evident that the one-sided step-junction a p p r o x i m a t i o n could = =t£
a
n o t be applied to describe such a d i s t r i b u t i o n , i t also appears from F i g . ~ dx
6.10 that the net i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , or the charge d i s t r i b u t i o n , can be
well approximated by a straight line t h r o u g h o u t the depletion region. is the impurity concentration gradient at the junction—the principal charac-
T h i s straight-line charge d i s t r i b u t i o n , when integrated by using Poisson's teristic o f linearly-graded junctions.

4.0 x 10'" 0.9

I 'I III I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I IT"

3.0 —
erfc. C = 1 0 c m
s
20
\ 0.8
X) = 100 u
2.0 —
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
1-Orr-
0.3 Jj I L I I II I I III L
A l 10' 8
10' 9
1Q20 . 1Q21 10" 10"
~0NT 10
1
a (cm."" )
X in)
•1.0
Fig. 6.11 Built-in voltage for linearly graded junctions. (Silicon, 300°K.)
(b)
Fig. 6.10 The linearly graded junction approximation.
(a) Concentration distribution for "deep" diffusion. I n Figure 6.11 the built-in voltage o f linearly graded junctions in silicon
(b) Charge distribution. at r o o m temperature is shown as a function o f a. This figure was obtained
by solving the transcendental equation that results when W is eliminated 0

equation, leads t o a parabolic electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n and a cubic poten- between Equations 6.31 and 6.33. Figure 6.12 shows the depletion
t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n particular, the w i d t h o f the depletion region w i l l be region width as a function o f applied reverse bias V for l-p. and 10-,u R

given by deep diffused junctions, based on the linearly graded j u n c t i o n a p p r o x >

l2K,e <p mation.
0 T
(6.31)
qa I t should not be inferred from these figures that the linearly graded
the m a x i m u m electric field by j u n c t i o n approximation is actually v a l i d throughout the range o f these
6q calculations. For instance, i t can be seen f r o m Figure 6.10 that, as the
1.5 (6.32)
W depletion region w i t h W increases, the straight-line approximation begins
to deviate increasingly from the actual charge distribution. The linearly
a n d the b u i l t - i n voltage by
graded j u n c t i o n approximation becomes rather meaningless for
2kT. aW
•In-
0
(6.33)
9B
q 2n t

t This is an extremely deep diffusion used only to emphasize the difference between the (6.34>
two cases.
p-n Junctions Space-Charge_ Region for Diffused Junctions 167

6.4 SPACE-CHARGE REGION FOR

DIFFUSED JUNCTIONS

W e have considered t w o l i m i t i n g cases o f diffused j u n c t i o n s : shallow

junctions that can be well represented by -the one-sided step-junction
a p p r o x i m a t i o n , and deep junctions which can be well represented by the
linearly graded j u n c t i o n approximation. Practical diffused p-n j u n c t i o n s
m a y be approximated by one or the other o f these, or they m a y be i n
between.
2
10 I 1 IT] 1 I I I | -TTTT- I I I.
Diffused junction''
• One-sided step junction
- Linearly graded junction
10

10 I I II ' I I I II I ' M l I I I I I
:
10" 10" 1 10 10 2
10 3

'Î.IVJ

Fig. 6.13 Depletion region width versus applied reverse bias for a diffused junction:
comparison with the one-sided^tep-junction and linearly-graded junction approximations.
3 2
Erfc distribution, C — 10" cm" , C = 10" cm" , z = 10 u.
s B t

Extensive numerical integration o f Poisson's equation for diffused j u n c -

1
tions has been performed by Lawrence and W a r n e r . W e n o w consider
some o f their results plotted in a form which enables easy comparison w i t h
the t w o simple closed-form approximations considered above. I n Figure
•6.13 we show the depletion region width as a function o f applied reverse
bias for a fairly typical diffused j u n c t i o n (Silicon, r o o m temperature). T h e
1
points represent the results o f Lawrence and W a r n e r , while the lines cor-
respond to the one-sided step-junction and the linearly graded j u n c t i o n
approximations, respectively. This figure demonstrates that a given p-n
j u n c t i o n cannot by itself be classified as either linearly graded or step;
the particular one considered i n this figure follows the linearly graded
j u n c t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n at low bias voltages and the one-sided step-junc-
t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n at high bias voltages.
168 p-n Junctions
Fig. 6.14 Depletion region width versus applied reverse bias for junctions diffused into
substrates of various impurity concentrations: comparison with the one-sided step-
3
junction and linearly graded junction approximations. Erie distribution. C = 10" cm" ,
3 junction and linearly graded junction approximations. Eric distribution, C = 10" cm" ,
T h i s interesting fact is given a simple explanation i f we consider that the
relative steepness o f the i m p u r i t y concentration gradient should depend o n
the size o f the depletion region which, i n t u r n , depends on the bias voltage.
T h u s we have to compare the characteristic length o f the diffusion—
the diffusion length 2-4 Dt—with the characteristic length o f the space-
charge region W to determine whether a particular j u n c t i o n is i n the step
o r i n the linearly graded j u n c t i o n regime. This is further illustrated by the
calculations shown i n Figures 6.14 and 6.15 where Lawrence and Warner's
calculations are compared w i t h the t w o approximations for various sub-
strate i m p u r i t y concentrations, for 1- and 10-/x j u n c t i o n depths, respec-
tively. Wherever possible, the diffusion length 2-JDt corresponding to a
p a r t i c u l a r j u n c t i o n is indicated.
A useful rule-of-thumb criterion can be inferred f r o m these figures:
W h e n the depletion region w i d t h W is larger than the diffusion length
2-JDt o f the j u n c t i o n - f o r m i n g i m p u r i t y diffusion, the one-sided step
j u n c t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n is better. Conversely, when the depletion region
w i d t h is smaller than the diffusion length, the linearly graded j u n c t i o n
a p p r o x i m a t i o n is preferable.
V v
R l )
Fig. 6.1S Depletion region width versus applied reverse bias for junctions diffused into
substrates of various impurity concentrations: comparison with the one-sided step-
3
3
x, = 10 u.
6.5 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS"
Capacitance per u n i t area is definedf as C = dQ\dV, where dQ is the
incremental increase i n charge per u n i t area upon an incremental change
i n the applied voltage dV.
Let us now calculate the capacitance o f a p-n j u n c t i o n with an arbitrary
impurity distribution, such as shown i n Figure 6.16. The charge and e l e c ~
trie field distributions designated by the solid line correspond to a voltage-
V applied to the n-region. I f this voltage is increased by an a m o u n t dV,
the charge d i s t r i b u t i o n and the electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n will b o t h change
to that indicated by the dashed line. The incremental charge dQ corre-
sponds to the area between the two charge-distribution curves on either
side o f the depletion region, while the magnitude o f the change i n the
applied voltage dV is indicated by the cross-hatched area between the t w o
electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n curves.
The increase i n depletion layer w i d t h and the corresponding increase i n
charge on the /j-side o f the depletion region w i l l b r i n g about an increase i n
the electric field by an amount dS = dQjKfy. (See Section 6.1.) T h e .
t T h i s d e f i n i t i o n y i e l d s t h e small-signal c a p a c i t a n c e .
168 p-n Junctions
Capacitance-Voltage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

10-2-1 1 LJjJ 1 M i l I I I I I. I fill I I I I

10 2
1 0 " ' 1 10 1 0 2
1 0 3

Fig. 6.IS Depletion region width versus applied reverse bias for junctions diffused into
substrates of various impurity concentrations: comparison with the one-sided step-
3
junction and linearly graded junction approximations. En'c distribution, C , = 10" cm" ,
x, = 10 ft.

T h i s interesting fact is given a simple explanation i f we consider that the
relative steepness o f the i m p u r i t y concentration gradient should depend o n
the size o f the depletion region which, i n t u r n , depends on the bias voltage.
T h u s we have to compare the characteristic length o f the diffusion—
the diffusion length 2-4 Dt—with the characteristic length o f the space-
charge region W to determine whether a particular j u n c t i o n is i n the step
o r i n ' t h e linearly graded j u n c t i o n regime. This is further illustrated by the
calculations shown i n Figures 6.14 and 6.15 where Lawrence and Warner's
calculations are compared w i t h the t w o approximations for various sub-
strate i m p u r i t y concentrations, for 1- and 10-/* j u n c t i o n depths, respec-
tively. Wherever possible, the diffusion length 2>/Dt corresponding to a
p a r t i c u l a r j u n c t i o n is indicated.
A useful rule-of-thumb criterion can be inferred f r o m these figures:
W h e n the depletion region w i d t h W is larger than the diffusion length
2-J Dt o f the j u n c t i o n - f o r m i n g i m p u r i t y diffusion, the one-sided step
j u n c t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n is better. Conversely, when the depletion region
w i d t h is smaller than the diffusion length, the linearly graded j u n c t i o n
6.5 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS"
Capacitance per u n i t area is defined! as C a dQ/dV, where dQ is the
incremental increase i n charge per u n i t area u p o n an incremental change
in the applied voltage dV.
Let us now calculate the capacitance o f a p-n j u n c t i o n with an arbitrary
impurity distribution, such as shown i n Figure 6.16. The charge a n d e l e c "
trie field distributions designated by the solid line correspond to a voltager
V applied to the n-region. I f this voltage is increased by an a m o u n t dV,
the charge d i s t r i b u t i o n and the electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n will b o t h change
to that indicated by the dashed line. The incremental charge dQ corre-
sponds to the area between the two charge-distribution curves o n either
side o f the depletion region, while the magnitude o f the change i n the
applied voltage dV is indicated by the cross-hatched area between the t w o
electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n curves..
The increase i n depletion layer w i d t h and the corresponding increase i n
charge on the /i-side o f the depletion region w i l l b r i n g about an increase i n
the electric field by an amount dtf = dQjK,€ . (See Section 6.1.) T h e .
Q

a p p r o x i m a t i o n is preferable. t This definition yields the small-signal capacitance.

!70 p-n Junctions Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics m

corresponding change i n the applied voltage dV is approximately (dS) W w i t h i n the depletion region. The rearrangement o f these mobile carriers
w h i c h equals (dQlK e )
s a W. Thus, by the definition o f the capacitance per w i l l contribute an a d d i t i o n a l t e r m to the capacitance.
u n i t area, we find that Because o f the very simple relationship between the reverse-bias j u n c t i o n
C-m . (6.35) capacitance a n d the w i d t h o f the depletion region, measurements o f j u n c -
W
t i o n capacitance can provide useful i n f o r m a t i o n about the nature o f the
This equation holds for any arbitrary impurity distribution. impurity distribution. F o r example for a one-sided step j u n c t i o n , i f we
combine Equations 6.22 and 6.35 we obtain

q K C
* * (6.36)
v 2(v R + <p ) B

w h i c h can be rearranged to yield

•k = - ~ - r (V* + <PBY (6-37)

C qK e C s 0 B

2
I t is evident t h a t by p l o t t i n g 1/C versus V , a straight line should result
R

i f the actual i m p u r i t y distribution can be a p p r o x i m a t e d by the one-sided

step-junction theory. I n such a case, the slope yields the i m p u r i t y concen-
t r a t i o n i n the substrate C while the intercept yields the b u i l t - i n voltage
B

6 dS = 4>B-
3
Similarly, f o r linearly graded j u n c t i o n s , we can p l o t 1/C versus V, R

and obtain a and <p from slope and intercept i f a straight line results.
B

I n general, however, we can evaluate an arbitrary i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n

2
w i t h fairly good accuracy from the capacitance-voltage characteristics.
This general m e t h o d is illustrated i n Figure 6.17. W e consider the simplest
case, that o f a shallow diffused n+p j u n c t i o n w i t h an arbitrarily v a r y i n g
i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n on the lower doped side. A s before, the charge o n
Fig. 6.16 Illustration of the change in charge and electric-field -distribution resulting
from a change In applied reverse bias. the heavily doped side o f the depletion region w i l l change by dQ as the
applied reverse voltage is changed by dV, where dO — q'N(W) dW'.
T h e capacitance per u n i t area o f a parallel-plate capacitor is given by the Correspondingly, the electric field w i l l change by an amount
dielectric constant divided by the separation between the plates. Thus the
p-n j u n c t i o n capacitor can be regarded as a parallel-plate capacitor where dQ _ qN(W) dW
the distance between the t w o plates—the distance between the regions
where the incremental charge appears—is j u s t the depletion resion w i d t h
The corresponding change i n applied voltage is approximately
W.
I n deriving E q u a t i o n 6.35 we tacitly assumed t h a t all the extra charge
dV = (d<?) r . « 5 , (6.38)
t h a t appears i n the semiconductor u p o n the change i n applied voltage
2K,t 0
appears as a change i n the charge contained w i t h i n the depletion region. 2
Substituting for W f r o m E q u a t i o n 6.35 leads to an expression for the
T h i s is certainly a good assumption i n the reverse-bias c o n d i t i o n . I n the
i m p u r i t y concentration at the edge o f the space-charge region:
-forward-bias condition, however, large currents can flow across the deple-
t i o n region. Corresponding t o these large currents, there w i l l be a con-
siderable charge due t o mobile carriers—electrons and holes—present
 p-n Junctions Current-Voltage Characteristics 173
172
a diode with respect to the /^-region as shown in Figure 6.18, the electron-
hole pairs, once generated, w i l l be separated and their probability o f
recombination is diminished. This is the basic mechanism giving rise to
all types o f reverse currents observed in p-n j u n c t i o n diodes. A l l such
currents, accordingly, are due to electron-hole pairs generated someplace
in the semiconductor. Various contributions to the reverse current are

—<-j L P M W »- L. 1

P
ft
Generation within \
' space-charge region : I
j "generation current" J ;

K - (iVV Generation within diffusion length of depletion region :

"diffusion current"
rJ

Û
¿2 -qN(W)
(ai

JL
I

r
¿7 X
(b)
Fig. 6.17 Illustration of the concentration, charge, and electric field distribution leading
to the measurement of the impurity distribution. Fig. 6.18 Illustration of the mechanisms giving rise to reverse current.
(a) n p Diode under 3-v reverse bias.
T

(b) Corresponding band diagram.

Thus measurements o f the capacitance per unit area C as a function o f
reverse voltage, w i t h appropriate differentiation, can provide the i m p u r i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n directly. This method has been-used extensively i n semi-
c o n d u c t o r w o r k . A m o n g other places, i t was employed i n the investigation
o f i m p u r i t y redistribution d u r i n g thermal oxidation a n d i m p u r i t y redis-
t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g epitaxial g r o w t h w h i c h were discussed i n Chapter 3.
6.6 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 3 talk o f the diffusion current.
distinguished by the region o f the semiconductor where an electron-hole
pair was generated. Thus, when an electron-hole pair giving rise to the
current is generated w i t h i n the reverse-biased depletion region o f the
j u n c t i o n , region 2 i n Figure 6.18, we refer to the resulting current compon-
ent as the generation current. W h e n electron-hole pairs are generated i n the
neutral regions 1 and 3 i n Figure 6.18 and the carriers diffuse to the reverse-
biased j u n c t i o n , thereby leading to an additional current component, we
W e n o w consider these two current components separately.

av R e v e r s e Bias Generation within Space-Charge Region: Generation C u r r e n t .

U n d e r e q u i l i b r i u m conditions electron-hole pairs are generated con- I n a reverse-biased depletion region, for reverse bias V » kTjq, the con-
R

t i n u a l l y everywhere w i t h i n the semiconductor. I n the absence o f an centrations o f carriers are reduced well below their e q u i l i b r i u m concen-
applied voltage, the electron-hole pairs recombine ur.d therefore no current trations. This is because the electric field, which is increased above its
flow results. However, when a positive voltage is applied to the n-reg.cn ot e q u i l i b r i u m value by the applied reverse voltage, sweeps the carriers out o f
j 7 i ) p-n Junctions Current-Voltage Characteristics 175

the depletion region—it sweeps holes to the />-region and electrons to Jhe I f the centers are indeed located near the intrinsic F e r m i level. r w i l l be
0

n-region. practically independent o f temperature. We would-then expect the genera-

Because of the reduction in carrier concentrations, o f the four recom- tion-current c o m p o n e n t to have the same temperature dependence as « . f

bination-generation processes that take place t h r o u g h intermediate-level The generation-current component is dependent on the magnitude o f the
centers (see Figure 5.11), only the emission processes are i m p o r t a n t . The applied reverse bias—at higher biases W is larger, more centers are i n -
capture processes are n o t i m p o r t a n t because their rates are p r o p o r t i o n a l cluded w i t h i n the depletion region, and the generation current increases i n
to the concentrations of the free carriers w h i c h , as we said above, are very- p r o p o r t i o n to W.
small i n a reverse-biased depletion region.
Generation outside the Space-Charge Region: Diffusion
The only way the t w o emission processes can operate i n steady state is by
C u r r e n t . I n the neutral regions outside the space-charge region there
alternatine; thus t h è centers w i t h i n the depletion region alternately emit
is no significant electric field present and the m i n o r i t y carriers move only by
electrons and holes. The rate o f generation o f electron-hole pairs i n such
diffusion. I f electron-hole pairs are generated in the n-region i n the v i c i n i t y
a situation can be readily obtained f r o m E q u a t i o n 5.40 by setting p,
o f the space-charge region, those holes that reach the edge o f the space-
n « This leads to
charge region by diffusion w i l l be swept toward the /j-region b y the i n -
U — — W» <"<N
= _ HL (6.40) creased electric field present w i t h i n the space-charge region. Conversely,
those electrons t h a t reach the space-charge region edge f r o m the n e u t r a l
where T is denned as the effective lifetime
0 within a reverse-biased depletion z>-region w i l l be swept by the electric field toward the n-region. These
region and is given by current components are referred to as the diffusion current. T o calculate
the magnitude o f the diffusion current we have to solve the steady-state
T # = . (6.41) diffusion equation f o r m i n o r i t y carriers. For electrons in the jP-region,
2o o„v N
P ih t
this is
. T o visualize the most i m p o r t a n t features o f this expression, let us consider a
n
simpler case in which a, = a„ = o. F o r this case. Equation 6.40 reduces to D ^ + G L - - ^ ^ = 0. (6.45)
dx- „
r

U I n this equation, i n addition to the net thermal generation-recombination

E\ ' (6-42)
2 cosh 1 t e r m U = (n — n )j-„,
P po we have also included a term G due to external
L

kT means o f generating carriers such as, for instance, by i l l u m i n a t i o n . T h i s

N o t e that, in agreement with our argument i n Chapter 5, only those centers equation is the same as the one we used i n Chapter 5 in the case dealing
whose energy level E, is near the intrinsic Fermi level £, contribute signifi- w i t h surface r e c o m b i n a t i o n . As i n that problem, far away from the space-
cantly to the generation rate. The generation rate falls exponentially as charge region the carrier concentration w i l l be given bv
the center leveljmoves away from the m i d d l e o f the gap i n either direction.
»,(«>) = n pc + r„G .L (6.46)
" I n the particular case when £ , = £ , , T„ w i l l be the same as the lifetime T
of the carriers in a neutral material, \lav N,. th A t the depletion-region edge, for large enough reverse bias V » kTiq the B

One electron-hole pair generated provides one electronic charge to the m i n o r i t y carrier concentration w i l l be zero, since any m i n o r i t y carriers
external circuit. Thus the magnitude o f the current due to generation reaching the d e p l e t i o n region w i l l be rapidly swept away by the field as we
w i t h i n the depletion region w i l l be given by have argued above. Thus,

J = q\U\WAj,... (6.43) n,(0) = 0 (6.47)

eeD

or
if, for this discussion, we take our origin, x = 0. at the edge o f the deple-
/ = \q WAj (6.44) t i o n region.
g e n

|o The solution o f this boundary value problem is eiven by

where Aj is the cross-sectional area o f the p-n j u n c t i o n . xlL
"»(*) = ( « » + T.CiXl - e~ ") (6.48)
 177-

where L n = \ Dr
n n is "the diffusion length o f electrons in the ^-region. for the example o f electrons i n the ^-region. This result is the same as
Equation 6.51.
The diffusion current due to electrons is then given by
The generation rate per unit volume i n the neutral region depleted o f
/ ''»1! \ (n,„ + T , G ) . m i n o r i t y carriers only, p „\r or n \r , can be drastically different from
/.tiff,, = ( - q ) i - D . -
r n t m n
2 L >

x
- qD n Aj. (6.49) the generation rate per unit volume w i t h i n the depletion region, TI,, 2r .This
ax ii-o'' L , 0

can lead to very wide differences i n the relative importance o f the diffusion-
A similar argument for the n-region gives the diffusion current due to holes current component and the generation-current component o f the reverse
i n t h e /i-region reaching the depletion region edge, current. The ratio o f the two currents, f o r r = r, = r is given by
n

{ P T G L )
W.„ = qD, «°^ ° Aj. (6.50) "va
d»f,n
2 -" = 2 - ^ ^ . (6.53)
I n the case o f no illumination, these reduce to
gen i f f ,
n
2 r
Ui,t,n = qD -fA
n J = q D n ^ r A J (6.51)

and This ratio is evidently proportional to the intrinsic carrier concentration

n . As the temperature is increased, the diffusion current has an increasing
{

Uui, = qD^Aj = qD,--^— A j, (6.52) tendency to dominate. Between different materials, those w i t h smaller
band gap, hence larger n have a larger diffusion-current-to-generation-
u

respectively, where we have incorporated the e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n . N o t e current ratio than those w i t h a larger band gap.
the absence o f bias dependence in these expressions—as we have men- These two tendencies are illustrated by the experimental data shown in
tioned, they represent the case only for V' » kT'q, f o r w h i c h the diffusion
R Figure 6.19. Here the reverse current-voltage characteristics o f germa-
current saturates. The temperature dependence o f the diffusion current n i u m , silicon, and gallium arsenide diodes are shown at various tempera-
is the same as that o f nf. tures. I t is evident that the germanium and the silicon diodes exhibit both
The diffusion-current components can be interpreted also i n the f o l l o w - the diffusion-current component—which is distinguished by its lack o f -

ing way. Those m i n o r i t y carriers that are generated w i t h i n a diffusion
length o f the edge o f the depletion region w i l l c o n t r i b u t e to the diffusion
current because they have a chance to reach the edge o f the depletion
region. Thus we w o u l d expect the diffusion current to be given by
i = q [net generation rate per u n i t volume i n the neutral region]
i U t
x [diffusion length] A j .
T o estimate the net generation rate i n the neutral region w i t h o u t i l l u m i -
nation, we use E q u a t i o n 5.42 subject to the c o n d i t i o n that p « p or
n « n . ( N o t e that this is quite different f r o m the c o n d i t i o n we applied
v B0
i n the reverse-biased depletion region where b o t h carriers were depleted
below n¡. Here we need to say only that the m i n o r i t y carrier concentration
near the edge o f the depletion region is l o w e r than i t w o u l d be i n equilib-
rium.) This results i n
voltage dependence-r-and the generation-current component—which is
distinguished, in contrast, by- its voltage dependence—in some tempera- .
ture range. The only difference is the temperature at which transition
from one type o f characteristic to the other takes place. The gallium
arsenide diode does not reach this transition, but i t does show a tendency
toward it.
I n Figure 6.20, the reverse current at 1 v o l t reverse bias is plotted as a
function o f the reciprocal o f the absolute temperature for all three diodes.
n n0 Different types o f points are employed here to designate primarily genera-
tion-current type characteristics and p r i m a r i l y diffusion-current type
characteristics. A break is evident i n each set o f data, occurring at a higher
temperature for the higher band-gap materials, in agreement w i t h our
argument. The temperature dependences o f the generation and diffusion
current components evidently agree reasonably well w i t h the temperature
dependence o f n and o f T ^ , respectively, as expected from Equations 6.44
t
2

Zdiff.ii = q L Aj
n and 6.51, or 6.52.
I7B p-n Junctions 100 ua 1 I 1 1

10 ua • —

1 ua /
/ ^ 2 5 0 " C ^

100 na — / —

;
10 na - / / S 150"C^/ —

1 na — /
s \ 1 oo ' c /
—

100 pa
' 50'C/V

/To 'C
1 pa 1
3 2 1 2
10" I O " 10" 1 10 10
l'»(vl
Fig. 6.19c Gallium arsenide diode.

100 ua
Fig. 6.19a Reverse current-voltage characteristics at various temperatures. Germanium 1
li 1 1 1 1
diode. 11 \
10 ua IM \ —
I \ \

100 fja 1
1 \ _
1 nia
\
10 ua
100 na —
V \
T i \A
/275'Z G a A s \ ISi \Ge -
A 1
1 ua ft t • \

-
-? 10 na \ •
/l75'C 4
100 na

1 na
W. \
\

\ \
:
'10 na —

\\ \
'C
1 0 0 pa —
1 na

100 pa - /75*C
' —
10 pa

1 pa ! 1 IT ! 1 \
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1000..TI K )
1 pa -r 1 1 1
IO" 3
IO' 2
IO - 1
1 10 10 2 Fig. 6.20 Reverse current at = 1 v as a (unction of temperature. Dots designate
primarily generation-current type,'circles designate primarily diffusion-current type
r„(vi current-voltage characteristics. Dashed lines represent temperature dependence of
4
Fig. 6.19b Silicon diode. n, ; solid lines that of n,.
 p-n Junctions
180 Current-Voltage Characteristics
181
Let us now consider the reverse current flowing in a diode under i l l u -
m i n a t i o n . I f the i l l u m i n a t i o n is strong, i.e., G » n -r , p Jr ,
L » / T „ we
mi n n t F

can replace the t h e r m a l generation rate by (7/_, i n b o t h the generation-

- 0.35
current and the diffusion-current components. This leads to

G 1 Recombination within
W o = 1 L(L, + L+ n W)Aj. (6.54)
\ space-charge region:
\ "recombination currant"
Because the sum o f the two diffusion lengths is usually larger than the Recombination within a diffusion length"of depletion
depletion region w i d t h , the photocurrent w i l l show little bias dependence. region : "diffusion c u r r e n t " -
(a)

100 un I I I « ^ -0.35 v

—
10
J ^ 5
L- (b)
1 /m

10Q.na
L,
_* 10nu
L,
1~im _>
L,
100:03-;

10-pa-
—Darx
1 pa I
3 _ 1 2
10" 10"' 1 0 1 10 10
K„|v)

Fig. 6.21 Reverse currenc of a silicon diode in the dark, and under illumination by white
light of various intensities.

* (/H 10 15
T h i s is illustrated i n Figure 6.21 where the reverse current o f the silicon (cl

diode is shown i n the d a r k and u n d e r i l l u m i n a t i o n by white light o f various Fig. 6.22 III ustration of the mechanisms giving rise to forward current
intensities. T
(a) n p diode under 0.3S-V forward bias-
(b) Corresponding band diagram.
(c) Corresponding distribution of electrons and holes.
b. Forward Bias Dashed lines indicate equilibrium'electron and hole distributions.

I f a negative voltage is applied to the n-region relative to the ^-region,

and the drift currents o f each carrier across the p-n j u n c t i o n . Since under
as s h o w n i n Figure 6.22, the t o t a l v a r i a t i o n o f the electrostatic p o t e n t i a l
forward-bias conditions the t o t a i electrostatic potential variation, and
across the j u n c t i o n , d> , is reduced. I n equilibrium, the c o n d i t i o n o f zero
T
w i t h i t the electric field across the space-charge region, is reduced, the drift
current flow was. established by a precise balance between the diffusion
current component o f each carrier is also reduced and the balance between
 Current-Voltage Characteristics 183
182 p-n Junctions
The current Components 1 and 3 are called the diffusion current as i n the
drift and diffusion contributions to the c u r r e n f i s disturbed, resulting in a
reverse-bias case; the current component 2 is called the recombination
net current flow.
current.
I t is i m p o r t a n t to realize that although the potential variation across the
j u n c t i o n is reduced, it w i l l not vanish. As a consequence, the electric field Recombination outside the Space-Charge Region: Diffusion
i n the space-charge region w i l l still be directed t o w a r d the />-region. Thus Current. L e t us first consider the flux of electrons F„ injected i n t o the
the current flow w i l l be against the direction of the electric field. This is neutral /> reeion—i.e., current component 3. Since electrons i n the p-
r

possible because o f the huge electron and hole' concentration gradients region are m i n o r i t y carriers, i n low-level injection they w i l l move away
existing near the j u n c t i o n . f r o m the edge o f the space-charge region b y d i f f u s i o n o n l y (see Chapter 5).
A n alternative way o f considering the forward-bias case is as follows. I n order to calculate their flux we first must o b t a i n their d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
-With a negative potential applied to the 77-region relative to the ^-region, the/>region. ~ - -•• •• P '• — —
excess electrons w i l l be pushed i n t o the n-region and excess holes into the T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the steady state w i l l be obtained by solving the
/^-region. Thus the electron and hole concentrations w i l l b o t h be above diffusion equation under steady-state conditions (Chapter 5),
-their respective e q u i l i b r i u m values and therefore the "pn" product w i l l
exceed H,° throughout portions o f the semiconductor. Under such injection n ^ . ! ^ ^ ' (6.55)
2

conditions the carrier concentrations w i l l attempt to return to their equi- dx z.

l i b r i u m values by recombination. I n the steady state, electrons and holes The first b o u n d a r y condition requires that the concentration o f excess
disappearing through recombination w i l l be replenished by more electrons electrons far away f r o m the edge o f the depletion region should vanish, i.e.,
and holes coming i n t h r o u g h the contacts to the n and the p regions, M,(CO) = n .\ x
(6.56)
po

respectively. This gives rise to a forward current.

The second boundary condition is that the concentration o f injected
A c c o r d i n g to this second picture, the forward current is due to the
electrons at the edge o f the space-charge region, where we choose o u r
recombination of electron-hole pairs i n much the same way as the reverse
origin, x = 0, should equal some constant value n^O).
current, which was considered i n the previous section, is due to the genera-
This p r o b l e m is identical to the case of injection f r o m one b o u n d a r v
t i o n o f electron-hole pairs in various regions o f the semiconductor. Thus
considered i n Chapter 5. Thus the solution is also identical to the s o l u t i o n
it should be possible to derive the magnitude o f the forward current by-
i n the earlier case and is given by
considering the rates o f recombination i n the various regions o f the semi-
conductor. "„(*) = "„„ + M O ) - n }e- «.
V0
xlL
(6.57)
As i n the case o f reverse current, we again distinguish between three The flux o f electrons entering the /«-région is then given bv
-regions, illustrated i n Figure 6.22a: the neutral regions 1 and 3 adjacent
to the space-charge region and the space-charge region 2 itself. The F = - D —* - j / f f f l - . V . (6 .58)
magnitude of the t o t a l f o r w a r d current w i l l be given by the flux of electrons dx
entering the ?j-region t h r o u g h the left-hand contact. T o calculate this flux N e x t , we consider the flux o f electrons consumed by r e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
_ o f electrons, we will add up the three parts o f the flux which are consumed holes i n region 1. F o r every electron recombining i n this region, a hole
by recombination w i t h holes i n the three regions mentioned above. Thus must be injected i n t o the ?i-region f r o m the space-charge region. T h u s we
the flux o f electrons entering t h r o u g h the contact will be given by can evaluate this c o n t r i b u t i o n to the current by calculating the flux o f
holes F entering the n-region. This can be done i n a manner entirely-
t

IF
analogous to the above calculation o f the flux o f electrons entering the
— = (number of electrons recombining w i t h holes i n neutral n-region />region and results i n
e r u n u
® P time)
( 0 )
4- (number o f electrons recombining w i t h holes in space-charge F , « P , f " - r » (6.59)
region (5) per u n i t time)
4- (number o f electrons recombining w i t h holes i n neutral t This condition assumes that the contact to the /"-region is "infinitely" far from the
junction.
^-region (3) per unit time)
 v_urrenc-» oitage \ . i i i r a c u : r » u u
IOJ

where p.,(0) is the hole concentration at the edge o f the space-charge In accordance w i t h this result.- we show the quasi-Fermi level for elec-
region, on the rc-side. I n each case, x designates the distance from the edge trons E „ and that for holes E
F in the place o f the Fermi level in the
Fp

of the space-charge region, as shown i n Figure 6.22. respective neutral regions o f Figures 6.18 and 6.22. I n both figures, the
In order to evaluate these fluxes fully, we need to determine /i.,(0)-and band diagram, and consequently the quasi-Fermi level for the majority
p^{0). F o r this, we must resort to an i m p o r t a n t simplifying assumption: carriers is shown horizontal w i t h i n the neutral regions because both bias
situations correspond to relatively small current densities.
we assume that quasi-equilibrium holds, i.e., that the "pn" product is a
constant throughout the forward-biased space-charge region. This con- Because the electrostatic potential v a r i a t i o n across the j u n c t i o n is
s altered i n the amount o f the applied voltage Vj, i t follows that the quasi-
stant, however, w i l l be larger than n , the value o f the "pn"' product i n
t

Fermi level for electrons in the neutral n-region w i l l also be displaced from
equilibrium.
the quasi-Fermi level for holes in the neutral /j-region by the applied
A n alternative way o f stating the assumption o f quasi-equilibrium is in
voltage, or
terms o f quasi-Fermi levels. The quasi-Fermi level for either carrier is
defined as that quantity which, when substituted into the place of the Fermi (6.65)
level, gives the concentration of that carrier under non-equilibrium conditions.
Thus the concentration o f electrons under n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m conditions is as indicated in Figures 6.18 and 6.22.
given b y We can now employ this exceedingly i m p o r t a n t result in conjunction
n = e "- n i
[ E E i ) l k T
(6.60) w i t h the assumption o f quasi-equilibrium, i.e., pn = constant throughout
the space-charge region, to calculate the concentration o f minority carriers
where E is the quasi-Fermi level for electrons; and, likewise, the con-
Fn
at the edges o f the space-charge region under forward-bias condition,
centration o f holes under non-equilibrium conditions is given by 1,(0) and p„{0). I t follows from Equations 6.60 and 6.61 that, in quasi-
= . <E.-E„),kT £6.6:1) equilibrium, (E — E ) = —qVj t h r o u g h o u t the space-charge region
Fn Fp
p n e

also, i.e., both quasi-Fermi levels are extended horizontally across the
where E „ is the quasi-Fermi level for holes.
F
space-charge region. This is indicated in Figure 6.22.
As a consequence o f this definition, the fluxes o f electrons and o f holes Thus the assumption of quasi-equilibrium is equivalent to assuming that
now become the quasi-Fermi levels are constant across the space-charge region.
1 dE Fn
T h e m i n o r i t y carrier concentrations at the respective edges o f the space-
F= n u^n — — (6.62) charge regions are consequently given by
q dx
and «„(0) = = n e"^
P0
rilkT
(6.66)
1 dE F p
and
lE E mT V f [ l k T

q dx ' p „ ( 0 ) = n e >- '*

x = p n o e^ . (6.67)

I n the neutral n-region, electrons are transported principally by drift. Thus the minority carrier concentrations at the respective edges of the space-
v , l l k T
charge region will be enhanced by the exponential factor e ^ ' . The
Thus the flux o f electrons i n the /i-region is given simply by +
carrier concentrations i n a forward-biased one-sided n p j u n c t i o n ,
calculated on the basis o f this assumption, are shown i n Figure 6.22c.
l
F = - - p n £ = - i ^ n ^ i . (6.64)
n

q
n

q dx N o t i n g now that n = n -/N and p

vo = n^lNr,,
i A no the equations for the
respective diffusion current components become
C o m p a r i s o n o f E q u a t i o n 6.64 w i t h 6.62 shows that dE Jdx = dEjdx, F

i.e.,_that the quasi-Fermi level follows the energy band variation i n a Um.n = -qD n [ e «l",l/w _ [ ] A j ( 6 6 g )

parallel fashion. A similar argument leads -to an identical conclusion

and
regarding the quasi-Fermi level o f holes i n the neutral /j-region. T h u s ,
in a neutral region, the quasi-Fermi level for the majority carriers will behave kT
Um., = -qD, -~*f- [e^> - l ] A j . (6.69)
, exactly as the Fermi level does in equilibrium.
 186 p-n Junctions Current-Voltage Characteristics 187

Comparison of these equations w i t h equations 6.51 and 6.52 shows that Here, the carrier concentrations w i l l be given by
the diffusion current component under f o r w a r d bias \ V \ » kTjq equals F
r

t h e diffusion current component under reverse bias, multiplied by the n = p = v « l ' i w (6.76)
exponential factor

Recombination within the Space-Charge Region: Recombina- and, therefore. C ' m a x by

t i o n C u r r e n t . The electrons lost by recombination in the space-charge
region 2 give rise to a current component

rw F o r \V \ »
F kTlq,
free = -qAj\ U dx. (6.70) , | F , / U T
Jo &m« = * < x c A r , n , « t t ' (6.78)
or
This integral is complicated because U depends o n n and p. and n and p i n V m n ^-- e" i i r
' i / U T
. (6.79)
turn depend on the distance a: i n a complicated manner. However, the 2T 0

i m p o r t a n t features o f the result can be illustrated in. an approximate Note that the m a x i m u m recombination rate w i t h i n the space-charge
fashion. region under f o r w a r d bias equals the generation rate under reverse bias
I 2 i r

W e saw i n Chapter 5 that the most effective recombination centers are multiplied by the exponential factor e « l > l ' .
those which are located near the middle o f the energy gap. Thus we now We can n o w approximate the recombination current component / by r e c

consider centers w i t h energy level E, = E . Furthermore, for simplicity, we

t
irec = ~ i q ~ We'^^Aj (6.80)
take c „ = a = a. I n such a case the recombination rate U is given by
v

P n
which amounts to t a k i n g U = U . throughout the space-charge r e g i o n . j
mi7
V-ov^N, . (6.71)
n + p + As in the reverse case, i t is interesting to compare the magnitudes o f the
diffusion and the recombination current components. U s i n g the electron
Because o f the assumption of quasi-equilibrium, the product o f electron
diffusion current component, this ratio is given by
and hole concentrations t h r o u g h o u t the space-charge region is given by
| r l / W Jdirt.r. _ „ w,- L„ r | / » r
pn = ^ V ' \ (6.72) g t l f ( 6 g l )

irec " W
Thus the recombination rate is
As in the reverse-bias case, this ratio depends on the temperature and the
U = av^N,-^ — (6.73) band gap o f the material t h r o u g h n,-. I n addition, it depends on the f o r w a r d
n + p + 2n,- voltage t h r o u g h the exponential factor. For silicon at r o o m temperature,
F o r a given forward bias V , V w i l l have its m a x i m u m value at that
F
at small f o r w a r d voltages the recombination current generally dominates
- l o c a t i o n i n the space-charge region where the sum o f the electron and hole and at f o r w a r d voltages larger than about 0.4 to 0.5 v o l t the diffusion
concentrations (p + n) w i l l be at its m i n i m u m value. Since the product of current usually dominates.
these concentrations pn = constant, the c o n d i t i o n d(p + n) = 0 leads to B o t h current components can also be observed i n other materials, but
the transition f r o m one characteristic to the other depends on the tempera-
dp = -dn m £2 dp (6.74) ture and the band gap o f the material. This is illustrated i n Figure 6.23
P where we "show the f o r w a r d current o f germanium, silicon, and g a l l i u m
or arsenide diodes as a function o f forward voltage. W e can distinguish the
p-n (6.75)
t Since U decreases exponentially with distance away from the point where it has its
as the c o n d i t i o n for this m i n i m u m . T h i s c o n d i t i o n exists at that location maximum value, a better approximation would be to multiply U by the volume of mKX

within the space-charge region where the intrinsic Fermi level £ , is half T the space-charge region within which the potential changes by an amount kTjq; that is,
\va\ oetween the quasi-Fermi level for electrons E „ and for holes F E. Fv
by (kTiqt)Aj.~
 <_urrent-Yoltage Characteristics 18?

recombination current component from the diffusion current component

by their different voltage dependences which correspond to slopes o f
q\1kT and qjkT, respectively, in such a semi-logarithmic representation.
-
These slopes, for r o o m temperature, are shown by the dashed lines. We
can observe the change in the slope as the diffusion current begins to
dominate with increasing forward bias in the case o f the silicon diode.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

WW
,ir u t r T
Fig. 6.23c Gallium arsenide diode. Dashed lines indicate slopes of t t * and ¿¡> l'"'
r

dependences at 25°C.

This comparison is particularly clear i n Figure 6.24 which shows the three
room-temperature characteristics together and over a larger current range-
A simple empirical representation o f the f o r w a r d current-voltage charac-
teristics is given by the formula

I cc
F e»IPi.|/i»** (6.82)

where the empirical factor m = 1 for pure diffusion c u r r e n t and m = 2

for pure recombination current, provided the above simple theory is
applicable. W h e n b o t h currents are comparable, m w i l l vary between 1
and 2.
A more gradual increase i n current at high f o r w a r d voltages is evident
in all three cases shown i n Figure 6.24. T h i s phenomenon is associated
/ 1*3.
(e m ) - ± n<
 190 p-n Junctions Junction B r e a k d o w n I9I

100ma when W «L„, B the m i n o r i t y carrier d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l approach the

straight-line d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
10 m a
n (A
9 = n vo + [n„(0) - n „ ] ( l - - ^ - J (6.83)

1 ma in contrast to the exponential distribution, E q u a t i o n 6.57,. w h i c h holds

when W » L„. A s a result, the diffusion length L or L is replaced by
B n T

100/ja W in our formulas for the f o r w a r d bias diffusion current components,

B

Equations 6.68 and 6.69, as can be readily verified.

10 ua

6.7 JUNCTION BREAKDOWN 4

. . . . . . 1 ua
As we discussed earlier, the principal characteristic o f a p-n j u n c t i o n
diode is t h a t i t rectifies: i t permits significant conduction i n one d i r e c t i o n
100 na
o n l y . A c c o r d i n g l y , when a diode also begins to conduct i n the other direc-
t i o n , its rectifying properties are lost. I t is well k n o w n that all diodes w i l l
10 n
conduct i n the reverse direction i f a sufficiently large reverse voltage is
applied to them. This phenomenon is called junction breakdown. W e shall
1 n a
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 now discuss the t w o mechanisms o f j u n c t i o n b r e a k d o w n .

—Fig. 6.24 Comparison of the forward current-voltage characteristics of the germanium,
,r ilkT
silicon, and gallium arsenide diodes at 25°C. Dashed lines Indicate slopes of e' r and
7
e ^ ' V " dependences.
w i t h the onset o f high-level injection i n w h i c h the theory presented i n this
chapter must be modified. Because high-level injection phenomena are
particularly i m p o r t a n t i n the operation o f j u n c t i o n transistors, we w i l l
discuss them i n somewhat greater detail i n the next chapter.
c. Diodes of F i n i t e L e n g t h ( N a r r o w Base Diodes)
j T u n n e l i n g can take place only i f the electric field is very h i g h . E x p e r i -
I n deriving the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f injected m i n o r i t y carriers we have as-
a. Z e n e r B r e a k d o w n (Tunneling)
I f a high field exists w i t h i n a semiconductor, f o r instance, w i t h i n a re-
verse-biased depletion region, the covalent bonds between n e i g h b o r i n g
silicon atoms w i l l be distorted as illustrated schematically i n Figure 6.25.
I f the field becomes high enough, some bonds w i l l be " t o r n " apart, result-
ing i n c o n d u c t i o n electrons and holes: I n the band-diagram representation,
this corresponds to a transition o f a valence electron f r o m the valence b a n d
to the c o n d u c t i o n band. This process, i n w h i c h an electron penetrates
through the energy gap, is called tunneling.
5
mentally i t is f o u n d that the critical field < ? at w h i c h tunneling becomes
cril

sumed t h a t the contact to the y>region is " i n f i n i t e l y " far f r o m the edge o f probable, i.e., at which Zener breakdown commences, is approximately
the depletion region. I n m a n y i m p o r t a n t cases this assumption is n o t 6
10 v/cm or 100 v / > . "
justified. The p r o x i m i t y o f the contact t o the /(-region w i l l change the A l t h o u g h Zener breakdown can be observed i n certain p-n j u n c t i o n s ,
boundary condition and thereby change the distribution o f the injected . most often another breakdown mechanism precedes i t . This process is
m i n o r i t y carriers. called avalanche breakdown.
The distribution o f injected carriers i n a case when the separation
W between a contact and the injecting j u n c t i o n is smaller than the d i f f u -
B

sion length L (for the case o f a jD-type substrate) is o f paramount i m p o r -

n
b. Avalanche Breakdown
tance in transistor operation, and is therefore discussed i n detail i n the The avalanche or impact ionization breakdown process is illustrated
next chapter. For the present we shall merely note that in the l i m i t i n g case schematically i n Figure 6.26. Let us consider this figure step by step. Step 1
Junction Breakdown 193

is the generation o f an electron-hole pair by thermal means, e.g., w i t h the

a i d o f an intermediate level center. I f the field w i t h i n the depletion region
is not too high, this process w i l l simply lead to the regular reverse current.
However, i f the electric field is high enough, the generated electron and
hole w i l l gain enough kinetic energy before colliding with the lattice so
that they w i l l be able to shatter silicon-to-silicon bonds leading to the
formation o f other electron-hole pairs. I n step 2 and 2', respectively, both
the electron and the hole acquire kinetic energy. Step 3 designates the

_ I I i i| I I I I| i 1 1 1
| 1 1 1 1
| I 1 1

- Zener — , ^< —
6
> io

- Avalanche -

10 s
I I I II I I I I i 1 ! II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I
1 4 5 6 8 9
10 10' 10' 10" 10' 10'
c„ (om-'i
s-
Fig. 6.27 The critical field for avalanche and Zener breakdown in silicon. *

impact o f the electron; the fast-moving electron transfers its kinetic

energy to an electron i n the valence band, thereby bringing i t into the.
conduction band. The corresponding process, the impact o f the energetic
hole, is denoted by process 3'. I n processes 3 and 3', two new electron-hole
pairs were created. A l l these electrons and holes now begin to accelerate
i n the high field o f the depletion region, as indicated i n the figure. I n t u r n ,
they w i l l again be able to ionize and create other electron-hole pairs i n a
like manner, and so o n . This process is called the avalanche process.
I f the electric field w i t h i n the depletion region is not high enough, the
carriers cannot acquire sufficient kinetic energy for ionization before
suffering a small collision w i t h the lattice. Thus there is a critical field
<^ at w h i c h the avalanche process w i l l take place.
c r l t

Critical field values calculated f r o m measured avalanche b r e a k d o w n

6
voltages i n silicon are shown i n Figure 6.27 as a function o f the i m p u r i t y
concentration o f the substrate o f one-sided step junctions. Also shown is
3
the critical field for Zener b r e a k d o w n . I t is evident that Zener breakdown
w i l l take place only i n materials i n v o l v i n g high doping concentrations.
Even before breakdown actually takes place, there w i l l be some multi-
plication o f carriers w i t h i n the depletion region. I f without any break-
down-producing mechanism the reverse current is I , then the actual- R o
 194 p-n Junctions Junction Breakdown I9S

reverse current will be 6

direct experimental observations o f the breakdown voltage o f one-sided
IR = MIRO (6.84) step j u n c t i o n s i n silicon (points). I t is evident that i n all three cases the
breakdown voltage approximately follows the inverse p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y t o
where M is the multiplication factor. B r e a k d o w n o f the j u n c t i o n occurs
substrate i m p u r i t y concentration predicted by E q u a t i o n 6.87, especially
when M —*• co.
7 i n the high-voltage range. Furthermore, i t is evident that a material w i t h
I t has-been found that a good empirical representation o f M as a func-
a larger band gap has higher breakdown voltages. This is i n agreement
t i o n o f reverse voltage V for germanium is given by
R

w i t h what we w o u l d expect on the basis o f the simple picture o f the

M = - (6.85)
i - (V iBvy
R

where n is usually between 3 and 6, its value depending on the semicon-

d u c t o r a n d the type o f the substrate, and BV is the breakdown voltage o f
the j u n c t i o n . A l t h o u g h this relationship does n o t h o l d well i n the case o f
- s i l i c o n , - i t can -nevertheless be used to illustrate the qualitative features
o f the multiplication process below avalanche breakdown.

c. Breakdown Voltage of p-n Junctions

W e now calculate the breakdown voltage o f p-n junctions based on the

-condition that breakdown occurs when the m a x i m u m field in the depletion
region < f reaches the critical field < f . This is only an approximate
m a x crlt 1
10 " 10 1 5
10 1 6
10" 10' E
10 1 9

criterion that can be improved by taking i n t o account the i n d i v i d u a l C„ ( c m " ) 3

ionization rates of electrons and holes, w h i c h have been determined

4
Fig. 6.28 Breakdown voltage of one-sided step-junctions. Points represent direct
experimentally. However, this approximate criterion leads to simple experimental measurements in silicon;' lines were calculated based on ionization rates. 6

results which are i n reasonable agreement w i t h experiment.

F o r a one-sided step j u n c t i o n , equating the m a x i m u m field w i t h the
avalanche process discussed above: the carriers must have a higher k i n e t i c
critical field results in
energy to be able t o ionize across a larger band gap, hence higher break-
<f m a x = 2 =*= 2 . V
* = c? crit (6.86) d o w n voltages result.
W j2K,e V
0 R
Proceeding i n a similar fashion for a linearly graded j u n c t i o n and setting

where the reverse voltage V is now, by definition, the breakdown voltage

R

BV o f the junction. This leads to the f o r m u l a for the breakdown voltage

o f one-sided step junctions: > qa
leads to the b r e a k d o w n voltaee
K i l
B V = ^ " . (6.87) !32K € d?
s p
3
CTii (6.89)
2qC B
BV =
9qa
F o r a constant critical field, this shows that the breakdown voltage is
Thus i n the case o f linearly graded junctions the i m p o r t a n t parameter is
inversely proportional to the substrate i m p u r i t y concentration.
the concentration gradient at the j u n c t i o n ,
Breakdown -voltages o f one-sided step junctions i n three different
8
materials are shown i n Figure 6.28. The curves were calculated by using
the experimentally measured i n d i v i d u a l i o n i z a t i o n rates. Also shown are ° ~ dx
 p-n Junctions Junction Breakdown 197
196

both the substrate impurity concentration C and the impurity concen-

w

t r a t i o n gradient at the j u n c t i o n a. It is evident that as the gradient a is

increased the step-junction limit is approached, whereas for small grad-
ients the linearly graded j u n c t i o n l i m i t holds. The transition point between
the two types o f behavior depends on the substrate impurity concentration.
I n all our discussions o f p-n junctions so far we have consistently treated

8 9 2 0 2 2 2

10 10' 10' 10 10 ' 10 10" 10"

1
iilcm" )
3
Fig. 6.29 Breakdown voltage of linearly graded junctions.

Curves calculated o n the basis o f ionization rates are shown i n Figure 6.29.
I t is evident that the breakdown voltage is approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l to
V l / f l in agreement with Equation 6.89. Thus the simple theory also pro-
vides a reasonable description o f the breakdown voltage in linearly graded
junctions.
9
C o m p u t e r calculations o f the breakdown voltage o f diffused p-n j u n c -
tions, based on ionization rates, are shown i n Figure 6.30 as a function o f
1ol I I i l l I I i l l
4 1 5 6

C„(cm~ ) 3 10' 10 10'

10 3
L i i t m i ni| i i ii| i I ill i Im i i iij^ C„ (cm" ) 3

3x10"
Fig. 6.31 Breakdown voltage of planar silicon one-sided step-junctions showing the
- 10' 5
effect of junction curvature. 10

- 3 x 10 1 5
a p-n j u n c t i o n as i f it was a perfect geometric plane. A planar junction,
10 2 — i.e., a j u n c t i o n formed by the planar technology, however, is far from being
6
10' a plane; as we saw i n Chapter 3, diffusion from an oxide w i n d o w pro-
- - 3 x 10' 6
ceeds approximately as far along the surface as into the depth o f the semi-
conductor. Because o f this, the j u n c t i o n geometry is approximately
10' 7
circular-cvlindrical near the w i n d o w region, as shown in the inset to
3 x 10' 7 Figure 6.31. The field and potential distributions i n the cylindrical part
10> —
10' 8 o f the p-n j u n c t i o n are different f r o m those in the plane portion o f the
junction.
~i i ill i i ill i n i l I i ||l i i i l l i i il I l IT
7 8 9 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4
I n general, the cylindrical part o f the j u n c t i o n constitutes a relatively
10' 10' 10' 10 ° 10 ' 10 10 10
J small percentage o f the total j u n c t i o n area, and therefore in those charac-
a (cm" )
Fig. 6.30 Breakdown voltage of diffused silicon junctions—erfc distribution.' teristics which are cumulative (such as capacitance and current) the error'
198 p-n Junctions Junction B r e a k d o w n 199

introduced by neglecting these regions is usually relatively small. Break-

d o w n , however, will commence at any region, no matter how small, where
the m a x i m u m field reaches the critical field o f the material. I n a planar
p-n j u n c t i o n the fields w i l l be increased i n the cylindrical region because o f
the finite radius of curvature. Thus the field here w i l l reach the critical
field at a lower reverse voltage than that corresponding to the b r e a k d o w n
voltage o f the plane region. Hence, this phenomenon will result i n a
lowering o f the breakdown voltage.
10
Calculations o f the breakdown voltage o f cylindrical p-n j u n c t i o n s ,
based on the critical-field criterion, are shown i n Figure 6.31 w i t h j u n c t i o n
depth x (which is taken to be the radius o f the cylindrical p-n j u n c t i o n )
t

as parameter. I t is evident that for practical values o f the j u n c t i o n depth

the breakdown voltage is significantly reduced, especially for l o w substrate
-impurity concentrations.
The effect o f both substrate concentration and j u n c t i o n depth can be
combined into a dimensionless parameter W*jx, which gives a relative
measure o f the amount o f field c r o w d i n g that occurs in the cylindrical
region o f the j u n c t i o n . This parameter is the ratio o f the depletion region
Fig. 6.33 Idealized charge and electric field distribution at breakdown of diodes con-
w i d t h w i t h i n the cylindrical region, at breakdown. W*, to the radius o f structed by epitaxial techniques.
curvature, x . The breakdown theory o f cylindrical p-n junctions can be
f

rearranged to yield the reduction o f breakdown voltage as a function o f 11

along w i t h numerous experimental d a t a taken on planar p-n j u n c t i o n s
this dimensionless quantity. This theoretical curve is shown i n Figure 6.32
and compared to their plane counterparts.
A n o t h e r b r e a k d o w n voltage l i m i t a t i o n may be encountered i n diodes
constructed by epitaxial techniques such as the one illustrated i n F i g u r e
6.1a. This type o f construction is often employed i n order to m i n i m i z e the
series resistance due to the substrate. I n a structure o f this k i n d , i f the
epitaxial film is relatively t h i n , the reverse-biased depletion region m a y
reach the highly doped substrate. This is called the reach-through c o n d i -
t i o n , illustrated i n an idealized manner i n Figure 6.33.
A n approximate calculation o f the area under the idealized electric field
distribution, when the m a x i m u m field in the depletion region reaches the
critical field, leads to the reach-through limited b r e a k d o w n v o l t a s e :

q N W % v i
B V = g a i t W e v l - * (6.90)
2K*

where W epi is the w i d t h o f the l o w l y doped region. Because o f the redis-

Fig. 6.32 The reduction in breakdown voltage due to the curved shape of p-n junctions
formed by the-planar process. The theoretical curve represents the ratio of breakdown
voltages of cylindrical and plane junctions. The experimental points represent the ratio
of measured breakdown voltage of planar diodes to the corresponding breakdown voltage
o' plane diodes. 11
t r i b u t i o n o f the substrate i m p u r i t y d u r i n g epitaxial g r o w t h and subse-
quent high temperature heat treatments, H ' w i l l be smaller t h a n the
e p i
distance to the metallurgical interface (see Chapter 3).
Calculations o f the reach-through limited b r e a k d o w n voltage based o n
12
ionization rates are shown in Figure 6.34. N o t e t h a t for the l i m i t o f large
 p-n Junctions Transient Behavior 201
200
already flows in this diode at reverse voltages well below the avalanche
1000
900 breakdown voltage.
800 The disastrous implications o f this phenomenon on the rectifying
700 - 40 « properties o f diodes are self-evident. The mechanisms giving rise to it.
13
600 however, are not nearly as clear. I t has been s h o w n that precipitates o f
500 -
such metals as copper or iron w i t h i n the silicon crystal can lead to an
increased incidence o f soft j u n c t i o n s ; and it has also been demonstrated
400 that soft junctions can be "hardened" by a treatment similar to the
> predeposition o f phosphorus. (Such a treatment is called gettering.) It
13
has been suggested that the excess current is due to localized breakdown
in small high-field regions around metallic precipitates present w i t h i n the
crystal. The treatment w i t h phosphorus is supposed to remove the
200 metallic precipitates, thereby restoring the hard reverse current-voitage-
characteristics.

6.8 TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR

100
10' J 2 3 4 3 o / o d 'u
Impurity concentration in film Icra" J So far in this chapter we have dealt only with the d-c characteristics o f
Fig. 6.34 Reach-through limited breakdown voltage of diodes constructed by epitaxial p-n junctions. When diodes are used in switching applications, they are
techniques. - 1
alternately forward and reverse biased. Their performance in such appli-
cations is determined by the speed w i t h which they can assume a new bias
epitaxial thickness the regular j u n c t i o n breakdown is reached, but that as condition. Accordingly, we now briefly consider the factors determining
the epitaxial film thickness is decreased, the breakdown voltage is also the transient behavior o f p-n junctions. I n particular, we estimate the
decreased. time required to t u r n a diode off, i.e., to bring it from a forward-biased
W e conclude our discussion o f breakdown in p-n junctions by consider- condition into a reverse-biased c o n d i t i o n .
i n g a very important anomalous phenomenon called soft breakdown. In Figure 6.36a we indicate the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f minority carriers in the
for want o f a better name. A " s o f t " reverse current-voltage characteristic lowly doped region o f a p'n diode under forward bias conditions (t < 0),
is illustrated in Figure 6.35 i n comparison w i t h the corresponding " h a r d " and at various times after the bias is reversed. A t / = 0, when the applied
b r e a k d o w n characteristic. I t is evident that a large excess reverse current voltage is reversed, the current is also reversed. Initially, the current
100
flowing in the reverse direction is large because o f the presence o f the
excess minority carriers w i t h i n the n-region. The current continues to
remove these minority carriers, and therefore the concentration o f minority
carriers in the n-region decreases u n t i l it finally reaches the distribution
corresponding to the reverse bias c o n d i t i o n . This process is illus-
trated i n Figure 6.36b where we show the forward and reverse currents as
Hard characteristic
a function o f time.
A rough estimate o f the time required for this transient period to take
place can be obtained as follows.. Under forward-bias conditions, there
is a certain charge density per unit area present w i t h i n the «-region, due
0 20 40 60 to the injected minority carriers. This charge density 0 is given by
B

Fig. 6.3S Illustration of the reverse current-voltage characteristics of a diode with Q^\qpMX = ^ - (6.91)
"soft" breakdown.
202 p-n Junctions T r a n s i e n t Behavior -203

where we have approximated the m i n o r i t y carrier distribution curve by a and

triangle o f base X. i n the case o f diodes o f finite length (also called 1/ lr \*»
1
narrow-base diodes), the actual d i s t r i b u t i o n i n fact follows a straight line ' " ^ - T - h f forHi«L,. (6.95)
-^JK.ave- Up
and X is simply given by the separation between the contact and the
injecting j u n c t i o n W . When the contact is infinitely far away, i.e.,
B
T h u s the turn-off time w i l l depend on the ratio o f f o r w a r d and reverse
W » L „ , the distribution is exponential and X can be approximated by
B
currents, w h i c h are determined b y the external c i r c u i t y and o n the
the diffusion leneth / _ . .
10 - I I I 11 i I I I| i I I I | I M L
dp/dt != 0

P„(0)
—

pn(0)=0
1

(rev) •10" —
(a)

•* '<*r *
2
10-
1 111 1
—

1 . ] D p

3
* ' *i
TO" — /
(b)
Fig. 6.36 (a) Schematic distribution of minority carriers in the lowly doped region of a
p-'n diode at various times after applied bias is reversed,
(b) The corresponding current-time relationship.
/ I ' 'I 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 11 1 I I I
I f the average reverse current flowing d u r i n g the turn-off period is 10" 3
10" J
10 - 1
1 10
-7 , the turn-off time w i l l be given by
K s v e MM
Fig. 6.37 The turn-off time oip-n diodes.
(off = (6.92)
II
characteristic t i m e constant o f the diode. This characteristic time constant
Combining Equation 6.91 w i t h 6.92 leads to the estimate o f the turn-off is the lifetime o f m i n o r i t y carriers i f the contact is infinitely far away, and
time, .. i t is the diffusion time constant W y / D i f the contact is much closer t h a n
p

a diffusion length.
(6.93)
VIi ? . a v e ' lOTi
J
-"p
T h i s simple analysis gives only a rather p r i m i t i v e description o f the
or transient behavior o f the diode. The turn-off time can be calculated i n a

t The external circuit actually determines the maximum value of the reverse current
loir for W » LB v
(6.94)
rather than its average.
202 p-n Junctions T r a n s i e n t Behavior -203

where we have approximated the m i n o r i t y carrier distribution curve by a and

triangle o f base X. i n the case o f diodes o f finite length (also called
o f r =
narrow-base diodes), the actual d i s t r i b u t i o n i n fact follows a straight line ' o 7 ~ ^ I n ^rW <[<L .
B p (6.95)
and X is simply given by the separation between the contact and the
injecting j u n c t i o n W . When the contact is infinitely far away, i.e.,
B
T h u s the turn-off time w i l l depend on the ratio o f f o r w a r d and reverse
a n o n
W » L „ , the distribution is exponential and X can be approximated by
B
currents, w h i c h are determined b y the external c i r c u i t , ! d the
the diffusion leneth / _ . .
— I I I 11 i I M | i i I i| I l | i _

A < 0
P„(0)
—

fir
1
•10" —
(a)

It

•* '</r *
t, I ; h U '< 1CT 2
—
1 111 1

1 . ] D„
+

3
e " *i
-icr — /
(b)
Fig. 6.36 (a) Schematic distribution of minority carriers in the lowly doped region of a
p-*n diode at various times after applied bias is reversed,
(b) The corresponding current-time relationship.
/ II I I 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 II
I f the average reverse current flowing d u r i n g the turn-off period is icr 3
io - 2
io _ i
1 io
~I
R , the turn-off time w i l l be given by
a v e

Fig. 6.37 The turn-off time of p-n diodes.

r o ( r „flafk. (6 .92)
• ' -"JJ.ave
characteristic t i m e constant o f the diode. This characteristic time constant
Combining Equation 6.91 w i t h 6.92 leads to the estimate o f the turn-off is the lifetime o f m i n o r i t y carriers i f the contact is infinitely far away, and
time, .. i t is the diffusion time constant W ID 2
i f the contact is much closer t h a n
B P

a diffusion length.
(6.93)
V7 / i n T h i s simple analysis gives only a rather p r i m i t i v e description o f the
or transient behavior o f the diode. T h e turn-off time can be calculated i n a

t The external circuit actually determines the maximum value of the reverse current
loir for W » L
B T
(6.94)
rather than its average.
 p-n Junctions
204
more exact manner by solving the time-dependent diffusion problem
describing the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i n o r i t y carriers. T h i s has been done i n
b o t h the general case and its two limits corresponding to wide- and
14
narrow-base diodes. Some results o f such calculations are shown in
Figure 6.37 w h i c h gives the turn-off time as a function o f the r a t i o o f the
f o r w a r d current to the m a x i m u m reverse current for the wide- and narrow-
base limits as well as for the intermediate case o f W = L . B v
REFERENCES CITED
1. H . Lawrence and R . M . Warner, "Diffused Junction Depletion Layer Calculations,"
Bell System Tech. J., 39, 389 (1960).
2. J . Hilibrand and R . D . Gold, "Determination of the Impurity Distribution in
Junction Diodes from Capacitance-Voltage Measurements," RCA Rev., 21, 245
(1960).
.3. The theory of the current-voltage characteristics of p-n junctions was established
bv W. Shockley. "The Theory of P-N Junctions in Semiconductors and P-N Junction
Transistors," Bell Svstem Tech. J., 28, 435 (1949). This theory was then extended by
C . T . Sah. R . N . Noyce, and W. Shockley, "Carrier Generation and Recombination
in P-N Junctions and P-N Junction Characteristics," Proc. IRE, 45, 1228 (1957).
A review of "The Evolution of the Theory for the Voltage-Current Characteristics
of P-N Junctions" is given by J . L . Moll, Proc. IRE. 46. 1076 (1958).
4. A more detailed discussion of breakdown mechanisms in p-n junctions is given in
Chanters 11 and 12, J . L . Moil, Physics of Semiconductors, McGraw-Hill Book C o . ,
1964.
5. A . G . Chynoweth. W. L . Feldmann, C . A . Lee, R . A . Logan, G . L . Pearson, and
P. Aigrai'n. "Internal Field Emission at Narrow Silicon and Germanium P-N
Junctions," Phys. Rev.. 118, 425 (1960).
6. S. L . Miller. "Ionization Rates for Holes and Electrons in Silicon," Phys. Rev., 105,
1246 11957).
7. S. L . Miller, "Avalanche Breakdown in Germanium," Phys. Rev., 99, 1234 (1955).
8. S. M . Sze and G . Gibbons. "Avalanche Breakdown Voltages of Abrupt and Linearly
Graded P-N Junctions in Ge, Si, G a A s and GaP," Appl. Phys. Lett., 8, 111 (1966).
9. D . P. Kennedy and R . R . O'Brien, "Avalanche Breakdown Characteristics of a
Diffused P-N Junction." IRE Trans. Electron Devices ED-9, 478 (1962).
10. H . L . Armstrong, " A Theory of Voltage Breakdown of Cylindrical P-N Junctions,
with Applications." IRE Trans. Electron Devices ED-4, 15 (1957).
11. O. Leistiko and A . S. Grove, "Breakdown Voltage of Planar Silicon Junctions,"
Solid-State Electron., 9, 847 (1966).
12. R . J . Whittier, unpublished.
13. A . Goetzberger and W. Shockley, "Metal-Precipitates in Silicon P-N Junctions,"
/. Appl. Phys., 31, 1821 (1960).
Problems
20S
14. R . H . Kingston. "Switching Time in Junction Diodes and Junction Transistors "
Proc. IRE. 42, 829 M954); M . Byczkowski and J . R . Madigan. "Minority Carrier
Lifetime in P-N Junction Devices," J. Appl. Phys., 28, 878 (1957); A . S. Grove and
C . T . Sah. "Simple Analytical Approximations to the Switching Time in Narrow
Base Diodes;" Solid-State Electron., 7, 107 (1964).
. . . PROBLEMS
6.1 (a) Using the potential distribution based on the depletion approximation, derive
the electron and hole distributions as a function of distance within the depletion
region of a one-sided step junction, in equilibrium.
(b) Derive expressions for the electron and hole diffusion and drift fluxes crossing
the plane where £ , - E , in equilibrium.
r r
(c) Calculate the current due to each of the above flux components if the bulk
-3 2
impurity concentration is 10" c m - ' , and the junction area is 1 0 c m . Com-
pare these magnitudes with the forward current data shown in Figure 6.2 and
discuss.
6.2 Using the potential distribution based on the depletion approximation, check the
validity of the depletion approximation by estimating the width of the region
where the carrier concentration is not negligible. Compare this width with the
total width of the depletion region under various bias conditions.
6.3 • Derive expressions for the electric held, the potential distribution, the built-in
voltage, and the depletion region width for a linearly graded junction in equilibrium—
6.4 Derive an expression for the width of the zero-bias depletion region resulting if
a contact is formed between a metal and an n-type semiconductor. Assume that
at the metal-semiconductor interface the conduction band of thesemiconductorwiil
be fixed at an energy <t> above the Fermi-level of the metal where <D > ( £ — E )c F
in the bulk of the semiconductor. Compare with the expression for a one-sidec*
step junction. Discuss what happens if c£> < (E — £ , ) in the bulk of the semi-
c
conductor.
6.5 A diode is made as follows:
Starting material: 0.175 O cm n-type silicon.
Boron predeposition: results in Q = 10" boron atoms/cm . 2
Drive-in diffusion: 1 hour at 1200-°C.
2 2
(a) If the junction area of the diode is 10~ c m , calculate its capacitance at zero
and at 10 v reverse bias, using the one-sided step junction and the linearly
graded junction approximations. (Is the latter meaningful?) Which approxi-
mation is besr in each case and why?
(b) Define a voltage range where one or the other approximation can be expected
to lead to good results.
6.6 Assuming that both electrons and holes within a reverse-biased depletion region
7
move with a constant maximum drift velocity, o i = 10 cm/sec, construct the
l m
electron and hole distribution corresponding to Figure 6.18. Assume that the
bulk impurity concentration is 10" cm"' and that the lifetime is 1 usee. Do this:
(a) For a silicon diode at roomjemperature.
(b) For a germanium diode at room temperature.
206 p-n Junctions

6.7 Derive and calculate the small-signal conductance dl„\dV at V„ = JO v for the
B

diodes of the previous problem, at room temperature. Comparewith the data

shown in Figure 6.19b.
6.8 Using the potential distribution based on the depletion approximation, derive the
TABLE 6.1
electron and hole concentration distribution within the space-charge region of a
IMPORTANT FORMULAS F O R O N E - S I D E D STEP JUNCTIONS
one-sided step-junction under small forward bias. Compare your result with the
calculations shown in Figure 6.22.
kT C
<t>B = 2 — In —
B

6.9 Derive an expression giving forward current of a diode as a function of the difference Built-in voltage
q n,
of the applied voltage and the built-in voltage of the junction.
6.10 By equating the expressions giving the electron and hole fluxes in terms of the
gradients of the respective quasi-Fermi levels to the formula giving the forward
llK,* [4> 0 B ± \Vj\\
Depletion region width
current, arrive at an order-of-magnitude justification of the assumption of quasi ^ lCB

equilibrium. + : reverse j
where bias
6.11 Express the ratio of the diffusion current component to the recombination current —: f o r w a r d ]
component as a function of forward current instead of forward voltage. Using
this expression, compare diodes made of germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide
with respect to the relative importance of the two components. Compare your M a x i m u m electric field max ^ ...
conclusion with the data shown in Figure 6.24.

6.12 Derive the small-signal conductance dl \d\' of a p-n junction diode, considering
r r
K-€ (t
both components of the forward current. Calculate its value for the diodes Capacitance per unit area C - —
-described in Problem 6.6 at Vj — 0, and at V = 0.4 v. at room temperature. Com- w
r

pare with the experimental measurements shown in Figure 6.24. Also, compare
with the results of Problem 6.7. Reverse current

6.13 Derive the forward voltage as a function of temperature at a given current densitv.
Comment on the use of a p-n junction as a thermometer. 'pen = \q 7 WAj
6.14 The difference in the breakdown voltage of those planar and plane diffused p-n
junctions which are well described bv the linearly graded junction approximation
is much less than the difference in cases where the junctions follow the one-sided
step-junction approximation. Give a simple explanation.
F o r w a r d current =

6.15 Based on the simple picture of the avalanche process given in the text, propose IF A-ec + ^diff
a qualitative argument giving the sign of the temperature dependence of the
avalanche breakdown voltage.

6.16 Derive an expression giving the time required to turn a diode on, i.e., to brine it
into forward bias from a reverse-bias condition. Auff- -qD^-e«"-r\lkT A j

(~ L B

A v a l a n c h e breakdown ny £r
— '^•' J ^"it <

voltage 2qC B
 • PRINCIPLES OF TRANSISTOR Principles of T r a n s i s t o r Action
ACTION 209

• C U R R E N T S F L O W I N G IN A w i t h i n each o f the three regions o f the transistor. Where the concentration

TRANSISTOR; C U R R E N T GAIN variation or the characteristic shape o f planar j u n c t i o n s leads to significant
• LIMITATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS deviations, we modify our discussion accordingly.
O F T H E SIMPLE T H E O R Y
We begin w i t h a qualitative discussion o f the principles o f transistor
• BASE RESISTANCE
action. We then consider the various current components which flow
• MAXIMUM VOLTAGES
w i t h i n a transistor and the factors influencing the current gain by using a
• MINIMUM VOLTAGES
• THERMAL LIMITATIONS A, * 4
IO- cm-

7
Junction Transistors

The single most important solid-state device is the j u n c t i o n transistor.

Its invention brought about an unprecedented g r o w t h o f research and
development w o r k in solid-state physics and engineering. I t is the active i
device on which most discrete and integrated solid-state circuits are based. ®
I n this chapter we examine the basic characteristics o f j u n c t i o n transistors.
(b)
A planar silicon pnp transistor is illustrated schematically in Figure 7.1a.
Fig. 7.1 (a) A typical planar pnp transistor. Representative impurity concentrations
The fabrication o f such a transistor begins the same way as the fabrication and dimensions are indicated.
o f planar diodes: usually a lightly doped epitaxial film is grown upon a (b) Idealized one-dimensional transistor model.
heavily doped substrate of the same type, the surface o f the wafer is fjj): Emitter
® : Base
oxidized, windows are opened in the oxide, and an i m p u r i t y is permitted
© : Collector . . .
to diffuse t h r o u g h these windows to form a j u n c t i o n w i t h i n the epitaxial
f i l m . A t this point, however, the surface o f the silicon is oxidized again,
simple theory. The various ways this theory must be modified under-
windows are opened at different places, and another i m p u r i t y , o f the same
certain conditions are discussed next. T h e n we consider base resistance,
type as the substrate, diffuses into the silicon to form a second j u n c t i o n . the m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m voltage limitations o f transistors, and thermal
W i n d o w s are then opened and metallic contacts are deposited upon both limitations.
diffused regions. The wafer is then cut apart by scribing, leads are
attached to all three regions o f the transistor, and the transistor is packaged.
F o r simplicity, we study an idealized one-dimensional model o f this 7.1 PRINCIPLES O F T R A N S I S T O R ACTION
planar transistor analogous to the idealized model o f the p-n j u n c t i o n
diode o f the previous chapter. This one-dimensional model, shown i n
The energy bands pertaining to the idealized pnp transistor o f Figure
Figure 7.1b, can be considered as a section of the planar transistor along 7.1b are shown in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2a shows the energy bands under
the dashed lines. It neglects the variation o f the i m p u r i t y concentration e q u i l i b r i u m conditions, i.e.,^when a l l three leads labeled (E), (B), a n d ( C ) , .
208
210 Junction Transistors _ Principles of Transistor Action

for emitter, base, and collector, are connected together. U n d e r such
conditions, as we saw i n Chapter 6. the electrostatic potential varies from
each semiconductor region to the next in such a way as to balance out the
diffusion flux of electrons and holes due to their concentration gradients.
When external voltages are applied to the various regions o f the
transistor, the junctions may become f o r w a r d or reverse biased. The
Emitter Base Collector
j u n c t i o n w i l l n o w flow i n it. This is the p r i n c i p a l feature o f transistor
action: a large current flows in a reverse-biased junction due to the existence
of a forward-biased junction in its vicinity.
I t should be realized that not all injected holes w i l l reach the collector-
base depletion region but that some w i l l recombine w i t h electrons en
route t h r o u g h the base. Also, when the emitter-base j u n c t i o n is f o r w a r d
biased, some electrons w i l l be injected into the emitter along w i t h the
injection o f holes i n t o the base. Finally, electrons and holes w i l l recombine
i n the space-charge region o f the emitter-base j u n c t i o n . D u e to these
processes, electrons w i l l flow into the base t h r o u g h the base lead. T h i s
electron flow, o f course, corresponds to a current flowing out the base lead
as indicated i n Figure 7.3.

p*+
n P lc

- Emitter Base Collector

y BE = - o . 5 v
Fig. 7.3 Currents flowing In a pnp transistor.

As we have discussed above, the total emitter current I consists o f E

those holes w h i c h reach the collector, l . and o f the electrons which flow
c

into the transistor t h r o u g h the base lead, J . Thus, B

V - / C + /J». • (7.1)
T w o quantities o f great importance i n the characterization o f transistors
are the so-called common-base current gain a, also referred to as h , F B
Fig. 7.2 Energy band diagram for a pop transistor.
defined by
(a) Equilibrium case.
(b) Under bias.
o. = h F B = I
f, (7.2)
-energy bands under the most i m p o r t a n t type o f bias condition are shown
i n Figure 7.2b. U n d e r this c o n d i t i o n , the j u n c t i o n between emitter and and the so-called common-emitter current gain (3, also referred to as h F E ,
base is forward biased and the j u n c t i o n between base and collector is defined by
reverse biased.
!
fi = h = f. (7.3)
D u e to the forward biasing o f the emitter-base j u n c t i o n , large numbers F E

o f holes w i l l now be injected i n t o the n-type base. I f the two junctions are
I t is evident from E q u a t i o n 7.1 that these are related to each other by
sufficiently close to each other, most o f these holes will reach the collector-
base j u n c t i o n where they w i l l be swept across by the electric field. Thus
- t h e y w i l l be collected in the />-type collector. I t should be noted that even ? = . (7.4)
though the collector-base j u n c t i o n is reverse biased, a large current which 1 — R
approximately equals the forward-biased current o f the emitter-base U n d e r n o r m a l operating conditions such as we discussed above, cx w i l l
 r-nnciples of T r a n s i s t o r Action
213

60 times larger. The relevant small-signal current gain h ft is defined by

dl c

h,. = (7.5)
dK

I t can be readily shown from the two definitions, Equations 7 3 and 7 5

that the relationship between the small-signal current gain h„ and the d-c'
current gain h is given by
F E

l
FE
(.7.6)
lq dh FE
h F E dlc

Thus, for a transistor whose current 2 ain h F B is independent o f the.

collector current. h = h . u F E '
We now consider the behavior o f our transistor in a simple circuit shown
in Figure 7.5a. F o r a given input voltage V , a certain d-c base current I BB B

H ' P
Emitter Base Collector

lai ibi
Input OutDUt
F i g . 7.4 C u r r e n t - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s i l i c o n pno t r a n s i s t o r . T h i s d e v i c e is used circuit circuit
for i l l u s t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t this chapter. Its s t r u c t u r a l p a r a m e t e r s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y as applied
I n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 7.1a.
(a) C o m m o n base c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
(b) Common emitter configuration. l.ll

6(—
always be smaller than unity, although its value in a good transistor w i l l
approach u n i t y very closely. Accordingly, /? will be large in a good \r T- , A /
c =
h
/AU
transistor. 3 -
The current-voltage characteristics o f a planar silicon pnp transistor 2 — !
c = h [.FE

whose structural parameters are approximately as indicated i n Figure 7.1a 1—

O 0 —
are shown i n Figure 7.4. T h i s device w i l l be used for illustration t h r o u g h o u t
u
this chapter. The characteristics are shown in two biasing configurations.
I n one, the voltages are applied w i t h respect to the base. This is referred
to as the common-base mode. I n the other configuration, the voltages are 0.1 r -
g0.08
applied w i t h respect to the emitter. This is referred to as the common-
S0.06 ài.
emitter mode.
3 0.04
I t is evident f r o m Figure 7.4a that a is i n fact very close to unity, a n d S 0.02
1
f r o m Figure 7.4b that p an 60 at I = 4 ma, at low values o f V .
c CE m 0
Focusing our attention on the common-emitter configuration, we can also
Ibl
see that a change i n I brings about a change in I which is also about
B c
F i g . 7.S I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e use o f t h e t r a n s i s t o r as an a m p l i f i e r .
 214 Junction Transistors Currents Flowing in a Transistor; C u r r e n t Gain 215

and collector current I flow i n the transistor. I f a small a-c signal is

c
n o w superimposed on the i n p u t voltage, the base current w i l l vary as a
function of time as illustrated i n Figure 7.5b. This v a r i a t i o n , i n t u r n ,
brines about a corresponding a-c v a r i a t i o n i n the output current I w h i c h
c
however is h times larger t h a n the i n p u t current v a r i a t i o n . T h u s the
u
transistor amplifies the i n p u t signal.
A transistor can also be used as a switching device. By c o n t r o l l i n g a
small current (the base current), a larger one (the collector current) can
can separate the electron current at x = 0 i n t o t w o components: c o m -
ponent 1 is due to electrons which are injected i n t o the />-type emitter
region, w h i l e component 2 is due to electrons which are injected i n t o the
emitter-base space-charge region where they recombine w i t h holes. A s
we n o w proceed t o w a r d the collector region, the fraction o f the current
carried by holes decreases because some o f the holes injected to the n-type
H'r.
- . H i * -—wB

be turned on and off.

The first of these applications, as an amplifier, involves small-signal a-c
phenomena. The second, as a switch, involves large-signal transient o*-
1 o—«-
P
i 1m
phenomena. However, b o t h o f these are consequences o f the d-c charac-
teristics and limitations o f the j u n c t i o n transistor, to which we devote the
-remainder of this chapter.
A t this point we should define the established terminology o f j u n c t i o n
transistor parameters. Since the transistor is a three-terminal device,
currents and voltages are often specified w i t h three-letter subscripts. The
first two o f these letters designate the t w o terminals between w h i c h the
current or voltage is measured. The t h i r d letter designates the state of
—the t h i r d terminal w i t h respect to the second. F o r example, BV CB0

designates the breakdown voltage between collector and base w i t h the

-emitter-base j u n c t i o n open. BV designates the breakdown voltage
CES

ar
between collector and emitter w i t h base shoned to emitter. 1 BO > d ICESC

designate the corresponding leakage currents, and so on. Neutral E-B Neutral C-B Neutral
emitter space- base soace- collector
charge charge
region region

7.2 CURRENTS FLOWING IN A TRANSISTOR; Fig. 7.6 The variation of hole current as a function of position tor a pnp transistor.

CURRENT GAIN 1
base recombine w i t h electrons. The fraction o f hole current consumed by
r e c o m b i n a t i o n i n the neutral base region is designated as the c u r r e n t
a. Current Components component 3. T h e sum o f the three components is the base current.
T h e fraction o f the total current carried by holes w i l l not chanse-any
The various current components involved i n transistor action are
more beyond the base-collector depletion-region boundary. This is
illustrated in Figure 7.6 where the current carried by holes l is shown as a
v

because i n a reverse-biased depletion region the recombination process is

function o f the distance f r o m the emitter t h r o u g h the base to the collector
negligible. Similarly, in the neutral collector region the hole current is a
region, for a pnp transistor. I n the p* emitter most of the current is
m a j o r i t y carrier current and it is n o t diminished by r e c o m b i n a t i o n .
carried by holes so that the hole current l equals the total emitter current
v

I. As we proceed t o w a r d the collector, an increasing fraction o f the total Let us n o w consider these current components i n a quantitative manner."
E

current is carried by electrons. I n low-level injection, the transport o f the m i n o r i t y carriers injected i n t o
the base can be described entirely by diffusion as we saw i n Chapter 5. T o
Let us consider the boundary between the emitter-base depletion region
o b t a i n their d i s t r i b u t i o n , we must solve the steadv-state diffusion e q u a t i o n :
a n d the n-type base, designated by the plane x = 0. A t this boundary, we
show the fraction o f the emitter current due to holes diffusing into the _ d~v. o. — D--
base Iam.B- The rest o f the emitter current is carried by electrons. We
 ^ - u . . c . i ^ riowing i n a I ransistor; Currenc Gain 2 |7

subject to the boundary conditions s e . W J J - I n good transistors W « L , , hence we can approximate the
b a
B

7.8) distribution o f m i n o r i t y carriers within the base bv the straight-line

P„(0) = p „ . e ' i/*r
distribution. Equation 7.11. This yields
and
(7.9)
Amr.B — qD„ (7.12)
where the e q u i l i b r i u m m i n o r i t y carrier concentration w i t h i n the base is B

^ DB''B
iV denoting the d o n o r concentration w i t h i n the base
nR

where D„ denotes the diffusivity o f holes in the base region. The diffusion
B
region (assumed to be u n i f o r m in our idealized model). T h e first o f these
current o f electrons injected into the emitter (component 1 o f Figure 7.6)
conditions states that the concentration o f the m i n o r i t y carriers at the edge
is given by
o f the emitter-base j u n c t i o n space-charge region is increased above their
y lkT
e q u i l i b r i u m value by the exponential factor tf " , as discussed in n~ _„•„ „„,
UM,E = qD (7.13)
A.*
nE
Chapter 6. The second boundary c o n d i t i o n states that the concentration
of m i n o r i t y carriers at the edge o f the base-collector j u n c t i o n space-charge
where we have assumed that the emitter depth W is much smaller t h a n E

region w i l l be zero. This is because this j u n c t i o n is reverse biased; the

the diffusion length o f electrons in the emitter region. N denotes the AE

electric field w i l l immediately sweep across any m i n o r i t y carriers that

arrive there.
T
T h e s o l u t i o n is
1.0 E-
sinh • sinh

Pn(*) = Pno + [P„(0) - P„ ]

0

sinh sinh •

W„
sinh •
= P»(0) • for V EB » kTlq. (7.10)

sinh •

Calculations based on this s o l u t i o n are shown in Figure 7.7 where the z

4 6 108 12 14 16 18 20
normalized m i n o r i t y carrier concentration is shown as a f u n c t i o n o f dis-
xliO
tance for a fixed diffusion length L „ = 10 p. and various values o f the base Fig. 7.7 The distribution of injected minority carriers for various values of the base
w i d t h W . I t is evident that for W » L „ the d i s t r i b u t i o n approaches the
B B width.
simple exponential d i s t r i b u t i o n discussed in the previous chapter, E q u a t i o n
6.57. I n the other extreme, where W « L„, the d i s t r i b u t i o n approaches
B acceptor concentration i n the emitter, assumed to be u n i f o r m i n our
the simple straight-line f o r m given by idealized model; and D is the diffusivity o f electrons i n the emitter.
nE

Finally, the current carried by electrons injected into the emitter-base

P„<*)-P.(0)(l-^J. (7.11)
space-charge region where they recombine w i t h holes (current component
2 i n Figure 7.6) is given by _ , \JCC ?- f
T h i s l i m i t i n g straight-line d i s t r i b u t i o n was discussed i n Chapter 6 in
connection w i t h diodes o f finite length. /rec = §«. * W e^" Aj EB
l2kT
(7.14) ' £ii
W e can now write d o w n the various components o f the total emitter
current I . By referring to the plane x
E = 0 in Figure 7.6, we see that it where W EB is the w i d t h o f the space-charge region o f the emitter-base
w i l l , first o f all, consist o f the diffusion current of holes injected into the junction.
218 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s C u r r e n t s F l o w i n g in a T r a n s i s t o r ; C u r r e n t G a i n 219

A n efficient emitter is one i n which the components 1 and 2 o f Figure fraction o f the injected current that does reach the collector-base depletion
7.6 are small. Thus we w i l l define the emitter efficiency by region is called the transport factor and is defined by
Diffusion current i n base _ Hole current reaching collector
y =
T o t a l emitter current H o l e current injected i n t o base
or
for the case o f apnp transistor. I n Figure 7.6, this v a r i a t i o n o f hole current
I àil!,B
7 (7.15) across the base region is indicated by the decrease o f hole current m a r k e d
I diff.B + 1diff.E by 3.
Using Equations 7.12 to 7.14, this becomes The transport, factor can be calculated by using the solution o f the
_ 1 m i n o r i t y carrier distribution w i t h i n the base region, E q u a t i o n 7.10. By
(7.16)
the definition o f the transport factor,
Wink.
1 +
D, + in,e
QVjsa/ikT dp.
dz x=W
•which can be rearranged to vield e
(7.19)
1 ay*
(7.17)
dx
qBA.
R
Using E q u a t i o n 7.10, this can be shown to lead t o
E 2 Jdltf.B
where 1
*r = xY (7.20)
B s cosh —
D, B
Lv B

^AE EW
where L v is the diffusion length o f m i n o r i t y carriers in the base region.
B

£= (7.18)
D TlE F o r good transistors, W is m u c h smaller t h a n L . Therefore, to a
B v B

good a p p r o x i m a t i o n ,
WEB
R =
1

The first o f these three quantities is the base factor which depends on the ~ 2 © '
total number o f impurities i n the base region. The quantity £ , the emitter D-C C u r r e n t Gain
factor, depends on the t o t a l number o f impurities in the emitter region.
As we have discussed, the t w o figures-of-merit w h i c h are used to
Finally, the quantity R, the recombination factor, is characteristic of the
describe the performance o f transistors in the common-base and c o m m o n -
.recombination rate i n the emitter-base j u n c t i o n space-charge region.t
emitter configurations are the current gains a and /?, respectivelv.
These and other i m p o r t a n t formulas relevant to junction transistors are
By its definition,
.summarized in Table 7.1 at the end o f this chapter.
By the definition o f the emitter efficiency, the current carried by minority a s h = — = ya .t (7.22)
FB T

carriers injected i n t o the base is given by yI . W h a t is o f principal^

E

importance is the fraction o f this current which reaches the collector-base t The relationship a = l \ l = ya. holds only if the reverse-bias leakage current of
c z T

depletion region and is collected there. The quantity designating the the collector-base junction l is negligible. I f this is not the case, the relationship
c s o

becomes
t This treatment neglects surface recombination. As discussed in Chapter 10, its effect
on y can be approximated by setting oc m — « y a r

„ W„ \ A.
R = + s. — Correspondingly,
"o Aj
!
wnere s„ = <ri;,»A„ and A, is the depleted surface area.
220 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s C u r r e n t s Flowing in a Transistor; C u r r e n t G a i n
221

A c c o r d i n g l y , the c o m m o n emitter current gain will be given by factor x - 1; thus / „ , „ = f .

T I t is evident that in the absence o f
B c

recombination w i t h i n the emitter-base space-charse region (R = 0), the

ya. T
(7.23) current gain is independent of the collector current." The larger the
P = H
FE =
1 - 7*2 recombination rate R, the more the current gain drops at low currenr
levels.
Thus i t is clear that we w o u l d like the product o f the transport factor
OL and the e m i t t e r efficiency y to approach unity as closely as possible.
T
1 acr
i i i i r
:
10
! I I I I I I ! 100 ma
R = 0

10 10 mahr
x
y/ is y
_ y x
^y 1 ma —

/ / \&y
100 u a b -
\vy
10" —
y i y \ y \ .r i Ì
10~ 7
TO" 5
10 - 5
10 - 4
10" 10" 10"3 :
1 10 10 2
10 3
I 10ua —
:
J (amp/cm )
c

Fig. 7.8 Calculated common-emitter current gain as a function of collector current

1 /ial—
density for various space-charge region recombination rates, for a silicon transistor.
Recombination in neutral base region is neglected, i.e., a , — I. (£ = S X I 0 sec/cm- ; l s
1

B = 1 X I 0 sec/cm ) M
4

100 na

F o r a transistor w i t h a large p\ we can write

10 na
1 N W D W lr
nE
+
DB B EB B

. iVEBi*kT
N W AE E D a

1 na
Injection Recombination
into w i t h i n E-B
space-charge 100 pa
emitter 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
region vzb (v)
(7.24)
Fig. 7.9 Collector and base currents as a function of emitter-base forward bias for the
pnp transistor. (V = 0)
CB

where the o r i g i n o f each o f the three terms is indicated.

I n many applications i t is i m p o r t a n t not only that /3 be large but also Experimental measurements of the collector and base currents o f the
that i t should not v a r y w i t h the current level. The nature o f the variation pnp transistor are shown i n Figure 7.9 as a function o f emitter-base
o f the current gain w i t h collector current is illustrated i n Figure 7.8. Here forward bias. Several features should be noted i n this figure. First, the
calculations based o n Equations 7.17 and 7.23 are shown. These calcula- collector current follows the voltage dependence predicted for the injected
tions were made by using emitter and base factors a p p r o x i m a t i n g those o f • current, E q u a t i o n 7.12, over eight decades o f current. This agreement is an
the pnp transistors o f Figure 7.1, for various values o f the recombination indication o f the validity o f the injected carrier concentration formulas-
parameter, R. I n these calculations we also assumed that the transport given i n Chapter 6. O n the other hand, the base current as a function o f
222 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s Limitations and Modifications of the Simple T h e o r y 223

emiuer-base forward voltage follows I f a transistor is to be useful, i t is expected that u p o n a change i n

r !mkT
emitter-base f o r w a r d bias the coDector current w i l l change also. I n order
I -cc
B e" "
to change the collector current, the m i n o r i t y carrier d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the
w i t h m ^ 1.7 in the lower current range. This is an indication o f the fact base must be altered as illustrated i n Figure 7.11. W e w i l l estimate the
that most o f the base current at l o w current levels is due to recombination time required for such a rearrangement by calculating the time needed for
i n the emitter-base space-charge region. holes to travel across the base region. (This calculation is a good example
of similar transit-time calculations in other physical systems.)
100

Emitter Collector

Distance
Fig. 7.11 The small-signal variation of minority carrier distribution in the base region.
100pa 1na 10na 100na 1jta 10;ia 100//a Ima 10ma lOOma 1a
'c
The distance traveled by a hole i n a lime Ä T s j g r y e n . b y
Fig. 7.10 Common-emitter current gain versus collector current for the pnp transistor.
dx = v(xJaT~ - (7.25)

- " T h e common emitter current gain for the same device is shown i n Figure where v(x) is the velocity o f a hole. Thu's-the^ransfr-time for holes across
7.10 as a function o f collector current. N o t e that the variation o f h FE
the base region o f a pnp transistor w i l l be given by
w i t h collector current is quite similar to the theoretical calculations shown
dx
i n Figure 7.8. except for the decrease o f h at high current levels. W h e n
FB (7.26)
- 4 2 d(z)
the emitter j u n c t i o n area, ~ 1 0 c m , is taken i n t o account, a reasonable
fit is obtained between theory and experiment for 7^ ^ 10 cm/sec. The velocity o f the holes is related to the hole current and the hole
A l s o shown in this figure is the experimentally measured small-signal distribution i n the base by
current gain h o f this device.
jc /, = qu{x)p(x)Aj. (7.27)

Using a straight-line hole d i s t r i b u t i o n , we can then readily show that the

transit time across the base w i l l be
7.3 LIMITATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS
OF T H E SIMPLE T H E O R Y w 2

(7.28)
2D vB
a. Transit-Time Limitation

A l t h o u g h i t is beyond the scope o f this b o o k to discuss the frequency The frequency l i m i t a t i o n corresponding to this time l i m i t is given a p p r o x i -
response o f transistors, we shall develop a simple estimate of the m a x i m u m mately by the reciprocal o f the transit t i m e . | E x p e r i m e n t a l measurements
frequency up to which a transistor can be expected to be useful. This of the small-signal common-emitter current gain h o f the pnp transistor
u

as a function o f frequency are shown in Figure 7-.12. N o t e that h drops

l i m i t a t i o n is provided by the time required for the rearrangement o f u

m i n o r i t y carriers i n the base region.

t More rigorous considerations yield i/2-n!,, for this frequency limitation.
224 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s L i m i t a t i o n s and Modifications of the Simple T h e o r y 225

below unitv at a frequency o f the same order o f magnitude as given by the I i

above c r i t e r i o n .
It is interesting to compare the transit time with the base transport
factor x given earlier. I t is evident from Equations 7.21 and 7.28 that
T
Collector
the base transport factor is related to the ratio o f the transit time across
the base to the lifetime by
a = l - - . T (7.29)

10* r

1 5
10

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 20

Fig. 7.13 The impurity distribution in the pnp transistor. (Estimated on the basis of
diffusion conditions.)

Physically, this is very suggestive—the probability o f recombination o f

an injected hole i n the base region w i l l indeed depend on this ratio.
Emitter i Base \ Collector

b. G r a d e d B a s e Regions (epitaxial film) (substrate)

So far we have based o u r discussion on the idealized transistor model
i n w h i c h the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the impurities in the base region was assumed
to be u n i f o r m . I n double-diffused transistors, the distribution o f impurities
i n the base region is not u n i f o r m , but is quite strongly graded. The
estimated d i s t r i b u t i o n o f impurities in our pnp transistor is shown i n
Figure 7.13. N o t e the very significant variation o f i m p u r i t y concentration
across the base region. T h i s i m p u r i t y concentration profile w i l l b r i n g about
a similar v a r i a t i o n o f m a j o r i t y carrier concentration i n the base region.
However, i n e q u i l i b r i u m no current flows so that an electric field must
exist i n the neutral base region. This electric field w i l l counterbalance
the diffusion current due to the concentration gradient o f m a j o r i t y carriers
existing there. (This is also evident f r o m the corresponding band diagram
shown i n Figure 7.14.) I f m i n o r i t y carriers are now injected into the base,
Fig. 7.14 The corresponding band diagram, in equilibrium.
I n the case o f pnp transistors, because o f the i m p u r i t y concentration
gradient, the electrons within the base tend to diffuse t o w a r d the collector. •
Thus an electric field must be present, pushing the electrons t o w a r d the
emitter-base j u n c t i o n . This same electric field w i l l then be o f such direction
as to aid the m o t i o n o f injected holes. Thus the injected minority carriers-
will now move not only by diffusion but also by drift due to the existence o f
this electric field. As a result, the transit time across the base w i l l decrease
and the upper frequency limitation o f the transistor associated w i t h this
2
transit time w i l l increase. Correspondingly, the transport factor w i l l also
increase.
T o provide an indication o f the effect o f this b u i l t - i n electric field, i n
3

their m o t i o n w i l l be affected by the finite electric field which is present i n Figure 7.15 theoretical calculations o f the transit time are shown as a
the neutral base region. function o f the ratio o f the concentration o f the base i m p u r i t y at the
226 Junction Transistors - Limitations and Modifications of t h e "Simple Theory 227

emitter-base junction to that at the collector-base j u n c t i o n . I n these cal- However, i t is evident that as the collector-base j u n c t i o n is reverse biased,
culations, the i m p u r i t v d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the base region was approximated the w i d t h o f the collector-base depletion region w i l l increase and con-
bv an erfc-type d i s t r i b u t i o n . The transit time for the pnp transistor, sequently the width of the neutral base region W will be reduced. ThusB

corrected by using Figure 7.15, is also indicated i n Figure 7.12. the gradient o f the injected m i n o r i t y carriers i n the neutral base region w i l l
The calculations o f M o l l and Ross, on which Figure 7.15 was based, 3
become steeper, and therefore the collector current w i l l increase. T h e base
also show that i n the derivation o f the currents flowing in a transistor, the current, however, will not change significantly since i t is p r i m a r i l y due to
quantity [N W ) i n the denominator o f E q u a t i o n 7.12 and i n subsequent
DB B phenomena occurring near the emitter-base j u n c t i o n .
Thus as the collector-base j u n c t i o n reverse bias is increased, the current
1.0. ~ gain w i l l increase. This phenomenon, first pointed out by E a r l y and since 4

then c o m m o n l y referred to as the Early effect, is clearly evidenced i n the

characteristics o f Figure 7.4b. These characteristics are traced under
0.8
constant base current conditions. I t is evident that as the c o l l e c t o r - t o -
emitter bias and therefore the collector-base reverse bias is increased, the
collector current for a given base current increases as represented by the
Ä-If 0.6
! £
u p w a r d t i l t i n g o f the characteristics.
The E a r l y effect is, o f course, much more pronounced i f the d o p i n g
0.4
concentration i n the base region is relatively light as compared to the dop-
ing concentration in the collector region.

0.2
d. H i g h C u r r e n t Effects

The simple theory developed in Section 7.2 predicts that, as the current
level is increased, h should reach a constant, current-independent level.
F E
10 2
10 2
10' 10 5

T h i s theory does not consider deviations from the c o n d i t i o n o f low-level

A (0).'A (H )
B B a

injection.
F i g . 7.15 R e d u c t i o n i n base t r a n s i t t i m e d u e t o t h e g r a d e d i m p u r i t y concentration
A c t u a l l y , at high current levels, the injected carrier concentration may
across t h e base r e g i o n . N {0)
£ and Nj,(W ) s a r e t h e b a s e - i m p u r i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at t h e
greatly exceed the doping concentration in the base region, i.e.. p » K ri DB
e m i t t e r - b a s e and c o l l e c t o r - b a s e j u n c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . 3

may h o l d . I n such a case, in order to maintain charge neutrality w i t h i n the

equations is replaced by the t o t a l number o f impurities i n the base per base, the electron and hole concentrations there must become equal. T h u s
u n i t area Q , given b y the majority carrier concentration will also increase as the minority carrier
B

concentration is increased. Such condition is referred to as modulation of

0 B = N {x)DB dx. (7.30) the conductivity o f the semiconductor.
Jo
I n the conductivity-modulated condition the semiconductor i n effect
Furthermore, N itself is replaced by its value at the emitter-base j u n c t i o n ,
DB
becomes more heavily " d o p e d " as the injection level is increased. A s a
•^*x>i?(0)- Otherwise, the equations remain unchanged. W i t h these changes, result, the rate o f increase o f the injection level w i t h increasing f o r w a r d
results based on the idealized transistor model can be readily adapted to bias slows d o w n . Thus the collector current w i l l no longer f o l l o w the
the consideration o f double-diffused transistors. simple exponential law,
J lkT
J c cc e° '*'' ,
5
c. E a r l y Effect but w i l l a p p r o a c h
q V i : r k T

The effect o f the collector-base reverse bias on the c o m m o n emitter I c cc e > - .

current gain h is n o t explicit i n the equations o f the previous sections.
F E
The slower increase o f injected current w i t h f o r w a r d bias at h i g h current
228 junction i uiiii^ur ^ Dase resistance

levels is indeed evident in Figure 7.9. I t is also evident i n the forward
current-voltaae characteristics o f the germanium, silicon, and gallium
arsenide diodes shown in Figure 6.24.
Corresponding to the increase i n majority carrier concentration in the
base region, the emitter efficiency w i l l decrease bringing about a reduction
6
i n current gain at high current levels. A reduction i n current gain is i n
fact observed at high collector currents i n Figure 7.10.
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t deviation f r o m the low-level theory is due to the fact
t h a t the simple theory of p-n junctions w h i c h we have discussed i n Chapter
6 a n d o n w h i c h the above treatment o f transistors has been based is
founded on the basic underlying assumption that the semiconductor is
the center line under the emitter region, and lowest near the base contact.
This voltage build-up is i m p o r t a n t because it results in a variation o f the
emitter-base forward bias as a function o f distance y, leading to a higher
forward bias near the edges o f the emitter region than i n the central section.
This, i n turn, results i n a higher current density near the edges o f the
emitter. This condition is referred to as current crowding. Thus we want
both to calculate and to c o n t r o l the. base spreading resistance through
which the base current must flow.
The average magnitude o f the base voltage d r o p is given by
1 f' A c

divided into depletion regions i n w h i c h the carrier concentrations are

y = 77 v {y) dy (7.31)
smaller than the i m p u r i t y concentration, and into neutral regions where B B

space-charge neutrality approximately prevails. A t high current levels, \L Jo

significant space charge may be present everywhere in the semiconductor, i f the voltage drop outside the n a r r o w region between'the emitter and the
w i p i n g out a meaningful distinction between depletion regions and neutral collector can be neglected. T h e n the base spreading resistance can be
regions. Thus, the analysis o f semiconductor devices must be modified defined by

(7.32)
7
for such a c o n d i t i o n . This is beyond the scope o f the present discussion. P V . . » T * :

The calculation o f the average base voltage d r o p V is dependent o n the

B

7.4 BASE RESISTANCE particular transistor geometry. Such a calculation can be illustrated by
considering the simple stripe geometry shown i n Figure 7.16. The voltage
W e have seen that due (i) to injection o f minority carriers into the emitter d r o p over an element dy here is given by
region, (ii) to recombination i n the emitter-base space-charge region, and
(iii) to recombination in the base region a current w i l l flow to the base lead. -dV B = e*-gLl (y) B (7.33)
T h i s current flows in a direction transverse to the direction o f the normal
transistor current flow as s h o w n i n Figure 7.16. As a result, a voltage drop
where Z is the length o f the stripe, and p is the average resistivity o f the
B
w i l l b u i l d up in the base region along the path o f the base current flow. I n
base region. The base current at p o i n t y is assumed to be given by
the case o f the pnp transistor shown here, the potential w i l l be highest at

h(y) = ihf - L (7.-34).

Here I is the total base current. (This assumes no current crowding.)

B

Substitution o f Equation 7.34 into 7.33 and integration leads to

_ 1 opL
V B = —— I B - (7-35)
12 W Z B
(

The base spreading resistance is obtained by dividing the voltage drop by

I , and is
B

Fig. 7.16 Illustration of the calculation of the base spreading resistance for a stripe 1 OB L
geometry.
 - M a x i m u m Voltage Limitations 231
230 Junction Transistors

c o n d i t i o n , we estimate the area under the electric field d i s t r i b u t i o n curve

The reciprocal of the average resistivity o f the base region is given by
shown i n Figure 7.17. This yields

— = — Pnl^ni*) ~ ^A( )] x
d-x
(7-37) BV = QQB W B + ^ (7.39)
PB W
B K, 2NjJ

A quick estimate of the average resistivity can be obtained by m u l t i p l y i n g where Q B is the t o t a l number o f impurities per u n i t area i n the base region
the average base i m p u r i t y concentration Q \W B B w i t h the m o b i l i t y cor- and N A is the acceptor concentration i n the collector. Because the base
responding t o this concentration. Thus,
—Hi-*
- m q,u ^n (7-38)
W W
mm. WE
PB W
B

where /x„is the m o b i h t y value corresponding to the i m p u r i t y concentration c

-Q^W-B-

7.5 MAXIMUM VOLTAGE LIMITATIONS

a. C o m m o n Base Configuration

T h e m a x i m u m voltage that can be applied to a transistor i n the c o m m o n -

base configuration, BV CB0 (see Figure 7.4a'). is usually determined by the
avalanche breakdown voltage o f the collector-base j u n c t i o n .
A v a l a n c h e breakdown inp-n j u n c t i o n s has been discussed in the previous
chapter. T h a t discussion applies w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n to the c o m m o n -
base breakdown in transistors i n such a case.

b. C o m m o n - E m i t t e r Configuration Fig. 7.17 Illustration of the "punch-through" condition.

T h e common-emitter b r e a k d o w n voltage BV is measured w i t h the

CES

region o f diffused transistors is relatively heavily doped, the p u n c h - t h r o u g h

base shorted to the emitter d u r i n g the measurement. The b r e a k d o w n
-observed under this c o n d i t i o n w i l l usually be the avalanche breakdown o f
the collector-base j u n c t i o n . I n that case, BV = BV . CES However, CB0
an interesting departure f r o m this can take place i f the space-charge
region on the base side o f the collector-base j u n c t i o n reaches the emitter-
base j u n c t i o n before the collector-base j u n c t i o n can avalanche. This
voltage is usually high i n diffused transistors, and therefore-the voltage
l i m i t a t i o n is usually due to the avalanche b r e a k d o w n o f the collector-base
junction.
The m a x i m u m voltage i n the common-emitter configuration w i t h the
base lead open, BV , is o f p a r t i c u l a r importance (see Figure 7.4b). T o
CE0

situation, w h i c h is referred to as the punch-through c o n d i t i o n , is illustrated calculate this voltage, we must first consider the currents flowing i n the
i n Figure 7.17. Once the collector-base depletion region reaches the transistor i n such a two-terminal operation. W h e n a certain voltage V CE

emitter-base j u n c t i o n , the t w o />regions—the emitter and the collector—
are connected w i t h a continuous depletion region. A current can now
. . f l o w - h e n c e ' " b r e a k d o w n " takes place even i n the absence o f any avalanche
process.
To calculate the voltage required to b r i n g about the punch-through
is applied to the collector w i t h respect to the emitter, w i t h the base floating,
as shown i n Figure 7.18, the base region w i l l acquire a potential that is
intermediate between the emitter potential and the collector p o t e n t i a l .
As a result, the emitter-base junction will be very slightly forward biased.
I n such a case, the collector current w i l l consist o f the reverse-biased
232 junction I ransistors
M a x i m u m Voltage Limitations ^
generation current o f the collector-base j u n c t i o n . l., , en plus the current
carried by those injected carriers which reach the collector-base j u n c t i o n . Substituting E q u a t i o n 7.44 i n t o the c o n d i t i o n , yt M T = 1 when
le

I f the emitter current is I , the latter component will be given by yj. l .

V
CB = BVCEO, a d s to the relationship,
E T K

However, the current flowing t h r o u g h the emitter-base j u n c t i o n and the

BV, CEO
collector-base j u n c t i o n must be the same. Hence, in the open-base con- = <yi - y%=* (7.45)
figuration, BV, CBO /N
<i FE
7 4
Is - ic = y-TÏE + W . ( - °)
We have seen i n Chapter 6 that the b r e a k d o w n voltage o f planar j u n c -
The generation current is j u s t the leakage current o f the collector-base tions is determined by the electric field i n the rounded, nearly cylindrical
j u n c t i o n measured under open emitter conditions I C B 0 . T h u s the above
relation leads to 4
10
IcEO = 7*T CEO [ !
+ CBC- 7
( - 4 1
)

Fig. 7.18 Illustration of current flow in the open-base condition.

So far we have neglected the role o f multiplication in the collector-base

j u n c t i o n . I t was pointed out i n Chapter 6 that near b r e a k d o w n the current
n o r m a l l y flowing in a reverse biased p-n j u n c t i o n is multiplied by the factor
M because o f the incipient avalanche process. Thus, near breakdown, the
above relationship w i l l lead to 10=1 1 i i U i i i i I i i i i
1 10 1 0 2
1 0 3

ICEO = (y^cso + ICBO)M (7.42)

h FE at I e " 1 ma, V CE = 10 v
or
Fig. 7.19 Open-base breakdown voltage of npn transistors as a function of common-
3
i CEO = r 2 8 2
— • • ( -«)7
emitter current gain.
1 — ya M T

This relationship shows that the leakage current in the common-emitter

region o f the j u n c t i o n . I n Chapter 10 we w i l l see that charges near the
configuration is larger than the leakage current i n the common-base con-
surface can increase the electric field and further lower the breakdown v o l -
figuration by the factor 1/(1 - ya M). T As a result, this current w i l l start
tage o f the j u n c t i o n . Thus i t is i m p o r t a n t to consider which i f any o f these
increasing rapidly when yat. M-+ T 1, rather than when M — co as was the
factors w i l l also have an effect on the common-emitter breakdown voltage
case i n the common-base configuration. Thus the breakdown voltage in n e
SV
CEO- T above discussion applies o n l y to the region o f the transistor
the common-emitter configuration will be lower.
under the emitter, i.e., to the section indicated in Figure 7.1a, because
T o estimate the reduction i n b r e a k d o w n voltage, we can use the empiri-
injection i n other regions o f the transistor, e.g., near the surface, or near
cal f o r m u l a for the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n factor discussed i n Chapter 6,
the corner region, is much less efficient. Thus the correct breakdown
M = (7.44) voltage BV CB0 that must be used i n E q u a t i o n 7.45 is that o f a truly plane
j u n c t i o n which is often higher than the actual B V o f a planar transistor. C B 0

X
BV > CB0
T h i s is illustrated by the experimental measurements* shown i n Figure
7.19, w h i c h show the breakdown voltage o f planar npn transistors in the
where BV CB0 is the true b r e a k d o w n voltage of the collector-base j u n c t i o n ,
common-emitter mode. N o t e that the power-law relationship to" the cur-
and n is between 3 and 6.
rent gain is observed and that the straight line extrapolates to the true
234 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s
Saturation
plane breakdown-voltage value. Similar results were obtained w i t h pnp *
transistors, yielding n ^ 6. = 0.18 ma
It is interesting to point out that since the current gain h itself is a
F E

function of collector current, the reduction i n b r e a k d o w n voltage as given #

bv Equation 7.45 w i l l also depend on the collector current level. Thus
the breakdown characteristic in the common-emitter mode will exhibit a
switchback as shown i n the example i n Figure 7.4b due to the v a r i a t i o n o f
hF E as a function of collector current.

f
7,6 MINIMUM VOLTAGE LIMITATIONS if
0 -0.5 -1 v
—^When a transistor is operated i n the common-base configuration, the
same collector current w i l l flow when there is zero bias applied across the

I
Fig. 7.20 Collector current of the pnp transistor in saturation.
<
collector-base j u n c t i o n as when this j u n c t i o n is reverse biased. Thus

••'
in this mode of operation the transistor imposes no lower l i m i t u p o n the
o u t p u t voltage. The situation, however, is different i n the c o m m o n -
emitter configuration.
" A constant base current approximately corresponds to a constant Ï
emitter-base forward bias, e.g., 0.5 v. As the collector-to-emitter voltage
is n o w reduced to this value, the collector-base j u n c t i o n cannot be reverse
i i

.biased any more. Further reduction in V w i l l actually cause the collec-

CE f
tor-base junction to be forward biased, injecting carriers in the opposite
direction to those injected from the emitter. T h u s two forward-biased p-n
junctions now face each other. As a result, the measured net collector •f

current, which is the difference o f the t w o injected currents, will decrease

as V CE is decreased as shown i n Figure 7.20. This condition is called
saturation.
9
Saturation was considered by Ebers and M o l l w h o treated the t w o
forward-biased j u n c t i o n s independently and calculated the net collector
P
current flowing through the transistor by superposition. The i n d i v i d u a l
and net carrier distributions due to forward-biasing o f just one and o f
b o t h junctions is illustrated in Figure 7.21. N o t e the reduction in collector
:>
current as evidenced by the decreased magnitude o f the slope o f the net
m i n o r i t y carrier distribution in Figure 7.21b.
T o simplify the analysis, the recombination current components
associated w i t h the t w o depletion regions are neglected and the transport
factor a. is taken to be unity. The first assumption is justified at relatively
T
*
h i g h current levels; the second focuses attention on the effect o f the dif-
(b) " Distance i
ferent emitter efficiencies o f the t w o j u n c t i o n s . This effect is particularly
i m p o r t a n t in double-diffused transistors where injection from the collector Fig. 7.2I The minority carrier distribution within the base region.
(a) Emitter-base junction forward biased, collector-base junction reverse biased
ê
to the base is an inefficient process due to the higher doping concentration
(b) Both junctions forward biased:, saturation. J
23S J
 Junction Transistors Thermal Limitation 237
236

i n the base. Finally, equal j u n c t i o n areas are assumed. The result, 9 header through the silicon. F r o m the header directly under the j u n c t i o n ,
after lengthv algebra, is which has a temperature designated by 7\, the heat flows through the
header material to other parts o f the package, e.g.. the cap, which are
directly in contact w i t h the surrounding ambient. The cap w i l l have a
1 -
kT temperature r which is lower than T . Finally, the heat will be con-
c a p h

VCE = In + R
\h SE\ + r
\Ic scl (7.46)
/ (l - X)
ducted away from the transistor package to the surrounding ambient.
1 c R

1 + The total resistance to the flow o f heat can be pictured as a series com-
U bination o f the i n d i v i d u a l resistances o f the silicon, o f the header, and of
where r and r
S E are the series resistances o f the emitter and the collector
s c
the air (in the absence o f a heat sink), as illustrated by the simple circuit
regions, and x is the common-base current gain in the reverse direction,
R
analogue shown i n Figure 7.23. I n this circuit, we also show what happens
i.e., using the collector as the e m i t t i n g j u n c t i o n . (<x is generally much R

smaller than a for double-diffused transistors.) The positive sign is taken Air
(high
for npn transistors, the negative for pnp. resistance)
N o t e the appearance o f the term I I { I B I F E ) 1
Equation 7.46. O u t o f
C
m
Junction •—wv—•—*w%,—f—VA—
Si Header
saturation, where the current gain h is denned, this term is unity. Thus
F E

the argument o f the l o g a r i t h m is zero and therefore V —<• — co as i t CE

indeed does on the characteristics (see Figure 7.20). I n saturation, how-

ever, this term is no longer unity, thereby leading to a finite value o f
Heat sink
V —the
CE m i n i m u m voltage at which the transistor can be operated i n (low resistance)
the common-emitter mode.
Fig. 7.23 Circuit analogue for the heat-flow problem.

if the transistor package is placed in contact w i t h a heat sink, such as a

7.7 THERMAL LIMITATION metal block. A heat sink w i l l provide a small shunt resistor in parallel
Carriers accelerated i n the large electric field o f the collector-base to the resistance due to the air.
depletion region (see Figure 7.2b) suffer many collisions w i t h the semicon- Let us consider the individual resistances appearing in the case o f an
d u c t o r lattice, thereby converting their kinetic energy into heat. The air-cooled device. The resistance for thermal flow is obtained from
power dissipated this way, IQV , CB must be transported away f r o m the Fourier's law o f heat conduction,
collector-base j u n c t i o n i f the temperature o f the j u n c t i o n is to remain at a
steady-state value. The path through w h i c h this heat must be conducted P = —k, h — A (7.47)
ox
away is illustrated schematically in Figure 7.22. First, the heat is trans-
p o r t e d f r o m the j u n c t i o n , w h i c h has a temperature Tj, to the supporting w h i c h states that the heat flow rate P is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the temperature
gradient.! The p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant k is the thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y ;
t h

A is the cross-sectional area available for the flow o f heat. I n steady state
this becomes

P = k t h ^ A (7.48)

where L is the length o f the path o f heat conduction. This can be recog 7

nized as the equivalent o f Ohm's law for the conduction o f heat. Thus the
Header
- Note the analoev to diffusion where the flux is proportional to the concentration
Fig. 7.22 Illustration of the flow of heat in an encapsulated transistor. sradient.
238 Junction T r a n s i s t o r s Problems 239

thermal resistance o f a material w i l l be given by

REFERENCES CITED
7 4 9
*« = A • < - >
1. Transistor action was first described by J . Bardeen and W. H . Brattain, "The Transis-
A c c o r d i n g l y , the i n d i v i d u a l resistances that we m u s t combine i n series are tor, A Semiconductor Triode," Phys. Rev., 74, 230 (1948). The theory of current
flow in junction transistors was established by W. Shockley, "The Theory of P-N
Junctions in Semiconductors and P-N Junction Transistors," Bell System Tech. J.,
Rth.si = — f o r the silicon (7.50)
28, 435 (1949). This theory was then extended by C . T . Sah, R . K . Noyce, and W .
Shockley, "Carrier Generation and Recombination in P-N Junctions and P-N
R LHH = -=ì— for the header (7.51) Junction Characteristics," Proc. IRE, 45, 1228 (1957).

2. H . Kroemer, "Der Drifttransistor," Naturwiss, 40, 578 (1953).

f o r t h e a i r ( 7 5 2 ) 3. J . L . Moll and I. M . Ross, "The Dependence of Transistor Parameters on the Dis-
= r ~ " -
tribution of Base Layer Resistivity," Proc. IRE, 44, 72 (1956).

-where A, is the gas-phase heat-transfer coefficient, analogous to the mass-

h
4. J . M . Early, "Effects of Space-Charge Layer Widening in Junction Transistors,"
Proc. IRE, 40, 1401 (1952).
transfer coefficient discussed i n Chapter 1. T y p i c a l values for the quan-
tities involved here are : 5. R . N . Hall, "Power Rectifiers and Transistors," Proc. IRE, 40, 1512 (1952).

LSÌ = thickness o f wafer ^ 10~ cm, 2

% ' 6. W. M . Webster, "On the Variation of Junction-Transistor Current Amplification
Factor with Emitter Current." Proc. IRE. 42, 914 (1954).
3 2
ASI ^ j u n c t i o n area, ~ 1 0 ~ cm for a medium-sized device,
7. See. for instance, C . T . Kirk, "A Theory of Transistor Cutoff Frequency (f ) Fallon" T

* » . t t S * 1 . 5 w a t t / C C cm) at High Current Densities." IRE Trans., Electron Devices E D - 9 , 164 (1962); A .
hence, R TH S i 5°C/watt; van der Ziel and D . Agouridis. "The Cutoff Frequency Falloff in U H F Transistors
at High Currents." Proc. IEEE (Correspondence). 54, 412 (1966).
L H ^ 1 cm,
8. W. W. Hooper, unpublished.
2 2
A H at 10" cm ,
9. J . J . Ebers and J . L . Moll, "Large Signal Behavior of Junction Transistors," Proc.
fc , a t a 4 w a t t / ( ° C cm) IRE, 42, 1761 (1954).
hence, jR t t J k s 5°C/watt;

* », S 10- 3
to J O - 2 c
watt/( C cm ), 2
PROBLEMS

7.1 Derive the expression giving the small-signal current gain h,„ Equation 7.6.
2 3
hence, R s 10 to 10 °C,/watt.
IHML
7.2 (a) Verify that Equation 7.10 satisfies the transport equation and the boundary
T h u s the overall t h e r m a l resistance w i l l be 10 2
to 3
1 0 ° C / w a t t i f the conditions.
device is air-cooled. T h i s resistance can be reduced to about 1 0 ° C / w a t t (b) Verify the exact and approximate expressions given for a . T

by proper heat sinking. 7.3 If hrT for the case when a. = 1 is denoted by h ,.,
T r£ and hrE for the case when
y — 1 is denoted by h ^^.
rL show that, in general,

READING REFERENCES i. 1 .1
hrt h,
r£ y - hf , .
£ aj

Junction transistors are the subject of several texts. Among these are:
7.4 When a transistor is irradiated with large doses of fast neutrons or high-energy
R. D . Middlebrook, An Introduction to Junction Transistor Theory, Wiley, 1957.
electrons, it is often found that the lifetime decreases with irradiation dose approxi-
W. W. Gärtner, Transistors. Van Nostrand. I960: mately as T = KI4>. where 6 is the dose and A' is an empirical constant (see Chapter
5). Assuming that the emitter efficiency is unity, derive a relationship giving
A . B . Phillips, Transistor Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962;
(a) base current, and (b) h as a function of the dose, and their respective values
F[

S. Hakim, Junction Transistor Circuit Analysis, Wiley. 1962. before irradiation.

240 Junction Transistors Problems 241

7.5 If the total charge due to injected excess minority carriers within the base is Q, and transistor which is avalanche-breakdown limited and one which is punch-through
if the emitter efficiency = 1, express the base current, collector current, and the limited. C a n this test be used to distinguish the two cases?
current gain in terms of Q.
7.14 For transistor " A " ,
7.6 (a) Estimate the magnitude of the electric field near the emitter-base junction, in
BV 0B0 = 105 v.
equilibrium, for the pnp transistor used for illustration in this chapter.
BV C£S = 105 v.
(Hint: Fit an exponential profile to the base impurity distribution shown in
BV o = 96 v.
Figure 7.13.) CB

BV =
BB0 9v.
(b) Calculate the fraction of the injected minority-carrier flow that is due to
drift when the emitter-base junction is forward biased. Assume that the For transistor " B " ,
electric field is unchanged. (.Under what conditions is this assumption justified?)
BV o
CB = 75 v.
(c) Recalling that a flux is the product of concentration and velocity, use your
BV CBS = 69 v.
result to estimate the increase of the velocity of the injected minority carriers BV m 69 v.
CE0

due to the built-in field. Compare your result with Figure 7.15. BV = 6 v.
SB0

7.7 (a) Using the collector current versus emitter-base voltage data for the pnp
transistor, and assuming a lifetime of 1 .usee, calculate the total number of
impurities per unit area in the base,
(b) Using the maximum value of the current gain, calculate the total number of
impurities per unit area in the emitter.
Compare both numbers with the corresponding estimates based on the impurity
concentration distribution given.
7.S Derive an expression showing the effect of the collector-base junction reverse bias
on the transit time across the base and on h , assuming that the collector-base
FB
What mechanism limits the maximum voltage of these two transistors?
7.15 Draw the energy band diagram for a pnp transistor in saturation.
7.16 The Ebers-Moll analysis makes three important simplifying assumptions: It
neglects the recombination current components associated with the two depletion
regions; it assumes that both transport factors are unity; and it assumes that the
areas of the emitter and collector junctions are- equal. Discuss the validity and
importance of these assumptions, and indicate qualitatively the direction of any
errors they may introduce with respect to:

junction is linearly graded. (a) Alloy germanium transistors.

7.9 The collector current is transported across the reverse-biased depletion region of
the collector-base junction by drift.
(a) Assuming that the velocity of the carriers is their maximum drift velocity,
show that the concentration of injected carriers across the base-collector
depletion region is constant.
(b) Sketch the electric field distribution within the collector-base junction depletion
region for increasing current densities, assuming the base is much more heavily
doped than the collector.
(c) A t what current density does the electric field approach a constant value?
(d) What will happen if the current density is further increased?
7.10 Calculate the current density at which the base becomes conductivity modulated
for a pnp transistor. Compare this current density with that obtained in Problem
7.9c. Which condition sets in first in a double-diffused transistor? In an alloy
transistor ?
(b) Planar, double-diffused silicon transistors.
7.17 Calculate the overall thermal resistance of the device discussed in Section 7.7, also-
taking into account conduction of heat through the leads. Assume a transistor,
with a copper base and a copper emitter lead, each 2 mil in diameter, and 5 mm
long. Do you expect the two leads to be equally effective as heat-conduction
paths? Justify.
7.18 A single pulse of current is imposed upon a silicon transistor of dimensions as
given in Section 7.7. How long a duration must the current pulse have for the
transistor chip to achieve its new steady-state temperature? In this calculation
neglect heat conduction away from the chip.

7.11 One criterion of the onset of current crowding is when the transverse base voltage
drop exceeds kT/q. Estimate the corresponding collector current level for a pnp
9 — o, fa
transistor which has an h of 50, an impurity distribution as given in Figure
FB

7.13, and a stripe geometry with Z = 40 mil, L ' 0.5 mil.

7.12 I n a transistor in which the value of BV o is determined by "'punch-through",

rB

\BV \CB0 = \BV \ CB0+ \BV \. BaoJustify this relationship. (Hint: Consider what
happens at the emitter-base junction as "punch-through" is obtained.)

7.13 A reverse bias V is applied to the base region with respect to the emitter. What
H

effect will this bias have on the voltage applied to the collector, also with respect
to the emitter, at which large reverse current begins to Sow? Consider both a
242 Junction Transistors PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
CHARACTERISTICS
TABLE 7.1 MODIFICATIONS OF THE
IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS SIMPLE THEORY

pnp npn

Current gain a=h ^ FB

Iç '
Pmh F E -
Je D

P - y
a
8
1 1 - a
Junction Field-Effect
J E B

a = ystji [See footnote on page 219.]

Transistors
Transport factor
« L U

1
V =

2 A/ ; C

W e B

Emitter efficiency R - +s

. A'M^JJ The j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor, often caheddaeld-effect transistor,

1
B =
^ A . * proposed by Shockley in 1952 and first^emOTBirated by Dacey and
2
Ross. is a device based on an entirely different.physlcalprinciple than the
j u n c t i o n transistor. While the j u n c t i o n transistor -operates t h r o u g h the
A * -D„E
transport o f injected m i n o r i t y carriers, i n a junction.field-eflect transistor
* v the depletion region o f reverse-biased p-n j u n c t i o n s is used to modulate
Transit time the cross-sectional area available for current flow. The current is trans-
r~2D rB ' .. '"~2Z) N 2 3

ported by carriers of one polarity o n l y ; hence, i t is usual to refer to the

field-effect transistor as a unipolar device i n contrast to the j u n c t i o n
Base resistance r B = f o r s t r i p e e o m e t r
transistor w h i c h is a bipolar device since i t involves b o t h types o f carriers.
Î 7 "w~ ^ S >'
The field-effect transistor i n its most c o m m o n f o r m is illustrated i n
Leakage currents ¿0230 M
Figure 8.1. A n n-type layer is g r o w n epitaxially on a heavily doped />-type
•"CEO —
, w
1 — yo. M T substrate. T h e n , using regular planar technology, a p-xypt gate j u n c t i o n
is formed by diffusion from the t o p . Finally, contact is made to the p-
Maximum DV Q £S
regions and also to the /i-region at either side o f the t o p gate resulting i n a
CE

voltages source and a drain contact.! W i t h such fabrication techniques, the t o p and
b o t t o m gate junctions are approximately symmetrical. A c c o r d i n g l y , i n the
f o l l o w i n g discussion we concentrate our attention on symmetrical field-
f Ti / c
1 effect transistors.
Minimum K C E (sat)-±. In - + |VSEMVSC|J
, , A H
- A

voltage 9 1
K> -f In order to insure good contact to the n-region, it is usuallv necessarv to increase its
surface concentration. This can be accomplished by an additional n-type diffusion at
-pnp +npn the source and drain regions. These are omitted in Figure 8.1.

243
 244
Junction Field-Effect Transistors
P r i n c i p l e s of Operation 24S

of n-type material. Accordingly, the device shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2
is referred to as an /i-channel j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor.
The resistance o f the channel is given by
/. - Safari- W< ^ \*J '
R = b (3-11
q/x N Z(d
n D - 2 HO

where N is the d o n o r concentration i n the channel region, L , Z , a n d d

D

designate the length, width, and thickness o f the channel, respectively

m (see Figure 8.1), and W is the width o f the depletion region o f the top and
b o t t o m gates.
I n the case shown i n Figure 8.2a, when no gate voltage is applied and
Fig. 8.1 n-Channel junction field-effect transistor fabricated by planar-epitaxial methods.
V is small. W is the zero-bias depletion region o f the gate j u n c t i o n s . I t
D

We begin by discussing the physical principles underlying the operation
o f the j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor. Then we derive the most i m p o r t a n t
characteristics o f such devices, including the current-voltage relationship,
is evident from Figure 8.2a that these depletion regions restrict the current
flow to a smaller cross-sectional area than w o u l d exist w i t h o u t them.
For any given d r a i n voltage, the voltage along the channel w i l l increase
from zero at the source to V at the drain. Thus both gate junctions w i l l
D

the channel conductance, and the transconductance, a n d discuss the become increasingly reverse biased as we proceed from the source to the
factors affecting the gate leakage current. Finally, we discuss the various
drain. So long as V is much less than the built-in voltage o f the gate
D

modifications o f the simple theory o f field-effect transistors.

junctions d> , the depletion region w i d t h W w i l l remain practically inde-
B

pendent o f V and the channel will act as a resistor. However, as V is

D D

increased, the average cross-sectional area for current flow is reduced

8.1 PRINCIPLES O F OPERATION
I n Figure 8.2, we illustrate the conditions that prevail when the gate-to-
source potential V = 0. I f a small positive voltage V is applied to the
G D
drain, electrons w i l l flow f r o m source to d r a i n ; hence, a current w i l l flow
from drain to source t h r o u g h the rc-type region enclosed between the two
depletion regions. Such a region is c o m m o n l y referred to as a channel
because o f the increasing reverse bias o f the gate junctions near the drain
area. Thus the channel resistance R w i l l also increase. As a result, the
current-voltage characteristics will begin to fall below the i n i t i a l resistor
line. This tendency is evident i n the experimental measurements shown i n
Figure 8.3 where d r a i n current is plotted as a function o f d r a i n voltage for
a silicon j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor, used for illustration t h r o u g h o u t
this chapter. The top curve is for V = 0. a

As the drain voltage V is further increased, the depletion region width-

D

Channel also increases near the drain until eventually the two depletion regions_
touch, as indicated i n Figure 8.2b. This happens when

W = - . \ (8.2)
w
2 ] fc« = N ^

Using the one-sided stepjhjnction formulas, we can readily obtain the

corresponding value o f the drain voltage ^ s a t *
(a)
to (o
MV i S
smaH- T " °1 P e r a t i
° °
(a) V is small; channel resistance is constant.
n
° f 1 i U n C T i n
«™ S t o r for = 0
• ^sat = ^ " ^ [V -0]
o (8.3)
0

(b) V = V ; onset of saturation.

D

(c) V > V ;
D J d t

further increase in drain current.

where i is the b u i l t - i n voltage o f the gate junctions.
B
B o n i n o

A t this drain voltage, the source and the drain are completely separated
 246 Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s
Principles of O p e r a t i o n ?47
by a reverse-biased depletion region which n o r m a l l y does not conduct
the point X w i l l still remain the same. V DSIVT h u s the number o f carriers
because there are very few carriers i n i t . However, we have already seen
arriving f r o m the source to this p o i n t , and hence the current flowing from
in Chapter 6 that i f carriers are created w i t h i n a reverse-biased depletion
source to d r a i n , w i l l remain unaltered since the p o t e n t i a l d r o p in the channel
region by thermal generation or by avalanche b r e a k d o w n , a current w i l l
from source to the point X remains unaltered." T h u s for drain voltages
flow across i t . We have also seen in Chapter 7 that large currents can flow-
larger than V the current will not change but will remain at the value
across a reverse-biased depletion region i f carriers are injected into it—as DSIX

] , as is evident f r o m the experimental data s h o w n i n Figure 8.3. T h i s

D s & t

phenomenon is called saturation because the current saturates w i t h

increasing d r a i n voltage.
W h e n a gate voltage is applied to b o t h /^-regions o f such a p o l a r i t y as to
reverse bias the gate-to-channel j u n c t i o n s (i.e.. negative for an ??-channel
device), the depletion regions w i l l , o f course, become w i d e r . ; T h u s for
small values o f the drain voltage V the channel w i l l again act as a
D

resistor, b u t its resistance w i l l be larger because the cross-sectional area

available for current flow will have decreased due to the increased w i d t h
W of the depletion regions. This is evident f r o m the experimental data
corresponding to V = —1 v, —2 v. etc. i n F i g u r e 8.3.
A

As V is increased, the resistance o f the channel w i l l increase. When

D

V reaches a large enough value, the depletion regions w i l l again t o u c h

D

near the drain region. This w i l l take place when V — VJJ D UV where

Fig. 8.3 Current-voltage characteristics of a silicon n-channel junction field-effect

..transistor. This device is used for illustration throughout this chapter. Its structural
1
parameters are: ZIL = 170, d = 3 ft, N = 2.5 x 10" cm" .
v

which is the voltage required for the onset o f saturation in the presence o f
in the collector-base depletion region o f a transistor when the emitter-base a gate voltage. I t is evident that the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a gate voltage V G

junction injects m i n o r i t y carriers i n t o i t , or in the case o f punch-through lowers the drain voltage required for the onset of saturation by an equal
breakdown. amount.^ (Recall that V is negative for an n-channel device.)
A

The. situation existing in a field-effect transistor after the depletion As the d r a i n voltage is further increased beyond V ^. the p o i n t X
DS

regions have met is quite similar. A current w i l l flow in this case across where the depletion regions touch w i l l again merely move slightly t o w a r d
the combined depletion regions separating the source from the d r a i n . the source but the voltage d r o p f r o m the source to the p o i n t X w i l l remain
This current flows because o f carriers injected i n t o the depletion region the same, V D . Accordingly, the drain current w i l l also remain at its
M

— i f r o m the channel at the p o i n t where the depletion regions touch, marked value corresponding to the onset o f saturation J This value, however,
D S & V

. by X in Figure 8.2b. A s in the case o f the current flowing in the depletion will be lower than in the V = 0 case because the voltage d r o p f r o m source
A

region o f the collector-base j u n c t i o n o f a transistor, the current flowing to p o i n t X. K i , , itself is lower. This is evident from the experimental
s a t

across the depletion region beyond the p o i n t X will be limited by the n u m - data in Figure 8.3.
ber o f carriers arriving at this p o i n t . The magnitude o f this current, i n Thus we can distinguish t w o different regions o f the current-voltage
t u r n , depends on.the voltage d r o p from the-source to the p o i n t X. This relationship o f field-effect transistors. I n one region, when V is small, N

voltage drop, however, is exactly V D&!LXsince this is the reverse bias that is the cross-sectional area o f the channel is practically independent o f V D

required for the two depletion regions to touch.

I f the drain voltage V is increased beyond V . the depletion region
N LITMX
near the drain w i l l merely thicken and the p o i n t X will move slightlv
t o w a r d the source, as indicated in Figure 8.2c. However, the voltage at
t This assumes that the movement of the point X toward the source is negligible. The
validity of this assumption will be discussed in a later section.
t Usuallv the same bias is applied to both gates.
I The above as well as other formulas are summarized at the end of this chapter in
Table 8.1 for both n- and />-channel devices.
248 Junction Field-Effect Transistors Characteristics of Junction-Field-Effect Transistors 249

and the current-voltage characteristics are essentially ohmic or linear. We to the fundamental equation o f field-effect transistors:
refer to this l i m i t i n g region o f operation o f field-effect transistors as the
linear region. I n the other extreme, for V > V'yj , the current saturates
n sat

v
at / . We w i l l refer to this region o f operation o f field-effect transistors
n < a l
h = G. V D - - J — ± J {{VD + 4B ~ '.;)'- ~ - WW (3.7)
as the saturation region.
where

8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
1 is the conductance o f the metallurgical channel, i.e., the conductance o f
a. Current-Voltage Relationship
the rt-type layer between the two ^-type regions discounting the presence
Let us now consider a j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor before the onset o f
saturation as s h o w n i n Figure 8.4. The voltage drop across the elemental
section o f the channel is given by

dV = I dRD = (8.5)
q,u N Z[d
n D - lW{y)]

Fig. 8.4 The elemental section of the channel employed In the derivation of the current-
voltage characteristics of junction field-effect transistors.

i n analogy to E q u a t i o n 8.1 except that L is replaced by dy. The depletion

region w i d t h at distance y from the source is given by

llK^[V(y) + <j> -B V„]

W{ij) = (8.6)

Substituting E q u a t i o n 8.6 into 8.5 and integrating between the source

(where y = 0 and V = 0 | ) and the drain (where y = L and V = V ) leads D

t We define the potential at the source as our ground potential. This analysis neglects
the series resistance between source contact and the beginning of the channel (y — 01,
and between drain contact and the end of the channel (>j — L).
250 Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s Characteristics of Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s 251

o f the depletion regions altogether. I n Figure 8.5a we show the experi- 10X10" 3

I
mentally measured current-voltage characteristics o f the field-effect t r a n -
sistor used in this chapter as an example. Below i t . in Figure 8.5b. we
show the family o f characteristics calculated from Equation 8.7. using the
k n o w n values o f structural parameters. E q u a t i o n 8.7 is valid only below
saturation. Thus the curves shown were calculated for 0 < V < ^ s a t D

using Equation 8.7;, beyond V the current was taken to be constant,

DB&1

i n line w i t h our earlier argument.

O f particular importance is the f o r m o f the above equation i n the
linear and i n the saturation regions. F o r small drain voltages, i.e., for
V « <f> — V , the bracketed terms can be expanded leading to the
D B Q

simple f o r m u l a ,
T h e o r y : Eq. 8.11
, 8K,«o(ifi - V)
0
(no series resistances)
VD [Linear region]. (8.9)
qN d*
D

I t is evident that this expression gives the current-voltage relationship o f

a resistor whose resistance increases w i t h gate voltage. Experiment
The channel conductance g is given by

31*
(8.10)
:onsi

I n the linear region, g is given from E q u a t i o n S.9 as

f kK.e (d>„
0 - IVfl
-5 - 6 - 7
L qhi d- D J

I n Figure 8.6, we show the experimentally measured channel conductance Fig. 8.6 Channel conductance of the field-effect transistor as a function of gate voltage
i n the linear region o f our device i n comparison w i t h calculations based on in the linear region (V small).
r

E q u a t i o n 8.11 for this device. (Also shown are curves which were corrected
for the presence o f series resistances between source and drain contacts c a n D e
The drain current i n the saturation region I ,i calculated f r o m
Dst
and the channel region. This correction w i l l be discussed later.) As the
E q u a t i o n 8.7 by evaluating the drain current at the l i m i t o f the applica-
gate bias is increased, the conductance decreases u n t i l finally, at a certain
bility o f this equation, i.e., at V = V . DSubstitution o f E q u a t i o n 8.4
DS&X
value o f gate voltage, the conductance vanishes altogether. This voltage
into 8.7 yields the saturation current,
is called the turn-off voltage and it corresponds to the reverse bias -that
must be applied to the t w o gate junctions in order to deplete all o f the
channel region. A c c o r d i n g l y , the turn-off voltage can be calculated from 2 /8K,e,(* f l - V)
(;

the condition W = d!2 to be f nsai — C„ its - VG)

3 W
qNod-

1<JAV Ì 2

(8.13)
V r (8.12) [Saturation r e g i o n ] .
3 8K.e 0
252 Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s

b. Transconductance

A n i m p o r t a n t property o f field-effect transistors is the transconductance

defined by
dI D

a = (8.14)

The transconductance represents the change o f drain current at a given

d r a i n voltage upon a change in gate voltage. I t can be readily evaluated
by differentiating E q u a t i o n 8.7. This yields

8K , S

= < W ^TTT, [ V DV
+ J > B - V G - VVJJ - VQ\ (8-15)
om qN d-
D

The transconductance i n the linear region can be obtained by expanding

the bracketed terms. This yields

7 - ^ — = ^ = = [Linear region]. (8.16)

Conversely, the transconductance i n the saturation region can be

calculated by inserting V = V into Equation 8.15. This yields
D Dsat

a = G 1 - [Saturation region]. (8.17)

qN d'D

C o m p a r i s o n w i t h E q u a t i o n 8.11 shows that the transconductance in the

saturation region exactly equals the conductance in the linear region. This
i m p o r t a n t result is given experimental verification by a comparison o f the
transconductance data shosvn in Figure 8.7 with the conductance measure-
Fig. 8.7 Transconductance of the field-effect transistor as a function of gate voltage
ments shown i n Figure 8.6. in the saturation region. (V >
fl V ).Mt

j u n c t i o n leakage currents as discussed i n Chapter 10. I n the same.manner,

c. G a t e Leakage C u r r e n t
they can lead to similar increases i n the gate leakage current o f j u n c t i o n
Because the gate is reverse biased w i t h respect to the channel, the field-effect transistors. Thus surface effects can degrade the high i n p u t
current flowing to the gate terminal is very small; i t is the reverse-bias impedance o f field-effect transistors.
leakage current o f a p-n j u n c t i o n . Thus the gate impedance, i.e., the input
impedance o f a field-effect transistor, is very high. This high i n p u t
impedance is one o f the very i m p o r t a n t distinguishing characteristics o f 8.3 M O D I F I C A T I O N S O F T H E SIMPLE THEORY
field-effect transistors as compared to j u n c t i o n transistors.
The ordinary room-temperature leakage currents o f reverse-biased a. G r a d e d C h a n n e l Regions
silicon p-n junctions p r i o r to breakdown are o f the order o f picoamps to I n Section 8.2 we considered a field-effect transistor i n which the
nanoamps. However," surface effects can lead to drastic increases i n impurity concentration in the channel region was u n i f o r m ; a n d - w e
254 J u n c t i o n . Field-Effect Transistors Modifications of the Simple Theory 25S

employed the one-sided step-junciion a p p r o x i m a t i o n . This is a reasonably of operation o f the field-effect transistor is then given by the frequency
good approximation for field-effect transistors fabricated i n the manner corresponding to this charging time constant.
described in the beginning o f the chapter since the junctions are usually
shallow. However, i f the diffusions are deeper and the channel is located
further away from the surface, we may approach the range o f validity o f L 1 - = -I (8.21)
the linearly graded j u n c t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
A l s o , field-effect transistors can be made entirely by diffusion techniques, A simple estimate o f the upper l i m i t off can be obtained f r o m the ratio
0

w i t h o u t recourse to epitaxial g r o w t h . Thus, for instance, they can be made of the m a x i m u m transconductance to the m i n i m u m gate capacitance. The
by successive diffusions o f impurities o f opposite type much the same way m a x i m u m transconductance, f r o m the previous section, is G . The c

as the emitter and base regions o f a double-diffused j u n c t i o n transistor m i n i m u m gate capacitance is obtained when the depletion region reaches
are formed. I n such a case the i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n in the channel region its m a x i m u m w i d t h , which is one-half o f the channel depth d. T h u s ,
i s .similar to the i m p u r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n in the base o f a transistor and is
extremely graded.
3
/. < * f ^ f ? • (8-22)
— H o w e v e r , i t has been shown theoretically that the general characteristics
o f the j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor are quite independent of the particular
Note that this l i m i t i n g frequency is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the m o b i l i t y . Because
i m p u r i t y distribution. Thus the simplest analysis, that for the u n i f o r m
the m o b i l i t y o f electrons in silicon is approximately twice the m o b i l i t y
i m p u r i t y distribution presented i n the previous section, provides most o f
of holes, an ??-channel device promises twice as h i g h a frequency range as a
the general features o f the analysis for an arbitrary distribution to a fairly
/i-channel device for the same geometric factors and doping levels.
good a p p r o x i m a t i o n .

c. S o u r c e - t o - D r a i n Resistance in S a t u r a t i o n
b. C u t - O f f F r e q u e n c y for T r a n s c o n d u c t a n c e
We have already seen i n the previous section that in the saturation
W h e n the gate voltage is changed by an amount A f p . the w i d t h o f the
region the potential at the end o f the channel, at the point X o f Figure
depletion regions changes. As a result, the d r a i n current will also change.
8.2. w i l l be fixed at precisely the value o f I ' ^ a , corresponding to the applied
Some o f the additional d r a i n current w i l l be used to make up the change 1
gate voltage. This is so because the point A itself is where the t w o depletion
i n charge contained w i t h i n the depletion regions o f the gate junctions.
regions j u s t touch. Hence, the reverse bias across the gate j u n c t i o n s at
The response time o f the field-effect transistor ;„ can then be defined as
this p o i n t is fixed by the c o n d i t i o n that W = d/2 there.
that time in which the change i n the drain current makes up the change i n
As the drain voltage is increased further, the reverse bias between gate
the total charge on the gate, that is,
and the drain region itself is also increased; hence, the w i d t h o f the
tM
0 D = AQ A . P 0 (8.18) depletion region near the drain w i l l also increase. As a result, the p o i n t X
will move toward the source as indicated i n Figure 8.2c. The voltage at the
Thus i t follows that this response time is given by point X remains at the same value b u t the length L from the source to the
p o i n t X shortens: thus it is evident that the drain current w i l l increase at
t _AO Aa a _AO A AV
n a n _ C n a given gate voltage as the drain voltage is increased. This results i n an
AI D AV C U D gm u p w a r d t i l t i n g of the current-voltage characteristics beyond saturation
which-is particularly prominent for devices w i t h small channel length L .
Here C is the xoial gate capacitance o f the device, given by
G
This phenomenon is quite analogous to the Early effect discussed i n
connection w i t h j u n c t i o n transistors. I n b o t h cases, the increase i n current
Cv = 2 Z L — ( 8 . 2 0 ) takes place because the current path is shortened by the w i d e n i n g o f a
W reverse-biased depletion region.

where IK is the average depletion region w i d t h . The m a x i m u m frequency t More rigorous considerations yield 1/2CT/„ for this frequency limitation.
2So Junction r.teld-fcrtect I ransistors n^terences v-itea 257

zero, as assumed in the previous treatment, but w i l l have some finite value
d. Effect of S e r i e s Resistance K . Thus the effective gate voltage w i l l be
a

I n the above calculations we considered only the resistance o f that v

a = ^ .
C a p p l - V„ (8.25)
p o r t i o n o f the channel w h i c h can be modulated by the application o f a
reverse bias to the gate. I n reality, there are series resistances present, As a result, the observed transconductance is given by
b o t h near the source and near the d r a i n , which interpose an IR drop
/ . \ dI dI
between the source and d r a i n contacts and the channel. These series gjobs) = — - - = —
D
e
— D
D

(8.26)
resistances are illustrated schematically i n Figure 8.8. ^G.appl d[V 4-.>»7J 0

which, i n turn, yields

+
dI D dI D

and hence,

S m
gjobs) = . (8.28)
channel
1 + R,gm
This last equation shows that the observed transconductance i n the.
saturation region w i l l be reduced due to the presence o f a series resistance
^C.«ppl near the source from that attainable i n the absence o f such a series
Fig. 8.8 Illustration of the series resistances due to the unmodulated portions of the resistance. This reduction is shown i n Figure 8.7 for various values o f R,.
channel near source and drain. The series resistance near the d r a i n w i l l act i n a different manner.
Because o f the IR d r o p across this resistance, the drain voltage required to
The effect o f these series resistances o n the channel conductance i n the bring about saturation o f the d r a i n current w i l l be larger than w i t h o u t i t .
linear region can be readily calculated by noting that However, since beyond that voltage, i.e., f o r V > K , the magnitude
D D s a t

of V has no significant effect o n the d r a i n current, the drain series

D

— = - + R, + R d (8.23) resistance will have no further effect either.

g(obs) g
where e is the true channel conductance while g(obs) is the conductance
observed experimentally. R, and R are the series resistances near the READING REFERENCES
d

source and the drain, respectively, as indicated i n Figure 8.8. Thus,

J. T . Wallmark, ' T h e Field-Effect Transistor—A Review," RCA Rev., 24, 641 (1963).

1
L . J . Sevin, Field-Effect Transistors, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965.
g(obs) = (8.24)
1 + ( * , + *<)*
w h i c h shows that the observed conductance will be reduced due to the two
REFERENCES CITED
series resistances. This reduction was taken into account in Figure 8.6
for various series resistance values. The value (R, 4- Rf) 100 Q, which 1. W. Shockley, -'A Unipolar -Field-Effect' Transistor," Proc. IRE, 40, 1365 (1952).
provides a good fit w i t h the experimental data, is in fact a very reasonable
2. G . C . Dacey and I . M . Ross, "Unipolar 'Field-Effect' Transistor," Proc. IRE, 41,
one for this particular device geometry. 970 (1953); G . C . Dacey and I . M . Ross. "The Field-Effect Transistor," Bell System
Let us now consider the effect o f the series resistance near the source Tech. J., 34, 1149 (1955).
region, R , on the transconductance i n the saturation region. Because o f
s
3. R . S. C . Cobbold and F . N . Trofimenkolf, "Theory and Application of the Field-
this resistance, the potential at the beginning o f the channel will not be Effect Transistor," Proc. IEE, 111, 1981 (1964).
258 Junction Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s

PROBLEMS

8.1 Prepare a lable comparing the electrical characteristics o f junction transistors and
junction field-effect transistors.
8.2 Rearrange the current-voltage relationship, and the expressions for conductance
and transconductance by employing the expression for the turn-off voltage V , T

Equation S.12.
8.3 Rederive the current-voltage relationship, Equation 8.7, in the presence o f a
constant (unmodulated) series resistance near the source. R„ and near the drain.
R . Discuss the effect o f each. I n particular, show that V
t is independent o f
LSEX

R.
t

8.4 • - Derive an expression for the drain conductance g — dIj,ldV at a given V , i n the
p a

saturation region. Assume that this conductance is due to the thickening o f the
depletion region near the drain, and approximate the latter by the one-dimensiona!
one-sided step-junction formula.
8.5 Derive an expression giving the electric field along the channel, and the carrier
velocity in the channel. Examine the validity of the use o f a carrier velocity which
is proportional to the electric field. Discuss aualitativelv how the current-voltage
characteristics may be affected by the real carrier velocity versus electric field
relationship.

8.6 Derive expressions giving the variation o f the conductance in the linear region
and o f the transconductance in the saturation region w i t h temperature, at a fixed
gate voltage.
8.7 I t is often stated that junction neid-eneci transistors are insensitive to the effect
of irradiation because their operation is independent o f the lifetime. Recalling
the "'carrier-removal" effect (Chapter 5). derive an expression giving the channel
conductance in the linear region as a function of radiation dose, for low radiation
doses. Usingthe data in Figure 5.17. estimate the electron dose at which the channel
conductance of the field-effect transistor used in the present chapter for illustration
is reduced by 1 0 % .
 PART 111

SURFACE EFFECTS A N D
SURFACE-CONTROLLED DEVICES

• Theory of Semiconductor
Surfaces
• Surface Effects on p-n
Junctions
• Surface Field-Effect
Transistors
• Properties of the Si-SiCh
System
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE
SPACE-CHARGE REGIONS-
EQUILIBRIUM CASE
THE IDEAL MIS STRUCTURE
W O R K F U N C T I O N DIFFERENCE;
CHARGES, A N D STATES

9
T h e o r y of Semiconductor
Surfaces

I n Part I I we have considered semiconductor'devices w i t h the i m p l i c i t

assumption that their characteristics are determined strictly by b u l k
phenomena. I n realitv. surface effects-of-ten^ completely dominate the
characteristics o f semiconductor devices. I n fact, as-we had mentioned i n
the I n t r o d u c t i o n , one o f the principal reasons for the success o f the planar
technology is that planar junctions are covered by a thermally g r o w n
silicon dioxide layer. This reduces—but by no means eliminates—many
surface effects and therefore results in better c o n t r o l o f device character-
istics.
The properties o f the thermally oxidized silicon interface have been
studied very extensively; perhaps more extensively t h a n any other system
in the l o n g history o f semiconductor surface research. Because o f this,
and because o f their great importance in semiconductor device technology,
we w i l l n o w consider surface effects in some detail.
Surface effects on p-n junctions are p r i m a r i l y due to the fact that ionic
charges outside the semiconductor surface will induce an image charge i n
the semiconductor and thereby lead to the f o r m a t i o n o f surface space-
charge regions. This is illustrated schematically i n Figure 9.1 where we
show the idealized plane p-n j u n c t i o n structure t h a t was the basis o f our
previous studies. I f a surface space-charge region is formed, it w i l l modify
the j u n c t i o n space-charge region and can lead to changes in j u n c t i o n
characteristics.

263
264 T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces
Surface space-charge
region^
(af Ibl
Fig. 9.1 Illustration of the role of surface effects in semiconductor devices.
(a) Idealized plane p-n junction.
(b) Same, with surface space charge induced by positive ions.
I n this chapter we w i l l first study the characteristics o f surface space-
charge regions i n thermal e q u i l i b r i u m . After that we w i l l study the metal-
insulator-semiconductor ( M I S ) structure,! which has proved to be
1
extremely useful i n the s t u d y - o f semiconductor surfaces. We. w i l l first
consider its characteristics in the ideal case; then we w i l l extend our
consideration to include the effect o f metal-semiconductor w o r k - f u n c t i o n
differences, interface and oxide charges, and interface states.
9.1 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F S U R F A C E SPACE-
C H A R G E R E G I O N S — E Q U I L I B R I U M CASE-
The three experimental structures customarily employed i n the study
o f surface effects and o f the characteristics o f surface space-charge regions
are illustrated in Figure 9.2. These structures are (a) the metal-insulator-
semiconductor capacitor structure; (b) the gate or field-plate c o n t r o l l e d
p-n j u n c t i o n ; and (c) the metal-insulator-semiconductor surface field-effect
transistor. I n all three cases we illustrate the case o f a p-type substrate,
w i t h a large positive voltage applied to the field plate.
A n i m p o r t a n t difference exists between the first structure and the
second t w o . I n the case of a metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor,
no d-c current flow is possible across the space-charge region. This is
because any such current flow w o u l d have to go through the insulator. I n
contrast, current flow across the surface space-charge region is possible i n
structures (b) and (c) because i n these cases a contact is made to the surface
space-charge region through the n~ regions. Thus, the surface space-charge
* Because in most of the experimental studies the insulator has been silicon dioxide,
the term 'metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structure' will be used interchangeably with
'metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structure".
Characteristics of Surface Space-Charge Regions 265
region in the case o f the metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor w i l l be
in thermal equilibrium; i.e.. np = n?, and the Fermi level w i l l be constant
throughout the surface space-charge region.t I n this chapter we w i l l
restrict our attention to this case. I n order to treat characteristics o f
surface space-charge regions associated w i t h p-n junctions under bias,
such as i n case (b), we w i l l have to extend our consideration to non-
equilibrium conditions. This w i l l be done i n the next chapter.
u-Type inversion layer
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9.2 The experimental structures used to study surface effects.
(a) The metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor structure.
(b) The gate-controlled p-n junction.
(c) The metal-insulator-semiconductor surface field-effect transistor.
In all cases V„ » 0.
The energy band diagram o f a metal-oxide-semiconductor structure
with a p-type semiconductor, is shown i n Figure 9.3 for three bias con-
ditions. Regardless o f the value o f the gate voltage, the Fermi level i n the
semiconductor remains constant since e q u i l i b r i u m holds. I n Figure 9.3a,
we show the conditions corresponding to a negative voltage applied to the
metal gate. This negative potential w i l l attract a positive charge i n the
semiconductor which, i n the case o f a p-type semiconductor, will consist
o f an enhanced concentration—accumulation^-of holes near the oxide-
silicon interface. The corresponding charge distribution is shown i n the
lower half of the figure.!
I f a small positive voltage is applied to the gate, a negative charge-will
t It should be noted that deviations from the equilibrium condition are possible also
in the case of the simple MIS structure. Such deviations can take place if the measure-
ments are made under transient conditions, or if the insulator is imperfect and current
3
can leak across it. Although both of these conditions can be observed experimentally,
we will not consider them in this discussion.
X The conduction band of the silicon-dioxide layer is also indicated in this figure. This
conduction band is discussed in greater detail in Section 9.3.
 Characteristics of Surface Space-Charge Regions - 267
T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces
~266
of the charge Q due to the electrons i n a very n a r r o w »-type inversion
n

be induced i n the semiconductor (Figure 9.3b). T h i s , at first, w i l l be due

layer.i
t o holes being pushed away from the vicinity o f the interface, leaving
Once an inversion layer is formed, the w i d t h o f the surface depletion
behind a depletion region consisting o f uncompensated acceptor ions as region reaches a m a x i m u m . This is because once the bands are pulled
shown i n the lower half o f the figure. The charge per u n i t area contained down far enough for strong inversion to occur, even a very small increase
i n the semiconductor Q w i l l then be given by the charge contained w i t h i n
s
i n band bending, corresponding to a very small increase i n depletion
this depletion reeion, region w i d t h , w i l l result i n a very large increase i n the charge contained
w i t h i n the inversion layer. Thus, under such strong inversion conditions
Q. - -qN x
A it (9.1)
the charge per u n i t area induced i n the semiconductor w i l l be given by
where x is the w i d t h o f the surface depletion region.
d
2, = 2* - qXjtemMx (9-2)
-Type r

Oxide ' semiconductor where x i m & x denotes the maximum width of the surface depletion region.
For most purposes, we are interested o n l y i n the cases o f depletion and
inversion. These cases can be described to an excellent a p p r o x i m a t i o n by
the depletion approximation that we have already employed i n our study
Electrons
(metal) of p-n j u n c t i o n s .
E. When the semiconductor is depleted and the charge w i t h i n the semi-
V < 0.
c - E !
(
conductor is given by E q u a t i o n 9.1, integration o f Poissons equation
1 > 0
g g » y a " c i * E,. o yields the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the electrostatic potential i n the surface depletion
"^Holes r
region as
(metal

i> = f [l
t - - J (9.3)

where the surface potential <b , w h i c h designates the t o t a l bending o f the

s

Plx) energy bands f r o m the bulk o f the semiconductor to the surface, is given by

aK -X •"

We should note that this potential d i s t r i b u t i o n is identical w i t h the one we

(a) Accumulation of (b) Depletion of (c) Inversion: accumulation of
majority carriers minority carriers near surface,
derived i n Chapter 6 for the case o f a one-sided step j u n c t i o n . Indeed,
majority carriers
near surface. from surface. we w i l l see later that the theory o f surface space-charge regions for the
depletion and inversion cases is analogous to the theory o f one-sided step
Fig. 9.3 Energy bands and charge distribution In an MOS structure under various bias
junctions i n almost every detail.
conditions, in the absence of surface states and work function difference.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n given by Equation 9.3 is shown i n Figure 9.4 i n c o m -
4
parison to exact numerical calculations o f the p o t e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the
I f we increase the positive potential applied to the gate, the w i d t h o f the
surface space-charge region for a strongly inverted surface. The agreement
surface depletion region w i l l first increase. Correspondingly, the total
is clearly reasonable, except very near the surface. ( A l l calculations i n
electrostatic potential v a r i a t i o n i n the silicon, as represented b y the bending
this chapter are for silicon at 3 0 0 ° K . unless otherwise specified.)
o f the energy bands, w i l l also increase as shown i n Figure 9.3c. However,
as the bands are bent further, the conduction band w i l l eventually come +
The inversion laver is narrow because the minoritv carrier concentration drops to
close to the F e r m i level. W h e n this happens, the concentration o f electrons ~ 1 0 % of its value at .the interface over a distance —3A7"/o<f, where {., is the electric
field in the semiconductor, at the interface. This distance. 10 to 100 A . is much smaller
near the interface w i l l suddenly increase very sharply. After this, most o f
than the width of the surface depletion region.
the additional negative charge induced i n the semiconductor w i l l consist
268 Theory of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Surfaces C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s oi c u r i a t e o u a t e - v . i w t r g c rveg.o,,»

of the zero-bias depletion region o f a one-sided step j u n c t i o n (Chapter 61.

The two expressions are similar with cA^inv) = 2d> taking the place o f the F

built-in voltage (p . This analogy is indeed reasonable: when the surface

B

is inverted, a very t h i n n-type layer is formed, separated from the p-type

substrate by a depletion region. The one difference between the n^p step-
j u n c t i o n case considered earlier and the inversion layer-substrate j u n c t i o n
that we are dealing w i t h here is that, i n the former, the rt-type conductivity
was brought about by a metallurgical process: i.e., the electrons were

. !• Depletion approximation, with tp = s 26, 1 • "

1J 3

| • Computer calculations'* N A = 10 cm"

<Kv)
Depletion approximation
Fig. 9.4 Potential distribution in the surface depletion region.
• Computer calculations^

One particularly interesting question concerns the p o i n t after which the

charge due to electrons i n the inversion layer becomes significant. A g o o d
approximate c r i t e r i o n for the onset o f this c o n d i t i o n of strong inversionj
I
1 J* / 10' 5

is that the electron concentration (per unit volume) near the surface should
— T " ,10-
exceed the concentration o f the substrate impurity ions, i.e.,
1 2 3 4 5 x1
n, = NA (9.5)
2
- (cm- )
for the case o f a p-type semiconductor. Under this c o n d i t i o n , the F e r m i
level at the surface w i l l be above the intrinsic F e r m i level by as m u c h as Fig. 9.S Surface depletion region width versus charge induced in the semiconductor.
it is below the intrinsic Fermi level i n the b u l k . A c c o r d i n g l y , the t o t a l
band-bending at the onset o f strong inversion w i l l be introduced into the semiconductor by the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f donor ions. I n
contrast, in the present case the rc-type layer is induced by the electric
d> (mv) 26 . (9.6)
3 = F
field applied with the field plate. Thus this j u n c t i o n , rather than being a
A s we discussed earlier, the surface depletion region w i d t h reaches a metallurgical j u n c t i o n , is a field-induced junction.
m a x i m u m when the surface becomes strongly inverted. Accordingly, the We can readily calculate the depletion region w i d t h x as a function o f d

the charge per unit area induced in the silicon O . Such calculations based-
m a x i m u m w i d t h o f the surface depletion region can be estimated using the s

both on the depletion approximation and o n more exact numerical

depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n , corresponding to the value o f the surface 3
computations are shown in Figure 9.5. N o t e that, i n accordance w i t h
potential at the onset o f strong inversion, ^ . ( i n v ) as denned above. T h i s
our earlier qualitative argument, the depletion region width first increases
yields
as an increasing amount o f charge is induced i n the silicon. The rate o f
/2iC e <k('nv)
s 0
increase—the slope o f the straight lines—is o f course dependent on the
Xdmai = J . (9.7)
impurity concentration. Eventually, when the surface is inverted and a
N o t e the similarity between this expression and that giving the w i d t h field-induced j u n c t i o n is formed, the surface depletion region reaches a
maximum width. This m a x i m u m surface depletion region w i d t h x is i m A X

t Strictly speaking, the surface becomes inverted when the minority carrier concentra-
only a function o f the impurity concentration, the same way as the zero-
tion at the surface equals the majority carrier concentration at the surface, i.e.,
bias depletion region width o f a one-sided step j u n c t i o n is only a function
n, = p, — Hi. However, this is not a useful criterion because the corresponding charge
of minority carriers per unit area is immeasurably small. of the substrate impurity concentration. T h e relationship between x d m i x
 - T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces The Ideal M I S (or M O S ) S t r u c t u r e 27I

and i m p u r i t y concentration, based on both the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n

and numerical computations, is shown i n Figure 9.6.
iop—r
A n i m p o r t a n t quantity is the charge per unit area contained w i t h i n the
r surface depletion region at and after the onset o f strong inversion. T h i s
r
is given by
QB • -qKj*mMx (9-8)

for a p-type semiconductor. A c c o r d i n g to E q u a t i o n 9.2. the t o t a l charge

in the silicon after strong inversion w i l l then be given by

Q. = Qr, + Q E (9.9)
or
Q„ = Q. - Q.
B (9.10)

This relationship is shown in Figure 9.7 for three different d o p i n g concen-

trations. A g a i n , the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n is compared w i t h exact
numerical computations. The agreement i n this and i n the previous
figures demonstrates that the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n provides an
excellent description o f the surface space-charge region i n the depletion
Fig. 9.6 The maximum width of the surface depletion region as a function o
and inversion regimes.
Impurity concentration.

9.2 T H E IDEAL MIS ( O R M O S ) STRUCTURE

a.. Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics

I n the absence o f any contact potential or w o r k - f u n c t i o n differences
between metal and semiconductor (we w i l l discuss these i n Section 9.3).
any applied gate voltage w i l l partly appear across the oxide and p a r t l y
across the silicon. Thus.
Vc=K+<P> (9.11)

.where V and g> denote the potential v a r i a t i o n across oxide and semi-
0 s

conductor, respectively.
I n the absence o f any charges located at the interface between the oxide
and the semiconductor, Gauss' law requires that the electric displacement
should be continuous at this interface or

KSB 0 = K4, at the interface. (9.12)

Fig. V.7 The magnitude of the charge of the minority carriers within the inversion I f there are no charges present w i t h i n the oxide, the electric field i n it is
layer as a function of the magnitude cf the total charge induced within the semiconductor. uniform and is given by
V. • ..
 Theory of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Surfaces

When the gate voltage is zero or negative, no depletion region exists.

where x, is the oxide thickness. The electric field at the silicon surface,
Thus the depletion approximation, and w i t h i t the above formula, lose
f r o m Gauss' law, equals
their meaning. However, the capacitance can be readily obtained by
e t = - . (9.i4) considering that when the surface is accumulated, the semiconductor
merely acts as a resistor i n series w i t h the oxide capacitance. Thus the
measured capacitance w i l l be simply C„.
A c o m b i n a t i o n o f these three equations yields the voltage drop across the
I n the other extreme, when strong inversion sets i n , the w i d t h o f the
oxide as
depletion region w i l l not increase with- further increase in gate voltage.
1/ = - — Q, = - = i (9.15)
C
C.
where C s K € jx
0 0 0 0 is the capacitance per unit area o f the oxide layer.
if
The "ate voltage then w i l l be related to the characteristics o f the surface - - • .
space-charge region by •
0.9 — Depletion approximation
3
V=
Q + <!>,. (9.16) • Computer calculations

0.8 — \
The simplest measurable electrical characteristic o f an M O S structure is
its small-signal capacitance. If Q G is the charge per u n i t area on the gate; 0.7 — ^ - - i , | i i i
N = 1.45 x 1 0 16
cm' 3

this capacitance is given by A

x„ = 0.2 n
0.6 —
d Q s
r as « _ = - (9 17)
dV G dV G _JQ ^_
3 u . 0.5
1 ' I l l ,
3
C ' -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 9.8 The capacicance-voltage characteristics of an MOS structure.
1 (9.18)
This w i l l take place at a gate voltage corresponding to a charge per u n i t
c c area- Q induced in the silicon and a surface potential <p\,(inv) = 2<p .
s F

where Substitution of these quantities into E q u a t i o n 9.16 yields the gate voltage
at the onset o f strong inversion, referred to as the turn-on voltage for
c = _ <Q = • (9.19)
reasons that will become clear later,
dd> s xd

is the capacitance per u n i t area o f the surface space-charge region i n the V = - ~ + cifmv). (9.21)
T

semiconductor. Thus, the capacitance of the M O S structure is given b y

the series c o m b i n a t i o n o f C, a n d C . By eliminating *„, we obtain the
s
Thus the capacitance w i l l level off and remain constant at a value given by
f o r m u l a for the capacitance o f an M O S structure:
Equation 9.20 for V = V . The capacitance-voltage characteristic o f a
G T

_C particular metal-silicon dioxide-silicon structure is illustrated i n Figure 9.8

(9.20)
based on both the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n and exact computer calcula-
tions. The depletion approximation evidently shows all the correct
qN K,x
A 0
features o f the more exact theory.
which predicts that the capacitance w i l l fall w i t h the square root o f the It should be pointed out that while we have used a p-type substrate i n
the preceding discussions, all o f the above considerations are equally valid
gate voltage while the surface is being depleted.
 The Ideal MIS (or M O S ) Structure 275
274 - T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces

This is, i n fact, what happens when the measurement frequency is high.
to the case of an n-type substrate w i t h proper changes i n symbols (e.g.,
I f however the measurement frequency is l o w enough that r e c o m b i n a t i o n -
0 to Q ) and signs. I n particular, the capacitance-voltage characteristics
n v
generation rates can keep up w i t h the small signal variation, then the
w i l l have identical shapes b u t w i l l be m i r r o r images o f each other.
recombination-generation mechanism w i l l lead to charge exchange w i t h
Table 9.1 at the end o f this chapter summarizes the i m p o r t a n t formulas
the inversion layer i n step w i t h the measurement signal. I n that case, the
involved i n the analysis o f surface space-charge regions for both p- and
capacitance measured w i l l approach that o f the oxide layer alone.
n-type semiconductors.
T o understand this better, let us consider what happens when a positive
voltage applied to an M O S structure is increased by a small a m o u n t .
b. Frequency Effects Instantaneously, as the voltage is increased, more negative charge is
induced i n the silicon. A t high frequencies, holes w i l l be pulled o u t o f the
I n the preceding calculation o f the capacitance we had assumed that
p-type semiconductor and the w i d t h o f the depletion region w i l l increase
u p o n a change i n gate voltage all o f the incremental charge appears at the
slightly, as shown i n Figure 9.9a. I f however electron-hole pairs can be
edge o f the depletion region. T h i s consideration led to the simple formula
generated fast enough, i.e., before the voltage is reduced again, the
for the capacitance o f the semiconductor space-charge region,
generated holes will replenish the holes pulled out from the edge o f the

r = - ^ = ^ 2
depletion region and the extra electrons w i l l appear in the inversion layer.
Thus the incremental negative charge brought about by the incremental
increase i n gate voltage w i l l appear at the oxide-sDicon interface, as
CiVg illustrated in Figure 9.9b. As a result, the capacitance measured w i l l be
that o f the oxide layer alone, C„.
As a consequence, the capacitance-voltage characteristics o f metal-
• oxide-semiconductor structures are frequency dependent. Experimental
measurements on an M O S structure corresponding to the computations
given i n Figure 9.8 are shown i n Figure 9.10, for various measurement

-dQc CJVe

(b)

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

-dQc

Fig. 9.10 The effect of measurement frequency on the capacitance-voltage character-

Fig. 9.9 Illustration of the variation of charge distribution in an MOS structure at
istics of MOS structures.'
(a) high frequencies; (b) low frequencies.
276 T h e o r y of S e m i c o n d u c t o r - Surfaces
The Ideal MIS (or M O S ) Structure

frequencies. In agreement w i t h the above argument, it is evident that at

Combining Equation 9.25 w i t h 9.16 and 9.21 yields
low frequencies the capacitance approaches the oxide capacitance at the
onset o f strong inversion.
g =-n ClV - V ).
The transition from the " h i g h - " to the "'low--' frequency type capacitance- n G T
(9.26)
voltage characteristics can also be brought about at a given measurement
Thus, i f the electron m o b i l i t y /<„ is independent o f the gate voltage, a"
frequency by an increase in the carrier recombination-generation rate, for
3
straight line should result i f conductance is plotted as a function o f gate
instance by an increase in temperature or by i l l u m i n a t i o n .
Low-frequency type characteristics can also be observed at relatively ' 1x10""
high measurement frequencies due to two-dimensional effects, such as the
s
existence o f an inversion layer beyond the metal field plate. This phenom-
0.8
enon w i l l be discussed i n Chapter 12. Also, in gate-controlledp-n junctions S - 1.3 x 10' e r a 5 -
A

and i n M O S surface field-effect transistors, where contact is made to the

.x. = 0.26 u
inversion layer t h r o u g h metallurgical junctions (see Figure 9.2), m i n o r i t y
carriers can be supplied to the inversion layer through this external contact. — = 3.6 x 10" cm
1
Thus low-frequency type characteristics will prevail up to much higher
frequencies because the supply o f m i n o r i t y carriers is no longer dependent
on a generation-recombination process.
:
fheory (ji = 660 c m / v sec)
n

c. Channel Conductance

Using the M O S surface field-effect transistor, structure (c) o f Figure 9.2,

an important complementary measurement can be performed. This
measurement pertains to the conductance o f an inversion layer or channel
induced by a positive gate voltage ( i n the case o f a />-type substrate). T h i s
conductance is given by
Z
*'o(x) dx (9.22)
LJ 0

where Z is the w i d t h o f the conducting channel ( i n a direction n o r m a l to

Figure 9.2), L is the distance o f separation between the two n^ regions, J I
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
and a(x) is the conductivity o f the inversion layer, given by
Va \y)
a(x) = wA*l (9-23) Fig. 9.11 The channel conductance and gate capacitance of an MOS transistor. 1

The point x = x denotes the distance below the surface where the semi-
i

conductor is j u s t intrinsic. Thus the channel conductance becomes
g = - 7 , " „ Q n (9-24)
voltage. Pertinent experimental results are shown in Figure 9.11 along
w i t h the corresponding capacitance-voltage measurements. Note that i n
accordance with the above argument, the conductance is indeed propor-
tional to the quantity {V — V ). The voltage at which the conductance
0 T

begins to increase is V , which explains why this voltage is called the

where O is the charge density per unit area due to mobile carriers i n the
n
T

turn-on voltage. Note that the onset o f conductance closely corresponds

inversion layer. C o m b i n i n g E q u a t i o n 9.24 w i t h 9.10 yields
to the rise in capacitance.
• This simple derivation o f the channel conductance applies only when the
8= - f / U Q . - G * ] . (9-25)
id voltage drop V between the two n regions is small i n comparison to-. r
278 T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces Effects on M O S Characteristics 279

(V
G — V ). When this c o n d i t i o n is not met. as is often the case i n practical
T

operation of M O S transistors, the expression for the conductance along

the surface takes on a more complicated f o r m . This will be considered in
Vc = o
detail in Chapter 11. I
<tv

9.3 EFFECT O F W O R K F U N C T I O N DIFFERENCE,

CHARGES, A N D STATES ^ 7
O N MOS C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S -£, Va|'

a. W o r k Function Difference m m '

; AI ; Si0 Si0
2 2
- p-Type Si
The electron energies at the F e r m i level i n the metal and i n the semi- •'/A ''////////.
conductor of an M O S structure w i l l , i n general, be different. Such an la) (b)
energv difference is usually expressed as a difference i n work functions, Fig. 9.12 The effect of metal-semiconductor work function difference on the potential
which is the energy required to remove an electron from the F e r m i level i n distribution in an MOS structure.
a given material to vacuum. W h e n the.metal o f an M O S structure is (a) Conditions for V = 0. c

shorted to the semiconductor, electrons will flow from the metal to the
semiconductor or vice versa u n t i l a potential will be built up between the
two which will counterbalance the difference i n w o r k functions. When
equilibrium is reached, the F e r m i level i n the metal is lined u p w i t h the
Fermi level in the semiconductor. Therefore, there will be an electrostatic
potential variation from one region to the other, as illustrated i n Figure
9.12a for the case o f an a l u m i n u m / s i l i c o n dioxide/p-type silicon sample.
I n this figure we also show the conduction band o f the oxide. The energy
required to move an electron f r o m the metal Fermi level into the conduc-
t i o n band of the oxide is called the metal-oxide barrier energy. The energy
required to move an electron f r o m the silicon valence band to the conduc-
t i o n band o f the oxide is the silicon-oxide barrier energy. These barrier
energies which are related to the respective w o r k functions modified by the
presence o f the oxide can be independently measured by i l l u m i n a t i n g
M O S structures with light o f increasing frequency until the p h o t o n energy
w i l l be high enough to excite electrons into the conduction band of the
oxide, thereby resulting i n electronic conduction between metal and
semiconductor. The barrier energies in the M O S svstem are discussed
further in Chapter 12.
T o derive the effect o f a w o r k function difference on M O S characteristics,
it is easiest to consider the c o n d i t i o n i n which just enough gate voltage is
applied to counterbalance the w o r k function diffeience and a flat-band
condition is maintained in the semiconductor, as illustrated i n Figure
9.12b. The gate voltage required to b r i n g about the fiat-band condition is
called the fat-band voltage V .
r B
(b) Flat-band condition.
The flat-band voltage is clearly the difference o f the modified w o r k
functions indicated i n Figure 9.12b.
V FB * V — ®S — $ ' (9.27)
We w i l l discuss the role o f the flat-band voltage on the M O S character-
istics later i n this section.
b. C h a r g e s in the Insulator
Consider a sheet charge per unit area 0 w i t h i n the insulator o f a metal-
insulator-semiconductor structure as shown i n Figure 9.13. Under the
conditions o f zero gate voltage (Figure 9.13a), this sheet charge w i l l
induce an image charge partly in the metal and p a r t l y i n the semiconductor.
The resulting field distribution is indicated i n the lower part o f Figure
9.13a. neglecting work function differences and electrostatic potential
variation i n the semiconductor.
I n order to b r i n g about a flat-band c o n d i t i o n (i.e.. no charge induced
in the semiconductor), we have to apply a negative voltage to the metal, as
shown i n Figure 9.13b. W i t h increasing negative voltage, we are p u t t i n g
more negative charge on the metal and thereby shift the electric field
distribution downwards until the electric field reaching the silicon surface
becomes zero. Under this condition the area contained under the electric
field d i s t r i b u t i o n is the flat-band voltage V . O n the basis o f this figure
r B
 T h e o r y of S e m i c o n d u c t o r Surfaces t n e c t s on n u j u w r ^ w i M U U
280

and Poisson's equation, V FB is given by can be shown by superposition o f individual elements o f such a cHarce
distribution that the corresponding flat-band voltage is given by
V J £ - - _ - 2 . (9.23) 1
1 f " x
V
F B = - —C, Jo -x p(x) clx. (9.30)
Thus the fiat-band voltage not only depends on the density o f the sheet 0

charae 0 but also on its location within the insulator. W h e n the sheet Such space charges i n the insulator can be due to several causes such as
ionic contamination or traps ionized as a result o f exposure to ionizing
radiation. We w i l l discuss both o f these i n detail i n Chapter 12.

Insulator Semi- Metal Semi- Metal P Insulator Semiconductor

Metal conductor
conductor

Fig. 9.13 The effect of a sheet charge within the insulator. Fig. 9.14 The effect of an arbitrary space-charge distribution within the insulator.
(a) Conditions for V = 0.
0
(Flat-band condition.)
(b) Flat-band condition.
Space charge or interface charge i n the insulator, and a metal-
charge is next to the metal, i t wiT induce no image charge i n the silicon
semiconductor w o r k function difference w i l l both lead to a translation o f
and, therefore, have no effect o n the semiconductor surface. I n the other
the flat-band point from V = 0 along the voltage axis. Experimental
G

extreme, when the sheet charge is located next to the semiconductor, i t

observation o f the flat-band voltage shift is illustrated i n Figure 9.15.
w i l l exert its m a x i m u m influence, and lead to a flat-band voltage o f
N o t e that the entire capacitance-voltage characteristic is translated i n a
x,0 Q parallel manner along the voltage axis by the same amount as the flat-band
(9.29)
FB
C. point. The total translation o f the flat-band voltage or o f any other well
Ke
o 0
defined point on the capacitance-voltage (or, alternatively, the channel-
We w i l l see i n Chapter 12 that there is indeed such a sheet charge associated conductance versus gate voltage) characteristic w i l l then be given- by
w i t h the silicon dioxide-silicon interface. Its density is denoted by Q„.
The more general case o f an arbitrary space-charge d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n V 1 0
F B = Gj/s - - ± f - p{x) dx. (9.31)
the insulator is illustrated i n Figure" 9.14 for the flat-band c o n d i t i o n . I t C C Jo0 x„
282 T h e o r y of Semiconductor Surfaces Effects on M O S Characteristics 2 83

these states w i l l be lifted far above the Fermi level. Thus their p r o b a b i l i t y
of being occupied by electrons w i l l be small and most o f them w i l l be
unoccupied. A s the surface is depleted and inverted, the states are pulled
well below the F e r m i level and their probability o f occupation by electrons

Thus direct comparison between theory and experiment is possible by

p l o t t i n g experiments as a function o f (V — V ) rather than as a function
c FB

of V alone. Experimental data are presented i n this manner for thermally

G

oxidized silicon i n Figures 9.16 and 9.17. These data show the effect o f
substrate i m p u r i t y concentration and o f oxide thickness on the shape o f
the characteristics in comparison w i t h the exact theoretical computations.
I t is evident that a uniform translation along the voltage axis brings about
a very good agreement between theory and experiment i n all cases.

c. Surface States

I n Figure 9.3 we have shown how the application o f a potential to the -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
gate o f an M O S structure will result in a movement o f the energy bands V G - V„ (vj
relative to the F e r m i level near the surface. I f there are states w i t h i n the
F i g . 9.16 T h e effect of s u b s t r a t e i m p u r i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n t h e c a p a c i t a n c e - v o l t a g e
forbidden gap concentrated at the surface, such as the surface recom- characteristics of M O S s t r u c t u r e s . '
bination-generation centers discussed i n Chapter 5. the probability o f the
occupation of these surface states will change as a result o f the variation will approach unity. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , such states whose charge can be
in band bending. This w i l l happen because as the bands are moved up
readily exchanged with the semiconductor are.called fast surface states.
and down at the surface, the p r o x i m i t y o f the energy level o f the surface
Thus the charge i n the fast surface states w i l l vary w i t h the band bending
states to the Fermi level will change. This effect is illustrated i n Figure
or surface potential tjt . O w i n g to this change, the capacitance-voltage or
A

9.18 where we show the charge condition o f surface states w i t h energy

conductance-voltage characteristics will be displaced from the theoretical
level near the middle o f the forbidden gap. As the surface is accumulated.
characteristics br an amount which itself varies with the surface potential.
 I I 1
— Theory
.-Experiment.^
— \ 1 No fast
\ surface
\
\
—
\ states \

U" 0.8

Experiment,
0.7
Fast surface states -
1 1 r*- 1

1 1 1
20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10

Fig. 9.19 The effect of fast surface states on the capacitance voltage characteristics of
7
MOS structures.

The result may appear either as steps or kinks in the characteristics or, for
the case o f a c o n t i n u u m o f states i n the forbidden gap, as a gradual
distortion o f the characteristics. A n experimental illustration o f the effect
of fast surface states on M O S characteristics is shown i n Figure 9.19.

16 3
,V, - 1.45 x 1 0 cm"
READING REFERENCES
0.2l— • Theory
Experiment (recorder tracing)
A more comprehensive treatment of the theory of semiconductor surfaces along with" '
a bibliography of the earlier work on the subject can be found in A . Many, Y . Goldstein,
0.1 and N . B. Grover, Semiconductor Surfaces, Wiley, 1965.

5 10 15 20 25 REFERENCES CITED
-10 -5
Va - V , (v)
r
1. The MOS structure was first proposed as a voltage variable capacitor by J . L . Moll,
of
i . 9.17 The effect of oxide thickness on the capacitance-voltage characteristics "Variable Capacitance with Large Capacity Change," Wescon Convention Record,
Fig.
f

Part 3, p. 32 (1959); and by W. G . Pfann and C . G . B. Garrett, '"Semiconductor

MOS structures.
Varactors Using Surface Space-Charge Layers," Proc. IRE (Correspondence), 47,
2011 (1959). Its characteristics were then analyzed in detail by D . R . Franld, ."Some
Effects of Material Parameters on the Design of Surface Space-Charge Varactors,"
Solid-State Electron., 2, 71 (1961); and by R . Lindner, "Semiconductor Surface
Varactor," Bell System Tech. J., 41, 803 (1962). It was first employed in the study of
thermally oxidized silicon surfaces by L . M . Terman. "An Investigation of Surface-
States at a Silicon/Silicon Dioxide Interface Employing Metai-Oxide-Silicon Diodes,"
Solid-State Electron., 5, 235 (1962); and by K . Lehovec and A. Slobodskoy, "Field
Effect-Capacitance Analysis of Surface States on Silicon," Phys. Stat. Solidi, 3, 447
lb) (1963).
(a)

r i g9 18 The charge condition of a particular set of fast surface states with energy
near the middle of the forbidden gap as a function of surface potential vanation.
(a) Surface-accumulated: states are unoccupied.
(b) Surface inverted: states occupied.
2. The theory of surface space-charge regions was developed by W. L . Brown, "jV-type
Surface Conductivity on iMype Germanium." Phys. Rev., 91, 518 (1953); C . G . B .
Garrett -and W. H . Brattain, "Physical Theory of Semiconductor Surfaces," Phys.
286 Theory of Semiconductor Surfaces
Problems 237 ISf
Rev., 99, 376 (1955); R . H . Kingston and S. F . Neustadter, "Calculation of the 9.7 Derive the transition frequency between "low"' and ""high" frequency type capaci-
Space Charge. Electric Field, and Free Carrier Concentration at the Surface of a tance-voltage characteristics by equating the generation rate within the surface /Jfe
. Semiconductor," J. Appl. Phys., 26, 718 (1955). depletion region (see Chapter 5) to the charging current. - "
3. A . S. Grove, B . E . Deal, E . H . Snow, and C . T . Sah, "Investigation of Thermally 9.8 We have seen that the flat-band voltage V depends on the metal-semiconductor
rB

Oxidized Silicon Surfaces Using Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Structures," Solid- work function difference as well as on the surface-state charge density. Devise a a
Stale Electron., 8, 145 (1965). way by which these two factors can be determined from measurements of the fiat- •
4. C . E Young,. "Extended Curves of the Space Charge, Electric Field, and Free band voltage of M O S capacitors having various oxide thicknesses. ^
Carrier Concentration at the Surface of a Semiconductor, and Curves of the Electro- 9.9 Calculate the change in flat-band voltage corresponding to:
static Potential Inside a Semiconductor," J. Appl. Phys., 32, 329 (1961). (a) A uniform positive charge distribution in the oxide. w
5. A . S. Grove, E . H . Snow, B . E . Deal, and C . T . Sah, "Simple Physical Model for the (b) A triangular distribution, which is high near the metal and zero near the silicon. dSt
Space-Charge Capacitance of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Structures," J. Appl. Phys. (c) A triangular distribution which is high near the silicon and zero near the metal. "
1! 1
Let the total density of ions be 1 0 cm" in all three cases and consider a 0.2 p. ^
' 35, 2458 (19~64).
thick oxide film.
6. E . H . Nicollian and A . Goetzberger, "Lateral A C Current Flow Model for Metal-
9.10 Derive the charge per unit area Q„ in fast surface states as a function of surface e
Insulator-Semiconductor Capacitors," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-12, 108
potential for: gr
(1965); S. R . Hofstein and G . Warfield, "Physical Limitations on the Frequency -1
(a) Single-level centers located at E, = £ , , with density A'„ ( c m ) . *
Response of a Semiconductor Surface Inversion Layer," Solid-Staie Electron., 8,
(b) Centers uniformly distributed in energy throughout the forbidden gap, with f
321 (1965). _ ! J
density D„ ( c m ev- ).
7. B . E . Deal. M . Sklar. A . S. Grove, and E . H . Snow. "Characteristics of the Surface- Assume that the surface states are acceptor type. i.e.. negative when occupied by f(
State Charge (Q„) of Thermally Oxidized Silicon," J. Electrochem. Society, 114, an electron, neutral otherwise.
(March 1967).
9.11 Derive the capacitance-voltage characteristics of an M O S structure in the presence
of single-level and uniformly distributed fast surface states as described in Problem r
PROBLEMS
9.10. ~ '
f
9.1 Verify the expression given for the capacitance of the surface space-charge region,
Equation 9.19. f
9.2 Derive an expression for the surface field required:
f
(a) T o make the surface exactly intrinsic.
(b) T o bring about strong inversion.
f
9.3 Calculate and plot:
(a) the charge in the semiconductor, r
(b) the surface field, and
(c) the surface potential r
at the onset of strong inversion, as a function of the impurity concentration in the
f
semiconductor.
9.4 Derive an expression giving the change of the turn-on voltage of an M O S structure <

I
as a function of temperature.
9.5 (a) Derive a formula giving the ratio of the minimum high frequency capacitance
of an M O S structure C min to the oxide capacitance C„ as a function of oxide r
thickness and substrate impurity concentration,
(b) The impurity concentration in the silicon in a region near the oxide-silicon
interface may be different from the concentration deep in the substrate; for
instance, due to redistribution during oxidation. In such a case, what impurity
concentration would be inferred from the C / C „ ratio?
m i D

9.6 Exact calculations of the capacitance C of an M O S structure at flat band show

it to be less than the capacitance of the oxide layer C„ (see. for example. Figure
9.8). Give a physical explanation for this fact.
 • CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE
SPACE-CHARGE REGIONS—
NON-EQUILIBRIUM CASE
• THE GATE-CONTROLLED DIODE
STRUCTURE
• RECOMBINATION-GENERATION
IN T H E S U R F A C E S P A C E - C H A R G E
REGION
• FIELD-INDUCED JUNCTIONS
AND C H A N N E L CURRENTS
.. • SURFACE EFFECTS O N JUNCTION
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

10
Surface Effects on p-n
Junctions

Perhaps the principal motivation for studying the properties of semi-

conductor surfaces is that surface effects can dominate the characteristics
of p-n junctions and transistors. I n Chapter 9 we saw how the metal-
insulator-semiconductor capacitor structure can be employed to study the
characteristics o f surface space-charge regions. In this chapter we now
show how surface space-charge regions can affect the characteristics o f
p-n junctions.
We begin with an extension of the theory o f surface space-charge regions-
to non equjlibjjujTtconditions such as are encountered" in the vicinity o f
;

a biased p-n junction. We then develop the characteristics o f the gate-

controlled diode structure which takes the place o f the metal-insulator-
semiconductor structure as the principal experimental tool. We next
consider the recombination-generation processes taking place in the surface
space-charae reaion. and their influence on the current gain o f transistors.
Following this, we study breakdown phenomena associated with field-
induced junctions and show how they can lead to catastrophic changes in
both reverse currents o f diodes and in current gain o f transistors. Finally,
we consider how surface fields can influence the breakdown voltage o f
planar junctions.

289
290 S u r f a c e E f f e c t s o n f>-n J u n c t i o n s
10.1 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F S U R F A C E SPACE-
CHARGE REGIONS—NON-EQUILIBRIUM
CASE 1 function of the two directions x and y corresponding to the axes o f Figure
A l t h o u g h the gate-controlled diode structure shown i n Figure 10.1a
refers to a diode having a /"-type substrate, the following discussion is
equally valid for a diode w i t h an n-type substrate i f appropriate changes i n
(b)
F i g . 10.1 (a) The gate-controlled diode structure.
(b) Idealized representation of the portion of the surface enclosed by the dashed frame
in (»).'
the signs of the applied voltages are made. A l l voltages in this discussion
are applied with the substrate held at ground potential. F o r simpjicity^
ih£_7r-type region is assumed J o be_much more heavily doped than the
substrate. The condition of the surface o f the substrate w i t h i n the dashed
frame in Figure 10.1a is first examined at different values o f gate voltage
Vc and reverse voltage V , in the absence o f surface states or w o r k
s
function difference. This region is shown i n a more idealized form in
Figure 10.1b.
The idealized j u n c t i o n and the energy bands pertaining to thermal
Characteristics of Surface Space-Charge Regions 291
equilibrium conditions (i.e.. when the applied j u n c t i o n voltage Vj = 0)
are illustrated i n Figure 10.2. I n this energy b a n d representation electron
energy, as represented by the conduction and valence bands, is shown as a
10.1. I n the absence o f surface fields the energv bands do not vary i n the
i direction. The only variation is in the y d i r e c t i o n and is due to the
built-in voltage <p between the n and p regions. This case is shown i n
B
Figure 10.2a. When a sufficiently large positive voltage V > V G is T
applied to the gate, the conduction band at the surface is brought close to
the Fermi level and the surface o f the p region becomes inverted. (V , T
the turn-on voltage, denotes the gate voltage necessary to cause inversion
of the p surface.) The energy bands corresponding to this case are
illustrated i n Figure 10.2b. A field-induced /unction n o w exists between
the '?-type inversion layer and the u n d e r l y i n g p-xype silicon. Since bias is,
not applied across this j u n c t i o n , i t is in e q u i l i b r i u m and is characterized bv
the same Fermi level as the metallurgical j u n c t i o n . The" surface space-
charge region under these conditions is described by the equilibrium theory,
discussed in the previous chapter.
T w o aspects of the e q u i l i b r i u m theorv o f surface space-charge regions
should be recalled at this p o i n t . First, the t o t a l bending o f the bands, as
designated by the surface potential <f>„ is l i m i t e d t o some value less than the
band gap of the semiconductor, i.e.. about 1 v o l t for Si. M o r e specifically,
CD corresponding to strong inversion is given t o a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n bv
s
c/>,(mv) = 2<f> where d> is the Fermi p o t e n t i a l o f the substrate. This
Ff Fl
value is the built-in voltage o f the field-induced j u n c t i o n . Second, the
width o f the surface depletion region x first increases w i t h increasing V
6 G
and then reaches a m a x i m u m value • i " when the surface becomes inverted.
d m a x
This width is the zero-bias depletion region w i d t h o f the field-induced
junction.
Figure 10.3 illustrates the n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n which exists when
a reverse bias V is applied to the j u n c t i o n . F i g u r e 10.3a shows the case
s
in the absence o f surface fields. I n Figure 10.3b. a positive gate voltage is
applied, but it is not large enough to invert the surface o f the /^-region.
This is denoted bv the condition V < V (Vjf).G T where V (V }
T P 's t n
gate e
voltage necessary to cause inversion o f the p region i n the presence o f a
reverse bias V . B This voltage is larger than in the zero junction bias case.
This is because application o f the reverse bias lowers the quasi-Fermi level
for electrons so that even i f the bands at the surface are bent as deeplv as
in the equilibrium case shown in Figure 10.2b. the band bending is still
insufficient to bring the conduction band near enouch to the quasi-Fermi
level for electrons to cause inversion. As a result, the surface is only
depleted.
292 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions
Characteristics of Surface Space-Charge Regions
293

(a) No surface held (b.i Depletion (c) Inversion

I n the case illustrated in Figure 10.3c, the voltage applied to the gate is
large enough to overcome the influence o f the reverse bias and an inversion Fig. 10.3 p-n Junction under che influence of surface fields—reverse bias case
layer is formed at the surface o f the p reg.on. I n terms o f the band diagram,
the bands are now bent deeply enough to bring the conduction band near
of a reverse bias V and smaller in the presence o f a f o r w a r d bias V
the quasi-Fermi level for electrons. Once an inversion layer is formed, i t R F

applied to the p-n j u n c t i o n .

constitutes a region o f high conductivity which is at essentially the same
Otherwise, the description o f the surface space-charge region will be
potential as the n region. The surface potential <p, at the onset o f strong
unaltered. The electrostatic potential variation i n the depletion region
inversion is now given, to a good approximation, by
w i l l be given by

Wmv) = V R + 2<p .Fp (10.1)

¿ = ^(1 - ~ (10.2)
As i n the e q u i l i b r i u m case, the surface depletion region reaches a m a x i m u m
where the surface potential i„ which designates the total bendtn- o f the
width x d m i K at inversion. This width, however, is now a function o f the
energy bands, is given by
reverse bias V , and is in fact the reverse-bias depletion region w i d t h o f
R

the field-induced j u n c t i o n formed between the «-type inversion layer and

(10.3)
the underlying p region. 2K,e n

The most i m p o r t a n t features of the above discussion are summarized i n The maximum width o f the depletion region w i l l now be given by
Figure 10.4, where the charge distribution and energy bands of an inverted
/'-type substrate are shown as a function o f the distance x from the surface, 2K e {V
! 0 J + 2i J
F

(10.4)
both for the e q u i l i b r i u m case (corresponding to Figure 10.2b), and for the
reverse biased case (corresponding to Figure 10.3c). where we have used Equation 10.1 for <p,.(inv).
The characteristics o f the surface space-charge region wiil be given by The charge per unit area induced i n the silicon prior to the onset o f
the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n in a manner analogous to the e q u i l i b r i u m strong inversion is given by
case considered i n the previous chapter. The only difference is that the 2, = -qN x„
A
(10.5)
c o n d i t i o n o f the onset o f strong inversion corresponding to the criterion while after strong inversion it is given by
n, = / V j will now be c6,(inv) = Vj + 2<h because o f the splitting o f the
Fp

quasi-Fermi levels brought about by the applied bias. Thus the surface
where 0 = Qn + Q B (10.6)
potential <_> at the onset o f strong inversion will be larger in the presence
s

QB = — «Z'Vj-Trfinax. (10.7)
294 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions Characteristics of Surface Space-Charge Regions 29S

Calculations based on these relationships are shown i n Figure 10.5

where we show the surface depletion region width x as a function o f the
d
1 i 1 1
charge induced i n the silicon Q, for various values o f applied j u n c t i o n m 10'« C m - 1
y g m 10 v _
bias. ( A l l calculations i n this chapter are for silicon at 3 0 0 ° K unless

.
/ S
6
P P
4 _

J 1
* 0.6

/ l > = -0.1: -0-2v

/ . . 1, 1 • r, - o -

f • Computer calculations" Depletion approximation

t I I 1 1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 10 "
2
|fi,'flj ( c m - )

Fig. 10.5 Surface depletion region width versus charge induced in the semiconductor
x under various junction bias conditions.

(a) (W

Fig. 10.4 Idealized charge distribution and energy band variation of an inverted p-region
1
in a direction normal to the surface, some distance away from the junction.
(a) Equilibrium case (V, = 0), also shown in Fig. 10.2b.
(b) Reverse bias case ( ^ ^ 5 v), also shown in Fig. 10.3c.

otherwise specified.) The lines are based on the two limits o f the depletion
a p p r o x i m a t i o n ; the points are based on more exact computer calculations.
I n Figure 10.6 we show the m a x i m u m width o f the surface depletion Fig. 10.6 The maximum width of the surface depletion region as a function of the
region ^ as a function o f the applied reverse bias, for various substrate magnitude of the junction reverse voltage. The parameter is substrate impurity con-
d m a x
centration.
i m p u r i t y concentrations. N o t e the similaritv between this figure and
Figure 6.9 which shows depletion region width versus applied reverse bias
for a one-sided step j u n c t i o n .
 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions Gate-Controlled Diode Structure 277
296
Calculations of the gate-to-substrate capacitance-voltage characteristics
:
1 7—rr—7 r 1
0' of a gate-controlled diode are shown in Figure 10.8. Note that prior to
— !
— 1
— 1 T
W ~ ~ ] ////'
6
V , = 10'" cm" - til I // I I
/// the onset o f strong inversion the characteristics follow the depletion
a p p r o x i m a t i o n ; then, at the onset o f strong inversion, in the low frequency
case shown here, the capacitance rapidly increases to the oxide capacitance.
— V / /
i> = - 0 . 2 V M i I (As discussed in Chapter 9, in the case o f gate-controlled diodes, minority
4 _carriers can be supplied to the inversion layer through the external circuit.
1 1 / = 0 ~ ^ / / /
3 W i t t
¥ / / // / Depletion —
2 / approximation
- § h
v
/'° < Computer _
/ calculations'

()1
r /
^ a L _ — J t — • !
/ / // •^rr ,
<
I I
i
I
i

0 2 4 6 3 10 12 14 16 18 20 x 1 0 "
:
{QJq\ |cm" )

Fig. 10.7 The magnitude of the charge of minority carriers within che inversion layer
as a function of the magnitude of the total charge induced wichin che semiconductor,
under various junction bias conditions.

The charge due to electrons in the inversion layer is shown as a function

o f the total charge induced in the silicon for various values o f forward and
reverse bias in Figure 10.7.

10.2 GATE-CONTROLLED DIODE STRUCTURE 2 Fig. 10.8 Theoretical low frequency gate-co-substrate capacitance-voltage character-
istics of a gace-controlled diode structure under various applied junction bias conditions.
1
Values of surface potential A, are indicated.
The relationship between the potential applied to the gate and the charac-
teristics o f the surface space charge can be calculated exactly as in the case
o f the metal-insulator-semiconductor structure. Thus the gate voltage is For this reason, the " l o w frequency" type characteristics will be observed
to m u c h higher frequencies than in the case o f M O S capacitors.)
given by
V = V + <p (10.8) The point of onset o f strong inversion is considerably displaced from
0 t s

the equilibrium case as the reverse bias is increased. Its location, the
or
turn-on uoltage, can be calculated from Equation 10.9 by substituting the
V u = - — + CP„ (.10.9) conditions for strong inversion. Q = O and <p. = 2(p + Vj. This
s s Fs
C«
vields
and the gate-to-substrate capacitance per unit area, as before, will be OR
(10.11)
given by the series c o m b i n a t i o n o f the oxide and semiconductor capaci- v T = - f + :<p F p + Vj.

tances,

0\sy
Because 0 itself is a function o f Vj, the change in turn-on voltage w i t h
B
C = . (10.10)
applied junction bias V can be considerably larger than the j u n c t i o n
r

— 4- —
bias itself. This is borne out by the characteristics shown in Figure 10.8.
Co c,
 contribute to the generation current (Figure 10.10a). When the surface
Gaie under the gate is inverted, centers within the surface depletion region, i.e.,
the depletion region o f the field-induced j u n c t i o n , also contribute to the
generation current which is, therefore, larger than in the first case (Figure
SiO : layer
10.10c). This c o n t r i b u t i o n to the generation current is related to the
Surface r width of the surface depletion region x . Thus, .when the surface is
depletion-*J
d

Depletion depleted and x is increasing with increasing gate voltage, this current
region region of
d

metallurgica'
junction

ICj
Fig. 10.9 Direct observation of the surface space-charge region of a reverse biased
T 3
gate-controlled n p diode, cleaved through the junction.

As in the case o f the simple metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor

structure, the effect o f a w o r k function difference or of charges in the oxide
w i l l be a displacement o f the characteristics along the voltage axis by the
flat-band voltage.
The theory o f surface space-charge regions under n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m
conditions has been verified by extensive electrical measurements on gate-
3
controlled diodes. Direct observations of the shape o f surface depletion
regions have also tended to verifv the qualitative features o f this theory.
A n example of such an observation made by a scanning electron m i c r o -
3
probe, is shown i n Figure 10.9. Fig. 10.10 Illustration of the effect of variation in the nature of the surface space-charge
1
region on the reverse current of an n~p diode at a fixed reverse voitage.

10.3 RECOMBINATION-GENERATION component increases as indicated by the dashed line i n Figure 10.10. Once
PROCESSES IN T H E SURFACE the surface is inverted. x reaches its m a x i m u m value and hence there w i l l
0 f e

SPACE-CHARGE REGION
We have seen in Chapter 6 that the r o o m temperature reverse current o f
silicon p-n junctions is due to electron-hole pairs generated through the
action o f recombination-generation centers within the depletion region.
Thus we expect that the magnitude of the reverse current depends O D t n e "
total number o f such centers included within the j u n c t i o n depletion region.
W i t h this in m i n d , let us now consider the reverse current versus gate
voltage characteristics o f a £ a t e - c o n t r o l l e d n~p junction depicted in Figure
IO.IOT
When the surface under the gate is accumulated, only those centers
which are within the depleiion region of the metallurgical p-n j u n c t i o n
be/'no^further increase' in this current component. However, while the
surface is depleted.."recombination-generation centers at the oxide-silicon
interface provide vet another contribution to the total generation current.
This c o n t r i b u t i o n will result in a peak in the reverse current versus gate
voltage characteristics (Figure 10.10b).
\ This picture is given verification bv the measurements shown in Figure
v
10.11. Here we show both the reverse current and the gate-to-substrate
capacitance as a function o f gate voltage for various values o f reverse
voltage as a parameter. This figure shows that the reverse current increases
at the same gate voltage regardless of the value o f the reverse bias, corre-
sponding to the depletion of the surface. The current decreases again,
although not to its original value, when the surface becomes inverted as
 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions Recombination-Gene rati on Processes 301
300
Finally,

^vhich corresponds to the surface generation component.

In the above equations, A denotes the area of the metallurgical
i t J

junction and A, the area of the substrate under the sate; U and U nJ FtJ

are the carrier generation rates per unit volume in the reverse biased
depletion regions of the metallurgical and field-induced junctions, respec-
tively. U. is the carrier generation rate per unit surface area at the oxide-
silicon interface when this interface is completely depleted of both electrons
and holes, i.e., when the electron and hole concentrations at the surface
n and p are much smaller than the intrinsic carrier concentration
t s (a
condition that is met when the junction is reverse biased).
We saw in Chapter 6 that the generation rate per unit volume in a
reverse-biased depletion region is given by
i m '
u = --' w
(10.15)
~> —
1
— o
with T , = \i<yv N for centers with energy level E = Here ;V. is^he
®
th t t

concentration (per unit volume) of bulk recombination-generation centers,

and a is their capture cross section, assumed to be the same for electrons
and holes for simplicity.
The carrier generation rate of a completely depleted surface per unit
area is given by
U, » \n,s 9 (10.16)

with 5, = tjv iN„ on the basis of Equation 5.50, for centers with energy
t

level E. = E. where N is the density (per unit area) of surface recom-

si

verified by the observation that the point of decrease in current coincides bination-generation centers and a is their capture cross section, assumed
closely with the point of the capacitance rise. to be the same for electrons and holes.
Thus the three current components become 0 fS
Thus the generation current may consist of one or more of the following 7
U
three components, depending on the nature of the surface space-charge
region: M3*M^T*frWs<!t*>l ^ < * K " * i WW/ - H — MHJ, (10.17)

which corresponds to generation within the depletion region of the l%en,F[j —

x
itta*Jc.A„ (10.18)
1
oFU I I
metallurgical junction; KJ J.£-£«/ J
c i ^CeA ]
\^c' < and v \\çr
f°en.F!J = a U
F U x
i m i K A
s (10.13)
The assumed condition of E. — £, is in good agreement with experi-
which corresponds to generation within the depletion region of the field-
mental measurements of the temperature dependences of the three current
induced junction. This equation applies only after the surface is inverted.
components, all of which have the same temperature dependence as n. .
1

When the surface is depleted, but not inverted, 2 is replaced by x . i m a x d

:
 /Ci s. "I 4-11 )Q. fo T
302 Surface Effects o n p-n Junctions Recombination-Generation Processes .JQJ

However, it is important to note that a continuum o f states distributed in

energy would lead to similar results since only those statesjjiaLare w i t h i n
approximately one À-7" from the middie o f the energy.gap are efficient gener-
- 3 _ 1
a t i o n centers. For uniform distributions o f states of density D . ( c m e v )
- 2 _1
and D ( c m e v ) in the bulk and at the surface, respectively, the effective
sl

lifetime r, is

T, = ' . (10.20)
OL (7rkTD )
th t

and the surface recombination velocity s is 0

s, « ov^vkTD*). (10.21)
Such states would also lead to current components which have the same
temperature dependence as n,. Thus single-level states located at energy
£ , and a continuum o f states will have the same effect.
I t is evident from Equations 10.17. 10.18. and 10.19 that, whereas b o t h
bulk generation current components should depend on the magnitude
of the reverse bias through W and z . the surface generation current
r t m a v

should be independent o f the reverse bias. The measurements shown i n

Figure 10.11 approximately bear out this conclusion.
Typical values of s on thermallv oxidized silicon surfaces are o f the order
0

of 1 to 10 cm/sec. Typical values o f T , are of the order o f 1 to 10 usee.

_ 3 : !
For junction and surface areas o f ~ ) 0 c m . these magnitudes corre-
spond to reverse current variations o f the order of tens o f picoamps as
shown in Figure 10.11. A l t h o u g h these currents are small enough to be
almost inconsequential from a practical standpoint, their significance
becomes great under forward-bias conditions.
We have seen in Chapter 6 for the case o f bulk current components that
rc (v)
the recombination current in the forward-bias condition will be given
Fig. 10.12 Base current as a function of gate voltage, with emitter-base forward bias
approximately by as parameter, for the transistor shown in the inset.' Surface concentration of base
1

]rrU :T
region is ~ 2 . 5 x 10" cm" .
i r e c ^ he. e° *' .
n (10.22)
A similar relationship also holds approximately for the field-induced
the forward recombination current will also varv bv approximate)}' a
j u n c t i o n and the surface components. Thus the m a x i m u m recombination
factor o f two. Since, in the case o f a transistor, all of the recombination
current will be given approximately by
current w i l l appear as base current, this means that the common-emitter
W current gain h F o f a transistor will vary in the same p r o p o r t i o n . This
r

Iiei: = iqnt (— + *.) A V! r H m T

-W
This expression shows that the recombination current under f o r w a r d
bias will be affected by the field-induced junction and the surface c o m -
ponents in the same percentage manner as the generation current under
reverse bias. If, for example, the reverse current varies by a factor o f t w o .
(10.23) effect is o f extreme importance in c o n t r o l l i n g the current gain o f transistors,
especially at relatively l o w collector-current levels.*
Recall thai because recombination currents increase with the factor exD q)VA!3kT,
whereas the collector current increases with the factor exp o '• F' '/AT", the recombination
curreni components will become less and less imponani as the current level is increased.
(See Chapter 7.)
 Surface E f f e c t s o n p-n Junctions
304
4
Experimental measurements on a transistor whose emitter-base j u n c -
t i o n is controlled by a field plate are shown in Figure 10.12 where we show
the base current as a function o f gate voltage, for various values o f emitter-
base forward bias. T h e corresponding collector currents, which d i d not
vary with sate voltage, are also indicated. As the gate voltage vanes from
negative to positive values, the base current goes t h r o u g h a peak and then
it decreases again a l t h o u g h not to its original value. The corresponding
variation in the surface space-charge region associated w i t h the emitter-
base j u n c t i o n is indicated i n the insets. The current gain h F = / / / is
E C
shown as a function o f gate voltage i n Figure 10.13. Where the base cur-
rent had a peak, h has a d i p . After that it recovers p a r t i a l l y , but not to
F E
Field-Induced Junctions and Channel Currents 305
its original value. These phenomena are in general agreement with the
above discussion. (For the moment we will ignore the variation o f base
current for large negative voltages.)
10.4 FIELD-INDUCED J U N C T I O N S A N D
C H A N N E L CURRENTS
Let us now focus our attention in further detail on the case when the
surface o f the substrate is inverted so that a field-induced j u n c t i o n exists
in parallel w i t h the metallurgical j u n c t i o n , as illustrated in Figure 10.14.
F i g . 10.14 Field-induced junction F i g . 10.15 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f che c o n s e q u e n c e o f
in parallel with a metallurgical t h e b r e a k d o w n of t h e f i e l d - i n d u c e d junction,
junction. Increasing n u m b e r s c o r r e s p o n d t o i n c r e a s i n g l y
negative gate v o l t a g e s .
This field-induced junction will have a breakdown voltage o f its o w n . I n
particular, in many cases the field-induced j u n c t i o n w i l l break d o w n at
some voltage which is lower than the breakdown voltage o f the metallur-
gical j u n c t i o n . The reverse current-voltage characteristics in such a case
are illustrated in Figure 10.15. When the reverse voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage of the field-induced j u n c t i o n BV , current begins
FIJ
to flow.
This current flows along the inversion layer to the diffused region, and
it w i l l saturate upon further increase in reverse voltage.f This type o f
current-voltage characteristic is often referred to as a channel character-
istic. The level at which the reverse current saturates depends on the con-
ductance o f the inversion layer. The larger this conductance, the higher
the saturation current level, as shown in Figure 10.15.
B
* Such a phenomenon of current saturation is generally associated with current flow
through conducting channels. It is discussed in Chapters 3 and 11.
 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions
306

1 ma initial reverse current-voltage characteristics o f a p'n gate-controlled

diode for V = ¿ 1 0 0 volts. W i t h the exception o f a slight variation in
G

the breakdown voltage, there is very little effect o f gate voltage on the
" characteristics. A defect was then introduced under the gate by an ( L
electrostatic discharge across the gate. The resulting characteristics for
V •* ± 1 0 0 volts are shown by the solid lines. W h e n V = + 1 0 0 volts,
G G

100 v no field-induced j u n c t i o n exists and, therefore, the defect has no influence

on the j u n c t i o n characteristic. W h e n V = —100 volts, however, a field-
G

induced j u n c t i o n does exist and a huge excess current flows due to the
-presence o f the defect in the field-induced j u n c t i o n .
A conceptually very similar case involving a l o w value o f the b r e a k d o w n
voltage o f the field-induced j u n c t i o n is encountered i f the field-induced
junction is formed over the heavily doped r e g i o n o f the junction rather
100 pa than over the substrate, as illustrated i n Figure 10.17. Because the charges
present i n the silicon dioxide layer generally tend to be positive (see Chap-
10 pa Inmal
• Atiei imroducnon ter 12). this phenomenon is more likely to be encountered in practice over
of defect I ! p~ regions than over rr regions.
1 pa L
;
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Because the field-induced j u n c t i o n is formed over material o f high

Fig 10.16 The effect of the introduction of a low-breakdown producing defect on the 400
6
reverse /-V characteristics of a gate-controlled p-n diode, such as shown in Fig. I 0 . K

I f there is a defect present w i t h i n the field-induced j u n c t i o n shown i n

Fieure 10.14 which lowers the breakdown voltage of the field-induced
j u n c t i o n . ! a large excess reverse current will be observed even at relatively 300
l o w reverse biases. This effect is demonstrated in Figure 10.16 where we
show the reverse current-voltage characteristics on log-log scales in order
5
to illustrate the typical magnitudes involved. The-dashed lines show the

t Such a defect may be analogous to those which lead to the "soft" reverse current- 200 -
voltaee characteristics discussed in Chapter 6.

T' »
c 0

100

Field-induced
junction
T3?^y\V^ Metallurgical
Metallur
S^^S^S^ junction

T Fig. I0.IB The consequence of the breakdown of the field-induced junction shown in
ri

Fig. 10.17 Field-induced junction formed over the heavily doped region. E - I0.I7. Increasing numbers correspond to increasingly positive gate voltages.'
 Field-Induced Junctions and Channel C u r r e n t s
Surface Effects on p-n Junctions 309
308
T
field-induced j u n c t i o n formed over a p region o f high surface concentra-
doping concentration, BV FlJ will be l o w and the channel current w i l l
tion are shown i n Figure 10.19. These characteristics are evidently quite
commence at a small value o f the reverse voltage. A n experimentally
symmetrical.
observed" set o f such reverse current-voltage characteristics is shown in
Such large excess forward currents are exceedingly important in the case
Figure 10.18 for increasingly positive gate voltages. Note that channel
of the emitter-base junction o f transistors. Because such excess currents
current begins to flow when the reverse voltage exceeds BV , which in FIJ
4
do not contribute to transistor action, they will appear as base current.
this case is approximately I volt.
This is illustrated in Figure 10.20 where we show the base current as a
The breakdown characteristics o f field-induced junctions, i.e., the charac-
function o f gate voltage o f a transistor similar to that used in Fig. 10.12
teristics o f channel currents well below saturation, are strongly affected
w i t h the exception that the surface concentration o f the base region is
by the surface concentration o f the region. A t low surface concentra-
higher than i n the previous case. It is evident that i n addition to the peak
tions the breakdown mechanism is avalanche breakdown; at high surface
concentration it is Zener or tunneling breakdown. Zener breakdown has
the interesting property o f being approximately symmetrical near the zero-
bias point, i.e., i t leads to a large excess current also flowing in the forward
direction. The f o r w a r d and reverse current-voltage characteristics o f a

I
100/iap J |

30

60

40

ChanneI 2 0

current. •
Reverse \ 0 / I V 1 I 1 v
77 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 1v
Y Forward

Fig. 10.20 3ase current as a function of gate voltage, with emitter-base forward bias
Fig. 10.19 Forward and reverse channel current-voltage characteristics of a p*n junction 1
as parameter, for the cransistor shown in che inset." Surface concentration of che base
with high boron surface concentration ( C , = I x 10" cm"'). Also shown are the onginal 1S
region is —4 x I 0 cm" .1

6
diode characteristics.
310 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions
due to surface recombination, the base current drastically increases for
both sufficiently large negative and positive gate voltages. As indicated i n
the insets, these conditions correspond to the formation and Zener break-
down of field-induced junctions over the emitter and the base regions,
respectively.
The drastic effect o f such breakdown currents on the current gain of the
transistor is shown i n Figure 10.21. Note that this phenomenon can
influence the current gain to much higher collector-current levels than
surface recombination.
Fig. 10.20.
Junction Breakdown Voltage 31 I
10.5 SURFACE EFFECTS O N J U N C T I O N
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
In the preceding discussions we saw that the shape o f the depletion region
near the surface can be varied between the t w o extremes o f f o r m i n g a field-
induced j u n c t i o n on the heavily doped side or o n the substrate. A c c o r d -
ingly, the field distribution near the surface w i l l also vary. U n d e r many
conditions the electric field near the surface w i l l be higher than i n the b u l k
and, therefore, breakdown w i l l occur near the surface at a lower reverse
bias than that corresponding to the breakdown voltage in the b u l k .
The type o f variation expected is illustrated i n Figure 10.22 for an
n~p diode. For a verv large negative gate voltage, a field-induced j u n c t i o n
will be formed over the n~ region (Figure 10.22a). Near the "comer"
region the depletion region will be relatively n a r r o w and, therefore, the
electric field intensity there w i l l be high. ( I n this figure the arrows designate
only the direction o f the electric field.) Thus j u n c t i o n breakdown w i l l occur
in tVis region at a relatively low value o f the reverse bias. I n the other
extreme, shown i n Figure 10.22c, the gate voltage is the same as the junc-
tion-voltage. A surface depletion region o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same w i d t h
as the j u n c t i o n depletion region w i l l be formed a n d , therefore, the electric
field intensity near the corner w i l l be reduced below even that obtained in
an undisturbed planarp-n junction (i.e.. with n o surface fields). We would
then expect the breakdown voltage to be high. I n an intermediate case, for
instance, when the gate is kept at the same p o t e n t i a l as the substrate, the
field near the corner region w i l l be somewhat increased over the undis-
turbed case as shown in Figure 10.22b.
Experimental observations o f the breakdown voltage o f n~p diodes as a
function of the gate voltage are shown i n Figure 10.23 for three different
substrate i m p u r i t y concentrations. I n each case the. breakdown voltage
starts out from a relatively l o w value at negative gate voltages, increases as
the gate voltage is made more positive and approaches the plane rather than
planar value of the breakdown voltage i n each case. The gate voltage that
must be applied in order to approach the plane b r e a k d o w n voltage values
is approximately that required to bring about the f o r m a t i o n o f a field-
induced j u n c t i o n over the substrate, i.e., the t u r n - o n voltage. Calculated
turn-on voltage values are designated by the cross-hatched line segments
intersecting the data points. ( I t should be kept i n m i n d that the turn-on
voltage is a function of the reverse voltage. T h i s was taken i n t o account
in the calculation of these line segments.)
312 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions

I I m - UK) v
I i 1
^ ^ ^ - " C o r n e r " region

™" \ \
/ P
\\ \\
V = 0

(a)
-•—W, —«-

'Corner" region x
^ = 0

Fig. 10.22 Illustration of the effect of gate voltage on the shape of the depletion region
and the breakdown voltage. V ^, Vm and V ^ correspond to the breakdown voltages
a x

7
under the indicated gate-voltages.

I n the intermediate range, the breakdown voltage variation follows

BV = mVr; + constant (10.24)

where m e » 1.
To explain this type o f variation, we consider the potential distribution
w i t h i n the depletion region o f an idealized gate-controlled diode calculated
from numerical solution of Poisson's and Laplace's equations in the
depletion region and i n the oxide, respectively, shown i n Figure 10.24. I n
all four cases the electric field intensity in the corner is evidently larger than
elsewhere i n the depletion region. I t might be expected that, i f x « W, 0

this electric field w i l l be more closely related to the field across the oxide
{V R — V )jx,
0 than to the field across the depletion region. Thus the
electric field at the corner is given bv

(10.25)

lere -x is some geometric correction factor. I t then follows that the con-
dition of breakdown t. w i l l lead to a relationship o f the
 Surface Effects on p-n Junctions Problems 315
314
same f o r m as Equation 10.24. i.e..

BV= F ££Ii!i'. o.26) •

c + O

This relationship is in reasonable agreement with the experimental

observations as well as with the corresponding estimates based on the
numerical calculations.
The electric field near the corner is related to the electric field across the
oxide only so l o n g as the oxide thickness is m u c h smaller than the depletion
region w i d t h . As the substrate i m p u r i t y concentration or the oxide
thickness is increased, there w i l l be an increasing d e v i a t i o n from this con-
d i t i o n . T h i s is borne out by the experimental data s h o w n i n Figure 10.23:
as the i m p u r i t y concentration is increased, the effect o f gate voltage o n the
breakdown voltage becomes increasingly smaller. '

I —

1
REFERENCES CITED ( *"

1. A . S. Grove and D . J . Fitzgerald. "Surface Effects on P-Af Junctions—Characteristics

of Surface Space-Charge Regions under Non-Equilibrium Conditions," Solid-State I
Electron., 9, 783 (1966)"
2. Thefieldplate or gate-controlled p-n junction was employed in thestudv of germanium
surface properties by J . H. Forsier and H . S. Veloric. "Effeci of Variations in Surface |._.
Potential on Junction Characteristics.'" J. Appl. Phvs.. 30, 906 (1959). This structure
was used to study surface effects on silicon p-n junctions bv C . T . Sah, •'Effect of
Surface Recombination and Cnannel on P-N Junction and Transistor Character-
istics," IRE Trans. Electron Devices, E D - 9 , 94 (1962).

3. N . McDonald and T . Everhart, unpublished. 1 —~

4. V . G . K . Reddi and C . A . Bittmann. "Second Quarterly Report on Micropower 1 1

Functional Electronic Blocks," Contract A F 33 (615)-30] 6 (1966).

5. D . J . Fitzgerald and A . S. Grove. "Mechanisms of Channel Current Formation in
Silicon PS' Junctions."' Physics of Failure in Electronics, Volume 4, p. 315, Rome
Air Development Center (1966).

6. A . S. Grove and D . J . Fitzgerald. "The Origin of Channel Currents Associated with

P~ Regions in Silicon," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. E D - 1 2 , 619 (1965).
7. A . S. Grove, O. Leistiko. and W. \V. Hooper. "Effect of Surface Fields on the Break-
down Voltage of Planar Silicon PS' Junctions." IEEE Trans. Electron Devices
ED-14 .157 (March. 1967).

PROBLEMS

10.1 Calculate and plot the turn-on voltage V as a function of reverse bias Vg for
T

two gate-controlied diodes having substrate impurity concentrations of 10" and

5
10" cm" , respectively, and an oxide thickness of 1 u. Take V = 0. rt
316 Surface E f f e c t s o n p-n J u n c t i o n s
8 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

10.2 A gate-controlled p'n diode has a metallurgical junction area of 1 0 cm-. The -3
• CHARACTERISTICS
• MODIFICATIONS OF THE
3
gate overlaps the ^-region over an area of 10~ cm-. The substrate impuntv
SIMPLE THEORY
18 1
concentration is 10 c m " , the junction depth is 5 ft, the oxide thickness is 0.2 ft,
the lifetime T = I usee, the surface recombination velocity 5 , = 5 cm/sec. The
• OTHER TYPES OF SURFACE
flat-band voltage is V- = — 2 v. Calculate:
s
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
fa) The gate voltages at which the surface of the substrate is intrinsic, and is
strongly inverted, respectively, for V = 0.
s

(b) The room-temperature reverse current at K , = - I v. for Vr, = —20. 0, and

4-20 v.
(c) The forward current at V = 0.4 v, at the same values of the gate voltage.
r

Surface Field-Effect
Sketch the reverse and forward currents as a function of gate voltage.
(d) The breakdown voltages at the above values of the gate voltage, and also in

10.3
the absence of a gate.
For the diode of the previous problem, calculate the junction capacitance Cj at
Transistors
V , = 0, and at
r = —2 v for K , = —20, 0, and 4-20 v. Sketch Cj versus gate
voltage. Also calculate the capacitance between the gate and thep~ region, for
Vj = 0, for the above values of the gate voltage.
10.4 Derive an expression giving the maximum variation of the current gain h with rE

gate voltage, for a transistor with a gace over the emitter-base junction, as a
function ofcollector current. (Neglect excess currents due to the Zener mecha-
nism.)
10.5 A defect under the gate of a gate-controlled diode lowers the breakdown voltage
of the field-induced junction to 2 v. What gate voltage must be applied in order
to bring about an excess current due to this defect? The substrate impurity
1
concentration is 10" c m ' , the oxide thickness is I it. Take V = 0. eB
10.6 Calculate and plot the surface field at the onset of strong inversion as a function
of reverse bias for a gate-controlled diode which has a substrate impurity con-
18 - 3
centration of 10 c m . Assuming the field-induced junction formed upon
inversion is plane, estimate its breakdown voltage. Compare this breakdown
voltage with that of a one-sided step junction formed within the same substrate.
10.7 13
A planar p*n diode (no gate) contains 2 x 10 positive charges/cm- within its
14 1
oxide. The substrate impurity concentration is 10 cm" , the oxide thickness is
1 ,a. Calculate its approximate breakdown voltage if the junction depth is (a) 5 ft
and (b) 50 ft.
The last semiconductor device that we consider here was perhaps the
first one to be conceived. The principle o f the surface field-effect transistor
1
dates back to the early 1930's when L i l l i e n f e l d i n the United States a n d
HeiF in England proposed to use the surface field-effect to achieve a solid-
state amplifier. It was subsequently actively investigated by the BeLT"
3
Laboratories group in the late 1940's. The more or less accidental dis-
covery o f the bipolar transistor then gave new direction to solid-state
device research and development for more t h a n a decade.
The advent o f thermally oxidized silicon b r o u g h t with it an increase in
the feasibility o f fabricating the surface field-effect transistor. I n 1960,
4
K a h n g and A t a l l a used a thermally oxidized silicon structure i n a surface
field-effect transistor. The ensuing years b r o u g h t about an exceedingly
intense activity in this field. This activity, o n the one hand, led to a high
level o f knowledge and understanding o f the thermally oxidized silicon
surface (see Chapter 12). On the other hand, this activity is responsible
for the fact that the MOS transistor, i.e., the surface field-effect transistor
using a thermally grown silicon dioxide layer, has become potentially the
second most important device next to the b i p o l a r transistor. I n fact, in
many integrated circuit applications, the M O S transistor may eventually
become the more important one.
A l t h o u g h various kinds of surface field-effect transistors can be and
have been fabricated, the discussion in this chapter deals w i t h the

317
318 Surface Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s Principles of O p e r a t i o n 319

n-channel device which we have already considered i n Chapter 9 i n connec- where Q is the charge density per unit surface area o f electrons i n the
n

t i o n with studies o f semiconductor surfaces This device is illustrated i n
Fieure 11.1. I t consists o f a />-type silicon substrate i n t o which t w o n*
regions, the source and the drain, are diffused. The region between the
source and the drain is under the influence o f a metal field plate or gate.
I f a large positive voltage is applied to the gate, the surface o f the underly-
inversion layer. The magnitude o f 0„ w i l l depend on the silicon surface
field: hence, i t will depend on the potential difference between the gate
and the inversion layer.
As the d r a i n voltage is increased, the average potential difference f r o m
gate to the n-type inversion layer w i l l decrease. A s a result, Q w i l l also
Ti

ing /"-type silicon can be inverted and a conductive n-type clutnnel can be decrease and the resistance o f the channel increase. Thus the d r a i n current
induced connecting source and drain. The conductivity o f this channel versus d r a i n voltage characteristic w i l l begin to bend d o w n w a r d f r o m the
can then be modulated by varying the gate voltage. i n i t i a l resistor line. This is evident i n the experimental current-voltage

Source G
^ t e
Drain

U>) (b) (cj

Substrate or body Fig. 11.2 Illustration of the operation of a surface field-effect transistor for V > V .
c T

Fig. I I.I n-Channel surface field-effect transistor. (a) V^, is small; channel resistance is constant.
(b) V = V , ; onset of saturation.
D a s l

We first consider the principles of the operation o f such a surface (c) V > V^sa,; no further increase in drain current.
p

field-effect transistor. Then we discuss some i m p o r t a n t characteristics o f

surface field-r.fleet transistors: the current-voltage characteristics, the
transconductance, and the gate leakage current. Finally, we consider the characteristics o f an ^-channel M O S transistor, which we w i l l use for
illustration throughout this chapter, shown for various values o f the gate
modifications o f the simple theory. Insofar as possible, we attempt to
voltage i n Figure 11.3. The characteristics indeed start out in a straight-
m a i n t a i n a parallelism between the treatment o f the surface field-effect
line fashion and begin to bend as the d r a i n voltage is increased.
transistor and its sister device, the j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor discussed
As the d r a i n voltage V is increased still further, the voltage d r o p across
i n Chapter 8. D

the oxide near the drain is further reduced u n t i l eventually it falls below the
level required to maintain an inversion layer. The drain voltage at w h i c h
11.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION this happens w i l l be denoted by the symbol V . DSM At this drain voltage,
the channel near the drain disappears. The surface w i l l be merely depleted
Let us consider the situation when a large enough gate voltage is applied
and no longer inverted here, as illustrated i n Figure 11.2b.
to induce an «-type inversion layer between the source and the drain regions,
The potential at the end o f the inversion layer, at the p o i n t X in Figure
as shown in Figure 11.2. The cases o f small and large drain voltages are
11.2b, w i l l be.that value for which the gate voltage V can still maintain
G

considered separately. F o r small drain voltages, the channel induced

an inversion layer. By our above definition, this value is V Once the
Ds3lV

between source and drain essentially behaves like a resistor. Its resistance,
drain voltage exceeds V the potential at the end of the inversion laver.
DSIV

as shown in Chapter 9, is
at the point X, will remain constant, independent of any further increase in
L the drain voltage, although the p o i n t X w i l l move somewhat t o w a r d the
source as illustrated in Figure 11.2c.
320 Surface Field-Effect Transistors Characteristics of Surface Field-Effect Transistors
321
The current now is due to the carriers that flow d o w n the inversion layer JUNCTION FET SURFACE FET
and are injected into the depletion region near the drain. The magnitude • The gate terminal is electrically isolated from channel by:
o f this current w i l l n o t change significantly with increasing d r a i n voltage
since it depends o n the p o t e n t i a l d r o p f r o m the beginning o f the inversion reverse-biased depletion region. insulator.
layer to the end o f the inversion layer ( p o i n t X) and this potential d r o p • The magnitude of the conducting charge is modulated bv:
remains unaltered.t Thus, for drain voltages larger than VQ the current
%3A
the width of a reverse biased the incident surface field,
will not change substantially and will remain at the value fr> , as is evident
sax depletion region.
f r o m the experimental data s h o w n i n Figure 11.3.
• For small drain voltages, the channel is essentially ohmic. Increasing drain
voltage reduces the average magnitude of the conducting charge, thereby
Saturation region reducing the channel conductance.

• When drain voltage exceeds a certain value, the potential drop from source
to end of the channel remains at the fixed value P ^ , . Hence, the current
flow also remains at a fixed value Iry^i for drain voltages V > Vo^ .' D %

a n
• ^EHM d - therefore, depend on the gate voltage applied.

Thus, the two devices are similar i n a l l respects except i n the physical
mechanism responsible for varying the magnitude o f the conducting charge.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1.2 CHARACTERISTICS O F SURFACE

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

Fig. 11.3 Current-voltage characteristics of a silicon n-channel MOS transistor. This a- C u r r e n t - V o l t a g e Relationship*
device is used for illustration throughout this chapter. Its structural parameters are:
idera
1 8 3
Z/L = 25, x, = 0.08 (i, N , = 3 X . I O cm" , V = - 2 . 0 v.
FB
^;!;T S
- U r f a C e fidd effeCt t f a n S i s t 0 r
°P e r a t i n
§ i a
the linear
tT T
re c

m lgUie U A T h C V i t a e d r 0 a c r o s s
ec t o n ! t
section ot the channel is given by ° S P - elemental
I f the gate voltage is increased, the conductance for small values o f d r a i n
voltage w i l l be larger and the d r a i n voltage at which the current saturates dV =I dR D = I p dy
w a S 0
(11.2)
V ,t i l l I
Dsa be larger. A s a result, the saturated current w i l l also have a ZPnQÀ'j)
larger magnitude, as is evident i n Figure 11.3.
Thus we can distinguish t w o regions o f operation o f the surface field-
effect transistor. A t l o w d r a i n voltages, the current-voltage characteristics
are nearly ohmic or linear (linear region), while at high d r a i n voltages the
current saturates w i t h increasing d r a i n voltage (saturation region). These
two regions, the shape o f the characteristics, and the manner i n w h i c h
saturation sets i n are a l l reminiscent o f j u n c t i o n field-effect transistors.
I t is instructive to compare the most important operating principles o f
the j u n c t i o n and surface field-effect transistors.

Fig. 11.4 The elemental section of the channel emoloved in rh« J i

t This assumes that the movement of the point -X toward the source is negligible. The V a t , n f

validity of this assumption will be discussed in a later section. current-voltage characteristics of surface H e l d - e t T e L " S o r s ' ° ° **
322 Surface Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Surface Field-Effect Transistors
323

in analogy to Equation 11.1-except that L is replaced by dy. (Note that inversion laver and the substrate becomes increasingly reverse biased as
this equation is identical to the corresponding equation for the j u n c t i o n we proceed f r o m source to d r a i n . Hence, both the energy band bending
field-effect transistor except for — Q„(y) replacing qN [d — 2H\y)]. D
<p, and the charge w i t h i n the surface depletion region 0 increase f r o m B

However, both quantities represent the charge density o f electrons per source to d r a i n .
unit surface area.) C o m b i n i n g Equations 11.2. 11.5, 11.6. and 11.7 and integrating between
A t a distance y from the source, the total charge induced i n the silicon the source, where y = Ot and V = 0, and the d r a i n , where y = L and
O w i l l partlv consist o f charge in the inversion l a y e r 0 * and partly o f
s
V = Fjr,, yields
charge i n the surface depletion region due to the ionized acceptor ions,
«2 .*Thus, - S . ' J A ^ W .
1.-1**.
B
1(7 ~ V-FB ~ 2é>
C,(yj - C.(y) + Qabtft (11-3) ll Fp

F r o m Equation 9.16 we have 2 \'2K,e qN . «y ,. i

0

(11.8)
. . v c - y/ FS = - & + 4, (ii.4)
which can be rewritten in the form
which relates the voltage applied to the field plate o f an M O S structure to
the charge induced i n the silicon Q and to the surface potential <p -wnich
s s

III
denotes the total bending o f the energy -bands. We also include here the FJ>
0
flat band voltage V which is due partly to the presence o f charges i n the
FB

insulator or at the interface, and partly to a finite metal-semiconductor 4 K,x

— [(4fr-R2^)*-(2^,)N (11.9)
w o r k function difference as discussed in Chapter 9. C = K i lx is the 0 c B 0 3 A.pS^niax.o
capacitance of the oxide layer per unit area. where
Combining Equations 11.3 and 11.4 yields the charge density i n the
inversion layer. /^CoQçVJ.
•t'rfmax.i/ — A / qN A

QM = - [v c - v F B - Uy)}C 0 - Q (y).
B ( l 1.5)
is the w i d t h o f the depletion region of afield-induced j u n c t i o n in equilibrium.
Since we have assumed that a conducting inversion layer exists, the
The current-voltage characteristics of the ;?-channel M O S transistor are
surface potential <p w i l l be given approximately by the condition o f strong
t
shown in Figure 11:5 for various gate voltages applied. The corresponding
inversion i n the presence o f an applied voltage. F r o m Equation 10.1, this calculated characteristics are also shown in this figure, based or. E q u a t i o n
is 11.8. T h i s equation is valid only below saturation. Thus the curves shown
U • -, ' - Uv) = + (n.6) were calculated for 0 < V < J'josat- Beyond V the current was taken
D DsKl

to be constant, as discussed i n Section 11.1.

where <j> is the F e r m i potential o f the substrate, and V(y) is the reverse
Fr
It is interesting to consider the two l i m i t i n g forms o f E q u a t i o n 11.8.
bias between the elemental section o f the channel and the substrate. The For very small drain voltages, i.e., V « 2 i an expansion - o f the D F j r

charge within the surface depletion region 0 is given by B

bracketed terms leads to the formulas,
0 (y)
B = -qh'jXcnJo) = -^'2K,e qK [V{y) 0 A + 2$ ), Fv (11.7)
Z
from Equations 10.7 and 10.4. r 0&.
^FB — 26 Ft + VD [ L i n e a r region] (11.10)
Since the voltage V(y) increases from the source toward the drain due to
the IR drop along the channel, the field-induced j u n c t i o n between the /i-type
t We define the potential at the source as our ground potential. In this treatment we
t In the derivation of the current-voltage characteristics of surface field-effect transistors only cons,der the case in which no bias is applied to the substrate relative to the source
some authors either neglect Q (y) in Equation 11.3 or treat it as a constant. This
s
T M ,? , r° n d t h e r
P ° l m n a m f o r m u l
summarized at the end of this chapter ina s a r e

Table 11.] for botn n- and ^-channel devices.

approximation can lead to significant error in practical devices.
 Surface Field-Effect Transistors Characteristics of Surface Field-Effect Transistors 32S
324
3
2 x 10 " r

1.5

Theory.
1.0
/t„ = 450 c n r / v sec
Vwm = - 2 V

n — 1 — i l 1
V =6v
a
0.5
-
5v Experiment

(b)
4v —
—l/s
3v — 3 4 5 6 7
u/^ ; v ,
Vc-M
J É L 1 31 4 ! 5
L :6 k
7 8 Fig. 11.6 Channel conductance of the MOS transistor as a function of gate voltage, in
0 1 the linear region (V small).D

Fig. I I.S Current-voltage characteristics of the n-channel MOS transistor.

(a) Experiment (same as Fig. 11-3). The channel conductance of the M O S transistor i n the linear region is
(b) Theory (Equation 11.3). shown i n Figure 11.6 as a function o f gate voltage. The reduction i n slope
at high gate voltages is due to a decrease i n the m o b i l i t y o f electrons o w i n g
where 0 . = - ^ K ^ N ^ M
B * the charge density to increased surface scattering (see Chapter 12).
w i t h i n the surface depletton region, in equilibrium. Thus a n ohmic charac The above derivation loses its validity when the inversion layer dis-
teristic results. The channel conductance appears near the drain, i.e., when V = V . The c o n d i t i o n Q (L) =_ 0,
D Ds&t n

dip
inserted into E q u a t i o n 11.5, yields
(11.11)

£ ^ -K,e qNJV
1
0
in the linear region is VJML +
h
0 Dslit + 2é ] rv + 2<p Fv - V G + V„

(11.12) (11.14)
g = f, C (F - V) [Linear region]
U n 0 c T

Li
where we have also used Equations 11.6 and 11.7, evaluated at V = ^ £ i f s a

where the turn-on voltage V , i.e., the voltage that must be applied to the
T
Solving E q u a t i o n 11.14 for V leads to B s i t

gate i n order to induce a conducting channel, is given by K N fM A

2c;-{vG - V ) FB

FB 2è Fv + 1+
V 2 i
(11.13) ^Dsat — VQ
IT = FB + F P
c0 ' (11-15)
326 Surface Field-Effect T r a n s i s t o r s Modification of the Simple T h e o r y _ 327

KDSÜ; = L /
G - V
F B — 2i FT

FB
FT 1
- V 1
+ (11.16)
\ V

N o t e that when the oxide thickness x is small in comparison t o the w i d t h c

of the surface depletion region x „, this expression reduces to the simpled!ntLX

form,

V*m at y G - K M - hr, x
io « W . J - P!.lf)

Substitution o f i n t o the current-voltage relationship, E q u a t i o n 11.8

or 11.9, gives the magnitude o f the saturation current, V x , . sat

b. Transconductance

As for j u n c t i o n field-effect transistors, the transconductance is defined

by

8 m
(11.18)
dV r ^ - c o n s t
c

Differentiating E q u a t i o n 11.9 leads to ta» 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4

J (v)
C

Fig. 11.7 Transconductance of the MOS transistor as a function of gate voltage, in the
im - r P.C.VD (11.19) saturation region (V^ > V M a l ).

for V P < V V S I T . c. Gate Leakage Current

The transconductance in- the saturation range can be calculated by
I n the surface field-effect transistor, the gate is insulated from the chan-
setting V = V . This leads t o
D DS&L

nel region by a silicon dioxide layer. Because a t h e r m a l l y grown silicon

Z [ dioxide layer is an excellent insulator, the leakage current between gate
- 1 1
and channel region is extremely small, less than 1 0 a m p i n a typical case.
gmsat = 7 r'nCoj f'c — I V . B —
2<f> Fv Thus the surface field-effect transistor features an exceedingly high i n p u t
resistance, several orders o f magnitude higher even t h a n j u n c t i o n field-
effect transistors.

[Saturation region]. (11.20)

11.3 MODIFICATION O F T H E SIMPLE THEORY
The transconductance o f the M O S transistor in the saturation region is
shown as a function o f gate voltage in Figure 11.7, in comparison t o cal- a. Effect of Fast Surface States
culations based on E q u a t i o n 11.20. A s in the case o f the conductance i n
We have already seen i n Chapter 9 that metal-semiconductor work
the linear region, a decrease is observed at large gate voltages due to a
function difference or charges w i t h i n the oxide or at the interface i n t r o -
reduction i n surface m o b i l i t y .
duce a displacement of M O S transistor characteristics along the voltage
328 Surface Field-Effect Transistors 329

for V < V af Note that a high mobility is desirable for a large cut-off
axis by an a m o u n t V . FBI f . i n a d d i t i o n , there are fast surface states pres- D Ds

frequency as in the case o f junction field-effect transistors.

ent, the charge i n these surface states w i l l also result in an additional
displacement along the voltage axis. T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the displace-
ment, however, varies w i t h the surface potential (and hence w i t h gate c. S o u r c e - t o - D r a i n Resistance in S a t u r a t i o n 5

voltage), because the p r o b a b i l i t y o f the occupancy o f a given surface state

We have seen i n the previous section that after saturation the potential
itself varies w i t h the surface potential. Thus the displacement o f the
at the end o f the inversion layer—at the p o i n t X—will be fixed at the value
characteristics along the voltage axis due to fast surface states w i l l not be
Vp-sat- As the drain voltage is increased further, the reverse bias across the
parallel.
drain j u n c t i o n w i l l increase. As a result, the depletion region separating
M o r e i m p o r t a n t , however, is the f o l l o w i n g : When the carrier concen-
point X from the d r a i n w i l l widen and the p o i n t X w i l l move t o w a r d the
t r a t i o n near the surface is changed by changing the gate voltage, some o f
source, as indicated i n Figure 11.2c. Thus the effective channel length w i l l
the a d d i t i o n a l carriers induced near the surface w i l l enter into surface
become shorter and, as a result, the drain current w i l l increase slightly
states and therefore w i l l n o t c o n t r i b u t e to an increase i n channel conduc-
with increasing drain voltage, resulting i n an u p w a r d tilting o f the current-
tance. As a result, the observed transconductance will be smaller than the
voltage characteristics beyond saturation. This phenomenon is particularly
theoretical transconductance. This w i l l be so at frequencies l o w enough
prominent for devices w i t h small channel length L .
that the surface states can be charged and discharged i n phase w i t h the
measurement signal. A t higher frequencies, when the surface states cannot
respond rapidly enough, the observed transconductance w i l l approach the d. Effect of Series Resistance
transconductance w i t h o u t surface states.
The same considerations that were applied in the case o f j u n c t i o n
For this effect to become i m p o r t a n t , the charge v a r i a t i o n i n surface
field-effect transistors lead to the conclusion that the effect o f unmodulated
states must be comparable to the magnitude o f the conducting charge i n
u - 2 series resistances near the source and the drain w i l l be to lower the observed
the channel which is generally o f the order o f 1 0 c m . Because i n
channel conductance and transconductance as compared to their values
thermally oxidized silicon surfaces the surface state density can be reduced
9 1 0 : w i t h o u t series resistances according to the formulas
to 10 to I 0 c m ~ (see Chapter 12), fast surface states do n o t pose a
significant problem i n device operation. This has been a very i m p o r t a n t o
2
g(obs) = [Linear region] (11-23)
factor i n making the construction and operation o f M O S transistors 1 -f- (R, + RJg
feasible. and

gmsat(obs) = , [Saturation region] (11-24)

b. C u t - O f f F r e q u e n c y for T r a n s c o n d u c t a n c e 1 + R,g maAt

By exactly the same argument as we have used i n Chapter 8 for the where g and ^ denote the channel conductance and transconductance
m s a t

in the absence o f series resistances.

j u n c t i o n field-effect transistor, the m a x i m u m frequency o f operation o f a
Because in a surface field-effect transistor o f the type illustrated i n
surface field-effect transistor w i l l be given by
Figure 11.1 all o f the channel region is under the influence o f the gate, the
series-resistance effect is considerably less i m p o r t a n t than in j u n c t i o n
/ . - J = t (H-21) field-effect transistors.

where C is the total gate capacitance.

a

U s i n g E q u a t i o n 11.19 a n d C = Q Z L leads to
G 11.4 O T H E R TYPES O F SURFACE
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
f = 'finis (11.22)
Jo £ l
The preceding discussion so far was for an n-channel device o f the type
where we have to apply a positive voltage to the gate i n order to bring
t More rigorous considerations yield gJ2^C a for this frequency limitation.
330 Surface Field-Effect Transistors
j ; the onset o f channel conduction. " B y complete analogy, the discus-
sion could have been applied to a/>-channel device where a negative gate
voltage would have been required to bring" about channel conduction.
Because with zero gate voltage applied neither o f these devices conducts,
such devices are called normally "off" M O S transistors.
By contrast, a normally "on" device can be made by suitable control o f
the flat-band voltage. Thus, i f V is sufficiently negative i n the case o f an
FB
n-channel device or positive i n the case o f a />-channel device, a conducting
channel exists even w i t h zero gate voltage applied. I n such a case, the
channel conductance can be b o t h increased and decreased w i t h suitable
variation o f the gate voltage.
The n o r m a l l y " o f f * n- and jP-channel devices as well as a n o r m a l l y " o n "
n-channel device are illustrated i n F i g . 11.8. I n all three devices the con-
d u c t i n g channel is induced by surface fields, whether the surface fields are
due t o a gate voltage or to charges w i t h i n the oxide. Thus we may call
these devices field-induced clmnnel devices. I t is also possible to b u i l d - i n a
channel metallurgical!)'. T w o examples o f such metallurgical channel
devices are shown i n Figure 11.9. The first o f these, illustrated i n Figure
11.9a, is made by epitaxially g r o w i n g an ??-type film on a /"-type substrate.
The conductivity between the source and drain regions is then modulated
(c)
Fig. 11.8 Surface field-effect transistors with field-induced channels.
(a) Ncrrr.sliy "off" n-channel device.
(b) Normally "off" p-channel device.
(c) Normally "on" n-channel device.
References C i t e d
W . ' (b)
Fig. 11.9 Surface field-effect transistors with metallurgical channels.
(a) Epitaxially grown n-channel device.
(b) Sllicon-on-sapphire n-channel device.
by the gate voltage. A positive gate voltage attracts more electrons to the
channel, while a negative gate voltage depletes the surface and thereby
modulates the cross-sectional area available f o r current flow. I n this
mode of operation, this surface field-effect transistor works very m u c h like
6 a junction field effect transistor. A similar device made by g r o w i n g n-type
7
silicon on an insulating sapphire substrate is illustrated i n Figure 11.9b.
READING REFERENCES
MOS transistors are reviewed in Field Effect Transistors, Physics, Technology and
Applications, J . T . Wallmark and H . Johnson, E d s . , Prentice-Hall, 1966.
REFERENCES CITED
1. J . E . Lilienfeld, U . S . Patent 1,745,175 (1930).
2. 0 . Heil, British Patent 439,457 (1935).
3. W. Shockley and G . L . Pearson, "Modulation of Conductance of Thin Films of
Semiconductors by Surface Charges," Phys. Pet.. 74, 232 (1948).
4. D . Kahng and M . M . Atalla. "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Field Induced Surface Devices,"
I R E Solid-State Device Research Conference, Carnegie Inst, of Tech., Pittsburgh,
1960.
5. This treatment follows that given by H . K . J . Ihantola, "Design Theory of a Surface
Field-Effect Transistor," Stanford Electronics Laboratories Technical Report No.
1661-1 (1961). and by H . K_ J . Ihantola and J . L . Moll. "Design Theory of a
Surface Field-Effect Transistor," Solid-State Electronics, 7, 423 (1964).
The characteristics of such devices were also studied bv S. R . Hofstein and.F. P.
Heiman, "The Silicon Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor." Proc. IEEE. 51. 1190
(1963); and.by C . T . Sah, "Characteristics of the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
332 Surface Field-Effect Transistors

Transistors." IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. ED-U, 324 (1964). For a discussion of
a somewhat different type of surface field-effect transistor structure, see, for instance,
3
H. Borkan and P. K . Weimer. " A n Analysis of the Characteristics of Insulated-Gate •3
Thin-Film Transistors," RCA Rev., 24, 153 (1963). o -a-
u rsi
6. V. G . K . Reddi, "Tunable High-Pass Filter Characteristics of a Special MOS u
Transistor. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. ED-12, 581 (1965).
G I
o
7. C . W. Mueller and P. H . Robinson, "Grown-Film Silicon Transistors on Sapphire," ce p VI VI
O o Ci
Proc. IEEE. 52, 1487 (1964); F . P. Heiman, "Thin-Film Silicon-on-Sapphire h- -9- -9-
CN
Deep-Depletion M O S Transistors," and S. R . Hofstein. ".An Analysis of Deep-
I" • +
Depletion Thin-Film MOS Transistors," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-13, .o
(December 1966). S 2
-C — à? I
I I
PROBLEMS
5?
V c ft
11.1 Rederive the current-voltage characteristics, neglecting the charge Q within the
B

N M N I-J VI
surface depletion region. Compare with Equation U.S. Under what condition > 41c
is this a reasonable approximation? Also, derive the conductance in the linear m
N l-J
region and the transconductance in saturation, neglecting Ga- <
ll.2 Derive an expression giving the electric field along the channel. Compare its
magnitude for the device used for illustration in this chapter with the magnitude Z) a>
of the surface field under various operating con4itions.
11.3 The current-voltage characteristics of surface field-effect transistors are often
- z 3
- z
examined in a two-terminal mode, with the drain and gate connected together, and - < ^O
Ui X -3-
the source and substrate grounded. Derive the current-voltage characteristics _l u
in this configuration. Under what conditions is it possible to infer the turn-on .—-
voltage V from these characteristics?
< Q I +
5
T

O
11.4 A surface field-effect transistor can be operated as a four-terminal device. For 4
z -9- VI
example, the source mav be reverse biased with respect to the substrate. (N
rN VI XI XI
(a) Derive the current-voltage characteristics, the conductance, and transcon- o o
ductance in such a case two ways: with substrate held at ground potential, C Î 1 + u
•a o a .o
and with source held at ground potential.
G ^ sf
(b) What is the turn-on voltage (with respect to ground) in these cases? Compare o 1I
1 I
with results obtained in Chapter 10. u_
to -9- c
o
3
(c) Derive the transductance with respect to the source-substrate voltage. X
< A
1 1
11.5 In many applications it is important to have a device with a square-law character- -J k" i VI c
=> o
>
istic, i.e., / cc y . Examine the suitability of the surface field-effect transistor X
from this standpoint. In particular, consider the best mode of operation and oC o" N M SO o
the optimum choice of material and structural parameters for this purpose. o A N H <N I n
n II II ii c5
1
11.6 Derive the dependence of the channel conductance in the linear region on tem-
u. II m
t- s?
perature, at a given gate voltage. Assume that the flat-band voltage is independent z
of temperature, and that the inversion layer mobility is inversely proportional to <
the absolute temperature. H
m
o '_)
11.7 Derive an expression for the channel conductance in the linear region in the <-n o
presence of surface states uniformly distributed in energy throughout the for- u
0 o
Sg
*
1
bidden gap, with density D ( c n r ' e v - ) . Compare the effect of such surface
st u <u
"3
3
o ta — 3 2
states with the effect of an inversion layer mobility which is a function of the
ed ç o-
u X
surface field. c —
u

Q t=
EU
333
 FAST S U R F A C E STATES Fast Surface States 335
SPACE CHARGE WITHIN OXIDE
SURFACE-STATE CHARGE
BARRIER ENERGIES
SURFACE MOBILITY
CONDUCTION ON OXIDE
SURFACES
OTHER INSULATORS Silicon Silicon

12
(a) Fast surface states (b) Mobile impurity ions

Properties of t h e Silicon-
Silicon D i o x i d e System
Si0 2 Si0 2

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + (3> (+) ffl @ @
Silicon Silicon

I n the previous three chapters we have discussed the theory of semicon- (

ductor surfaces, the effect o f surfaces on p-n junctions, and surface field-
(c) Traps ionized by radiation (d) Surface-state charge
effect transistors. A l t h o u g h most o f that discussion is o f general validity,
Fig. 12.1 Charges and states associated with the Si/SiO. system.
its usefulness depends on the availability o f specific knowledge o f a par-
ticular interface system. electrons and holes i n silicon near the interface. The conduction process
As a result o f extensive studies using M O S capacitors, gate-controlled that may take place on the outer surface o f the oxide is considered next.
diodes, and M O S surface field-effect transistors, the silicon-silicon dioxide Finally, we briefly review what is k n o w n about other insulators used i n
system has become a very well characterized interface; A detailed under- M I S structures on silicon. "
standing o f many o f its features is still lacking, but our empirical k n o w l -
edge o f and our ability to c o n t r o l the properties o f this interface are quite
extensive. 12.1 FAST SURFACE STATES
I n this chapter, we present a summary o f the electrical characteristics o f
the silicon-silicon dioxide system. We begin w i t h a discussion o f the I t has been predicted theoretically, by T a m m a n d by Shockley, that 1

various types of charges and states associated w i t h this system. These are
summarized in FigUTe 12.1. They include fast surface states located at the
oxide-silicon interface. I n a d d i t i o n , there may be space charges present
w i t h i n the oxide layer due to mobile impurity ions, e.g., sodium ionic con-
t a m i n a t i o n , or due to traps ionized by i r r a d i a t i o n . Finally, there is a fixed
surface-state charge located at the interface between oxide and silicon.
F o l l o w i n g this, we discuss measurements o f the barrier energies associ-
ated with the ineial-oxide-silicon system and the i n f o r m a t i o n they yield
about the band structure o f this system. We then discuss the mobility o f
because o f d i s r u p t i o n of the periodicity o f the lattice at a surface, a h i s h
density o f states w i l l be introduced into the forbidden gap near a semicon-
ductor surface. Such states have traditionally been called fast surface
states. Theoretically, i t is believed that there should be o f the order o f one
fast surface state for every surface atom, resulting i n a density o f about
15 - 2
1 0 c m . I n fact, experimental observations w i t h surfaces obtained
by cleaving under high vacuum bear out this p r e d i c t i o n . I n contrast,
etched germanium and silicon surfaces, which are always covered bv
a very t h i n oxide layer, show fast surface-state densities o f the order o f

334
 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System Space C h a r g e w i t h i n the Oxide
336 337
u 12 - 2 1
10 to 10 c m . I n i t i a l investigations o f thermally oxidized silicon contribute effectively to surface recombination and generation. Calcula-
2 5
surfaces have found.such surfaces to c o n t a i n fast surface states i n densities ; tions show " that N i n Equation 12.1 is then replaced by -kTD,
u t where
- 2 _ 1
o f the same order. D is the density ( c m e v ) o f the u n i f o r m l y distributed centers.
st

We saw i n Chapter 9 that fast surface states result i n a deviation i n the I I n the case o f samples which were not annealed, the existence o f large
shape o f the capacitance-voltage or channel conductance-voltage charac- densities o f single-level surface states slightly below the conduction band
3

teristics o f metal-insulator-semiconductor structures f r o m the ideal edge and slightly above the valence band edge have also been observed.
theoretical curve shapes. I n fact, the experimental characteristics o f Because of the location o f these states, they do n o t significantly affect the
aluminum-silicon dioxide-silicon structures fabricated by thermal oxida- characteristics o f semiconductor devices. ( I n fact, for the same reason a
3

t i o n , including a low-temperature annealing step, follow the theoretical special technique had to be developed for their measurement. )
3 The relatively low density o f fast surface states at thermally oxidized
curve shape very closely —although they are displaced f r o m i t by a con-
silicon surfaces has been an i m p o r t a n t advantage o f the planar technology.
stant amount.
The degree o f parallelism o f experimental and theoretical characteristics
indicates that the t o t a l density o f surface states i n the middle 0.7-ev
12.2 S P A C E C H A R G E W I T H I N T H E O X I D E
1 0 - 2
p o r t i o n o f the silicon energy band is less than 5 x 1 0 c m . Measure-
ments by different methods—using the a-c conductance o f M O S capaci-
1
t o r s , and the variation o f the t u r n - o n voltage o f M O S transistors w i t h - a. Ionic Contamination
5
temperature —yield results consistent w i t h this upper b o u n d .
I n Chapter 10 we saw that the reverse current versus gate voltage charac-
A major difficulty encountered w i t h early M O S devices was that the
teristic o f gate-controlled diodes directly yields the surface recombination flat-band voltage was unstable, i.e., i t was subject to drift under bias at
velocity 5,, which i n t u r n is related to the fast surface-state density N by st
elevated temperatures. A n example o f this drift behavior is illustrated i n
the relation (see also Chapter 5), Figure 12.2. Here the capacitance-voltage characteristics observed
s = <yv N, . (12.1) initially are marked by ( I ) , while those observed after 30 minutes at 127°C,
0 tli t

'1 w i t h V = + 1 0 v applied, are marked by (2). The characteristics could

a

8a "W be recovered; those observed after partial recovery obtained by heating

Such measurements have yielded values o f s between 1 and 10 cm/sec. 0

for 30 minutes at the same temperature w i t h the gate shorted to the sub-
Comparison o f values o f s w i t h the corresponding values o f the fast
0
£ strate are marked by (3).
surface-state density. N, o n structures where they were both increased by
t

ab
i r r a d i a t i o n verified E q u a t i o n 12.1, and yielded values for the capture
- 1 6 1 5 2
cross section, a, o f 1 0 to 1 0 ~ c m . W i t h such capture cross sections,
the p r e i r r a d i a t i o n values o f s correspond to fast surface-state densities o f
0

9 10 - 2
1 0 - 1 0 c m , w h i c h are consistent w i t h the upper b o u n d obtained by
the other methods.
The above values o f fast surface-state density were all obtained on
aluminum-thermally g r o w n silicon dioxide-silicon structures which were
subjected to a heat treatment step at about 500° C. Such a procedure has
7
been s h o w n to lead to an order-of-magnitude r e d u c t i o n i n the density o f
fast surface states.
F o r simplicity, this discussion has been i n terms o f single-level surface
states. A c t u a l l y , i t appears that the fast surface states are more or less
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n energy over the center p o r t i o n o f the energy
4
gap. A s we have seen i n Chapter 10, i n such a case only those centers
w h i c h are w i t h i n a few IcT i n energy o f the middle o f the energy gap
338 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System
This drift process was shown to be due to the rearrangement o f an ionic
9
space charge distribution w i t h i n the oxide. We have seen i n Chapter 9
that a c o n t r i b u t i o n to the flat-band voltage,
1
fix) dx,
C.
results when a space charge o f distribution p(x) is present i n the oxide.
Thus the drift o f the capacitance-voltage characteristics can be due simply
T
I
Initial After drift Afler recovery
with \' > 0
e
Fig. "12.3 Charge distributions pictured to correspond to various stages of the drift
process.'
to the rearrangement o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n p(x) w i t h i n the oxide w i t h o u t any
change i n the total density o f ions per unit area,
p(x) ài
w i t h i n the oxide. T h i s rearrangement is illustrated in Figure 12.3 where
we show the initial charge d i s t r i b u t i o n (where all o f the positive ionic space
charge is pictured to be next to the metal, exerting no influence on the sili-
con), the d i s t r i b u t i o n after positive bias drift (resulting i n all o f the oxide
space charge being located next to the silicon and therefore i n d u c i n g its
image charge in the silicon), and finally the distribution obtained after the
recovery o f the ionic space charge back to the vicinity o f the metal
electrode.
T h i s picture of a rearrangement o f an ionic charge w i t h i n the oxide is i n
agreement w i t h all o f the experimental observations. I t fits the fact that
the m a x i m u m change i n flat-band voltage is independent o f the tempera-
ture or the magnitude o f the positive bias applied during the experiment
even though the rate o f the process itself is dependent on b o t h . I t is i n
agreement w i t h the observation that the time-intesral o f the current
Space Charge w i t h i n the O x i d e 339
flowing to the gate d u r i n g drift is identical w i t h the charge given by
AV C .
FB 0 F i n a l l y , i t is i n agreement w i t h the results o f experiments
i n which part o f the oxide was gradually removed after drifting. Such
experiments showed that after drifting" all o f the positive charge was
located next to the silicon, as shown i n the middle p o r t i o n o f Figure 12.3.
9
I t was i n f e r r e d b o t h from the rate o f the drift process and f r o m experi-
ments i n which the oxide layer was intentionally contaminated w i t h s o d i u m
chloride that the uncontrolled drift i n M O S structures was due to trace
contamination by sodium. Subsequently, this has been verified by r a d i o -
10
active tracer measurements. Such measurements have also shown t h a t
Air/SiOj.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6
Distance from air interface (u)
10
Fig. 12.4 Sodium concentration distribution in the oxide after drift.
the distribution o f the sodium ions i n the oxide at various stages o f the
drift process indeed corresponds to_the postulated distributions shown i n
Figure 12.3.
A n example o f the sodium distribution i n an oxide layer which was not
intentionally contaminated with sodium, i n an intermediate stage o f the
drift process, is shown i n Figure 12.4. I t is interesting to compare this
figure w i t h the results o f numerical c o m p u t a t i o n s 11
dealing w i t h the
transient i o n t r a n s p o r t problem i n the oxide layer. The results o f such
computations are shown i n Figure 12.5 for the particular case o f + 1 0 volts
applied to the gate at 127°C for various lengths o f time. N o t e that
the beginning and the final distributions correspond to the first andsecond
sketches shown i n Figure 12.3. Between these extremes, i t is evident that
the sodium moves across the oxide w i t h a U-shaped d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e v a i l i n g
i n the intermediate stages, i n qualitative agreement w i t h the experimental
results shown i n Figure 12.4.
The mobile s o d i u m i m p u r i t y , being due to an external c o n t a m i n a t i o n ,
could be eliminated by appropriate precautions i n the device fabrication
procedure. Once this contamination was eliminated, M O S devices became
3,12
stable even under bias at elevated temperatures.
 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System Surface-State Charge
340 341
10x 10 1 2

„ 10"' ir 1 C r l
£ = 3 min.
t = 0
c_
2

§ 1 0 - k i o -

IO" 3
Ü
10-3
I
I I I I I a I I I I I
10"
10"* 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/x. .v-'.v.

1 1
1
1 1 1
10 20
-> 1 ( r
' — t = 5 min. Time (min.)
10"' 14
Fig. I2.6 The build-up of excess charge as a function of Irradiation time.
g l 0 " 2

IO"' voltage applied d u r i n g irradiation. I t is evident that the excess charge

- _i 0/ induced i n the silicon by the space charge i n the oxide first increases
" 1 0 -
10" 3
w i t h time and then reaches a steady-state or saturation value which, i n
/ r i l l t u r n , is dependent o n the gate bias applied d u r i n g irradiation.
10"*
10~ 0 J
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 A n idealized model for the build-up o f such a space charge i n the oxide
v v.. .v. x. 14
under ionizing radiation exposure is as f o l l o w s . D u r i n g irradiadon,-
1

1
„ 10"

2
5 l 0 "

3
10-

10""
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

.X/.X, xix.
Fig. 12.5 Theoretical sodium concentration distribution In the oxide as a function of
11
time.

b. Radiation-Induced Space Charge

A positive space-charge b u i l d - u p i u silicon dioxide films has been

observed to result f r o m exposure to ionizing radiation o f various kinds,
13
i n c l u d i n g X - r a y , gamma ray, l o w - and high-energy electron i r r a d i a t i o n .
The physical o r i g i n o f this charge is entirely different f r o m the ionic con-
. « , (b) fc)
tamination discussed above. l n i t l a l
Intermediate Final steady state
14
Experimental results "pertaining to X-irradiated silicon dioxide layers Fig. 12.7 Idealized model for the space-charge build-up as a function of time during
11
are shown i n Figure 12.6 as a function o f time, for various values o f gate irradiation of an MOS structure under a positive gate bias.
 Surface-State C h a r g e 343
342 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System

:
s ;c'_ron-hole pairs w i l l be generated i n the oxide. I f there is no electric
fieici present i n the oxide, the electrons and holes will recombine. resulting
i n no net charge b u i l d i n g u p i n the oxide. However, i f there is an electric,
field present i n the oxide, this field w i l l tend to separate the electrons and
rough agreement w i t h the order o f variation o f the linear o x i d a t i o n rate
constant BjA for these three orientations (see Chapter 2).
The effect o f oxidation and annealing conditions is summarized i n
Figure 12.8. Here we show the surface-state charge density O resulting ss

holes. I n particular, a field corresponding to a positive gate voltage w i l l
tend to p u l l electrons t o w a r d the gate electrode. I f no electrons can enter
f r o m the silicon into the oxide, t r a p p i n g o f the holes near the oxide-silicon
interface w i l l result i n a gradual b u i l d - u p o f a space charge as shown i n
parts (a) and (b) o f Figure 12.7. D u e to the increased electric fields, an
increasing fraction o f the t o t a l applied voltage will be dropped across this
after oxidation i n dry oxygen or wet oxygen, and after heat treatment o f
both dry and wet oxides i n a nitrogen ambient. T h e results presented here
are extremely reproducible. A further feature o f these results is t h a t the
only relevant heat treatment is the final one. Regardless o f the previous
history of a sample, the final heat treatment w i l l determine the value o f
<2 , provided only that sufficient time is allowed f o r the sample to reach
SS

space-charge region. Thus, as the space charge grows, eventually the field
i n the rest o f the oxide layer is brought to zero. This results i n a steady-
state situation, depicted i n Figure 12.7c.
T h e radiation-induced oxide space charge can be annealed out relatively
" r a p i d l y by heating above 3 0 0 ° C .
steady state under the given conditions.
The above results p o i n t to the role o f excess ionic silicon in the oxide i n
15
the origin o f the surface-state charge. I t appears that the surface-state
charge is due t o excess ionic silicon present i n the oxide d u r i n g o x i d a t i o n ,
waiting to react w i t h the oxidizing species that has diffused across the
oxide during the oxidation process, as illustrated i n Figure 12.9.
A n additional indication o f the role o f excess silicon i n the oxide has

12.3 SURFACE-STATE CHARGE

been provided by a series o f experiments i n w h i c h the value o f <2„ was
reproducibly and markedly increased by heating samples under negative
3 gate voltage conditions. (Note that this c o n d i t i o n is the opposite o f t h a t
Experiments w i t h M O S structures showed the unexpected existence o f
required to b r i n g about a similar effect due to i o n i c contamination.) T h e
a fixed charge, apparently located near the interface. This charge results
rate of this process is about four orders o f magnitude smaller than the
i n a parallel translation o f the capacitance-voltage (or channel conductance-
rate o f sodium rearrangement. Such results are shown in Figure 12.10,
voltage) characteristics along the voltage axis. I t is called the surface-state
•charge, and its density per unit area is designated by the symbol 0 . S !

The characteristics o f the surface-state charge have since been experi-

15
mentally studied very extensively.
The surface-state charge has the f o l l o w i n g properties:

1. I t is fixed; i t cannot be charged or discharged over a wide v a r i a t i o n

o f bending o f the silicon energy bands.
2. I t is unchanged under conditions that would lead to the m o t i o n o f
sodium ions i n the oxide, or to the annealing o f radiation-induced space
charges.
3. I t is located w i t h i n 200 A o f the oxide-silicon interface.
4. Its density 0 is n o t significantly affected by the oxide thickness, or
S !

by the type or concentration o f impurities i n the silicon.

l S a
5. Oss strong f u n c t i o n o f the o x i d a t i o n and annealing conditions, _
and the orientation o f the silicon crystal.
16
The orientation effect can be summarized in an approximate fashion
as follows: the r a t i o o f surface-state charge density 0 „ values under a Temperature (°C|

given oxidation c o n d i t i o n for silicon oriented along the (111). (110). and Fig. 12.8 Dependence of the surface-state charge density on the ambient and tem-
15
(100) directions w i l l be i n the r a t i o o f approximately 3 : 2 : 1 . This is i n perature of the final heat treatment.
 \

Barrier Energies 345

where we show the final steady-state value o f 0 „ as a function o f the

applied field across the oxide. The final surface-state charge density is
evidently proportiona l to both the applied field and the initial surface-
state charge density.

12.4 BARRIER ENERGIES

As discussed in Chapter 9, a difference between the metal and semicon-

ductor w o r k functions results in a shift o f the flat-band voltage o f an
M O S structure. This shift provides one m e t h o d o f the evaluation o f this
w o r k function difference as illustrated i n Figure 12.11. I n this figure, we

0
i i i I
-1 1200°_
A
Dry 0 ,
-2 (100)
--3 -
surface-state c h a r g e . 15

-4 — \ r
-5

-6

-7 - -
-8
\ 9 2 0 ° Dry O ,
-9 (111)
-10 i i I I I 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Fig. 12.11 Determination of metal-semiconductor work function difference from MOS

15 3
flat-band voltage measurements. [Aluminum-SIO.-p type Si {N = 10" cm" )] A

plot the flat-band voltage V as a function o f oxide thickness for samples

FB

prepared under the same conditions. Since the flat-band voltage is given"

FB MS - Qss
K€
n n

the fact that a straight line is obtained indicates that the surface-state
charge density 0„ is independent of the oxide thickness i n agreement w i t h
our previous discussion. The intercept o f the lines corresponds to the
w o r k function difference, which is o f the order o f 1 volt for the present case
16 - 3
o f an aluminum-silicon dioxides-type silicon (N = 10 c m ) sample. A

A m e t h o d o f evaluating the individual barrier energies is based on

the measurement o f the photoelectric thresholds at the metal-oxide and
 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide S y s t e m Conduction on O x i d e Surfaces 347
346

i i i i i . i l '
17-19
tin- oxide-silicon i n t e r f a c e s . I n this method, the M O S structure is 1

illuminated with light o f increasing energy under a given bias c o n d i t i o n .

W h e n the photon energy becomes sufficiently large to raise electrons f r o m _
the filled valence band to the conduction band o f the oxide, conduction Electrons >^Holes • » "°*o. a

begins across the oxide. The p h o t o n energy then corresponds to the barrier
energy o f the particular interface studied. -
• Electrons
• Holes > Experiment N. T h e o r y N .
Barrier energies determined by b o t h the photoelectric response m e t h o d , i !
IO" }
_i. > i i N i l i
and by the M O S method are tabulated i n Table 12.1. We also show for 10 10
10" 10' 2
10'
2
\QM (cm" )
TABLE 12.1 Fig. 12.12 Comparison between typical experimental inversion layer mobilities and
20

METAL-SIO, AND Si-Si0 2 BARRIER ENERGIES AS theory for diffuse surface scattering.
M E A S U R E D BY P H O T O E L E C T R I C E X C I T A T I O N A N D A S
INFERRED FROM MOS F L A T - B A N D VOLTAGES. ALSO corresponding b u l k mobilities. A t higher surface fields, the m o b i l i t y
S H O W N ARE THE CORRESPONDING V A C U U M WORK-
begins to decrease slightly. These results are i n disagreement w i t h the
FUNCTION VALUES." 21
theory o f diffuse surface scattering, the predictions o f which are also
Vacuum illustrated in Figure 12.12.
Metal <t> (Photo) O v (MOS) work function
M
The temperature dependence o f the inversion-layer m o b i l i t y i n the
20 - 1 5
constant-mobility region is f o u n d to b e fx cc J - . This is the tempera-
Mg 2.25 2.4 3.70
ture dependence predicted for b u l k m o b i l i t y ..by -the - theory o f lattice
Al 3.2 3.2t 4.20 :

3.6 4.74 scattering (see Chapter 4) w h i c h , however, had 4ieyef -been previously
Ni 3.7
3.8 4.52 observed. "-
Cu 3.8
Ag 4.15 4.2 4.31
Au 4.1 4.1 4.70
Si 4.35 5.15 12.6 CONDUCTION ON OXIDE SURFACES
t Arbitrarily chosen as reference. 22
Early investigators o f oxidized silicon surfaces have suggested that
conduction on the outer surface o f t h e oxide may play an i m p o r t a n t role
comparison the vacuum w o r k function values o f the respective materials.
i n determining the characteristics o f underlying silicon devices. Tnis oxide
N o t e that the barrier energies f o l l o w r o u g h l y the same order as the w o r k
surface conduction process is illustrated schematically in Figure 12.13
functions. The presence o f the oxide merely seems to result i n a l o w e r i n g
where we show a gate-controlled n+p diode structure w i t h the gate biased
of the barrier energy as compared to v a c u u m by 0.5 to 1 ev.
positively. Because o f conduction o n the outer surface o f the oxide, its
potential w i l l approach that o f the metal gate. This is indicated i n the
upper p o r t i o n o f the figure where we show the potential o f the oxide
12.5 SURFACE MOBILITY
surface for increasing times. I n essence, the "gate" w i l l be extended to a
larger area. This i n t u r n w i l l result i n the f o r m a t i o n o f a field-induced
The mobilitv o f electrons and holes i n inversion layers has been studied
junction, under this "extended gate." (The g r o w t h o f the field-induced
by using channel conductance measurements on M O S transistor struc-
20
j u n c t i o n can actually be used to study the rate o f the surface c o n d u c t i o n
tures. F r o m the slope o f the conductance versus gate voltage plots, the 23
process. )
m o b i l i t y o f carriers i n the inversion layer was evaluated. A typical set o f
It can be s h o w n " that the surface conduction process is described bv an
results for both electrons and holes is shown i n Figure 12.12. Over a fairly
equation o f the same form as the diffusion equation, w i t h the diffusivity
large range o f variation o f the charge per u n i t area induced i n the silicon
replaced by ljR-C„ where R- is the sheet resistance o f a square-shaped
Q (or equivalent]}', o f the surface field t Q the inversion-layer m o b i l i t y is
s

portion o f the outer surface o f the oxide and C is the oxide capacitance.
seen to be relatively constant, having a value approximately half that o f the c
348 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System Conduction on O x i d e Surfaces -¡49

Accordingly, the oxide-surface potential in the case shown in-Figure 12.13 conduction process tends to increase the inversion layer area. Thus as this
w i l l follow an erfc-type d i s t r i b u t i o n . Rate studies o f the charging process process continues, the silicon capacitance i n parallel with the oxide
can thus be used to determine the sheet resistance of the oxide surface R . G capacitance will grow w i t h time. Correspondingly, the series combination
1
This picture o f the oxide surface conduction has been verified i n detail- o f the two capacitances w i l l approach the capacitance o f the oxide layer
by an experimental technique which gives the potential o f the oxide surface
directlv. Using glass slides and this potential measuring technique, the

Fig. 12.13 Creation of a field-induced junction by charging outer surface of oxide

1
from a metal gate.-

25
sheet resistance o f glass surfaces has been studied as a function o f the
h u m i d i t y o f the atmosphere, a factor w h i c h affects the surface conduction
process very drastically. T h e results are shown i n Figure 12.14 along w i t h
data obtained on thermally oxidized silicon surfaces by measuring the rate
23
o f g r o w t h o f field-induced j u n c t i o n s . The two sets o f data are i n reason- 0 20 40 60 80 100
ably good agreement a n d show the tremendous influence o f h u m i d i t y i n Relative humidity (%)

excess o f 4 0 % on the sheet resistance. Since the time constant o f the oxide Fig. 12.14 Sheet resistance of glass plate and of thermal SIO, vs relative humidity."-"
surface conduction process is given by ~R C , D 0 the oxide charging process
w i l l proceed very rapidly i n a h u m i d atmosphere, and very slowly i n a d r y alone because o f the increasingly large silicon capacitance up to much
atmosphere. higher measurement frequencies than otherwise. 28
Thus, as indicated i n
A n interesting consequence o f the oxide surface conduction process is Figure 12.15, the shape o f the M O S capacitance-voltage characteristics
its effect o n M O S characteristics as illustrated i n Figure 12.15. The surface w i l l approach the low-frequency type characteristics.
3SX Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide S y s t e m O t h e r Insulators 351

10

Oxide radioactive tracers showed that this effect is due to a m u c h higher

solubility o f sodium in the phospho-silicate glass than i n the silicon
dioxide. Thus sodium tends to segregate i n the phospho-silicate glass
layer and, therefore, it is not available for drift across the underlying silicon
dioxide layer.
10
Experimental measurements o f the sodium d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n a
phospho-silicate glass/silicon dioxide double layer system are shown i n
Figure 12.16. N o t e the three orders o f magnitude enhancement o f the
sodium concentration i n the phospho-silicate glass layer relative to the
underlying silicon dioxide film.
28
I t has also been f o u n d that, independently o f sodium c o n t a m i n a t i o n ,
there is a dipole-type p o l a r i z a t i o n process associated w i t h the phospho-
silicate layer itself. This dipole-type polarization can be shown to yield a
shift i n the flat band voltage, the steady-state value o f which is given by
1 -t'o
Fig. 12.15 The effect of oxide surface conduction on MOS capacitance-voltage charac- &V = - ^ V (12.2)
PB p

teristics.

where the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant a depends o n the phospho-silicate

glass-to-oxide thickness ratio, x /x . This equation shows that the shift i n
12.7 OTHER INSULATORS
a c

the flat-band voltage can take place i n either d i r e c t i o n , depending on the

I n order to fully utilize the potential capabilities o f metal-insulator-
semiconductor structures, certain combinations o f insulators may be more
advantageous than the metal-silicon dioxide-silicon system itself. O f the
numerous possibilities, several have already been studied.
27
I t has been f o u n d that i f a phospho-silicate glass, i.e., S i 0 rich i n
P 0 , is present on the outside o f a silicon dioxide layer, the instability o f
2 6
contaminated M O S devices is substantially reduced. Experiments w i t h
P;Oj-SÌO;
p o l a r i t y o f the gate voltage applied during the p o l a r i z a t i o n process V . p
Experimental measurements obtained w i t h a sample which consisted
o f a thick phospho-silicate glass layer on a t h i n silicon dioxide layer are
shown i n Figure 12.17. N o t e the displacements o f the M O S characteristics
in either d i r e c t i o n from the original one, w h i c h is denoted by V — 0. P
2
A n o t h e r double-layer dielectric system, w h i c h has been studied i n d e t a i l ,
29
is the lead-silicate glass/silicon dioxide double l a y e r . Thi:- aouble-layer
system also showed considerable polarization effects w h i c h were due to the
rearrangement o f lead ions. These ions are originally u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i -
buted along w i t h their negative anions i n the lead-glass f i l m . I f a p o l a r i z i n g
voltage is applied, the lead ions can be rearranged, while the anions, w h i c h
are much less mobile, cannot. Because o f this, a space charge w i l l b u i l d
u p i n the lead-glass layer, w h i c h leads to an induced image charge i n the
silicon and, correspondingly, to a shift i n the fiat-band voltage. T h e
steady-state value o f this shift is given by

1 6
10 Thus this type o f polarization w i l l also be symmetrical and its d i r e c t i o n
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 will depend on the polarity o f the applied p o l a r i z i n g voltage.
Distance from air interface (/d
The drift mechanisms associated w i t h these double-layer dielectrics are
Fig. 12.16 The effect of a P.O -rich layer on the sodium concentration distribution
s

within the oxide. 10 illustrated in comparison to the sodium drift mechanism i n silicon dioxide
352 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System References Cited
353

i n Figure 12:18. I n this figure, we show the initial charge d i s t r i b u t i o n in

the insulator, and the charge d i s t r i b u t i o n after a negative a n d a positive
p o l a r i z i n g voltage.
Case (a) corresponds to sodium contamination in thermally g r o w n sili-
con dioxide. I n i t i a l l y , the positive sodium ions are at the outer interface.
T h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n is not changed substantially when a negative voltage is
applied to the sample, but the sodium ions can be driven across to the
oxide-silicon interface w i t h the application o f a positive gate voltage.
Case (b) depicts an insulator containing an initially u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
m o b i l e positive ions compensated by immobile negative ions correspond-
ing to the case o f lead glass. This d i s t r i b u t i o n can be disturbed by either
negative or positive gate voltage. The positive ions w i l l pile up near the
negative terminal i n either case, leaving behind a negative space charge
near the positive terminal. The combined space charges w i l l then induce
an image charge i n b o t h the metal and the silicon as indicated i n the figure.
Case (c) depicts p o l a r i z a t i o n due to orientation o f dipoles, a n example o f
w h i c h is p r o v i d e d by the phospho-silicate glass. A. u n i f o r m d i p o l a r polar-
i z a t i o n can be considered to be equivalent to equal and opposite surface
charges appearing o n the two faces o f the dielectric. These then induce an
opposite image charge i n the metal and i n the semiconductor as illustrated.
A n o t h e r silicon c o m p o u n d , silicon nitride ( S i N ) , has been studied
3 4

31
b o t h as a possible insulator i n M I S structures and in conjunction w i t h la) (bl
32
silicon d i o x i d e . Silicon n i t r i d e has the attractive feature that the dif- Fig. 12.18 The charge distributions in an MOS structure initially, and after drifting
fusivity o f various impurities i n i t — i n particular, that o f sodium —are 33 to saturation under negative and positive gate bias. Three cases are shown:
(a) Corresponds to a thermally produced oxide contaminated with mobile positive ions
at the outer surface.
(b) Corresponds to a glass containing an initially uniform distribution of mobile positive
Ions compensated by immobile negative Ions.
(c) Corresponds to a glass with a uniform dipolar polarizabillty. A uniform dipolar
polarization is equivalent to equal and opposite surface charges on the two faces of
30
the dielectric.

m u c h lower than i n silicon dioxide. Thus surface field-effect transistors

made w i t h silicon nitride would be less susceptible to the ionic con-
t a m i n a t i o n problem described earlier than those made w i t h silicon dioxide..
However, i t appears that silicon nitride is inferior to silicon dioxide in
other ways: i t is much more conductive, and contains large densities o f
31 34
traps which lead to instability o f the flat-band voltage o f M I S devices. '

REFERENCES CITED
-20 -15 -10 10 15 20
V (v)
c 1, A.. Many, Y . Goldstein, and N. B . Grover, Semiconductor Surfaces, Wiley, 1965,
Fig. 12.17 Polarizacion phenomenon associated with phospho-silicate layers.-' Chapters 5 and 9.
354 Properties of the Silicon-Silicon Dioxide System
2. V. M . Atalla, E . Tannenbaum, and E . J . Schreibner, "Stabilization of Silicon
Surfaces by Thermally Grown Oxides," Bell System Tech. J., 38, 749 (1959).
3. A . S. Grove, B . E . Deal, E . H . Snow, and C . T . Sah, "Investigation of Thermally
Oxidized Silicon Surfaces Using Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Structures," Solid-
State Electronics, 8, 145 (1965).
4. E . H . Nicollian and A . Goetzberger, " M O S Conductance Technique for Measuring
Surface State Parameters," Appl. Phys. Letters, 7, 216 (1965).
5. L . Vadasz and A . S. Grove, "Temperature Dependence of M O S Transistor Charac-
teristics Below Saturation," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED-13,863 (December,
.1966).
6a. A . S. Grove and D . J . Fitzgerald, "Surface Effects on P-//Junctions: Characteristics
of Surface Space-Charge Regions under Non-Equilibrium Conditions," Solid-Stale
Electronics, 9, 783 (1966). •
6b. D . J . Fitzgerald and A . S. Grove, "Radiation-Induced Increase in Surface Recom-
- bination Velocity of Thermally Oxidized Silicon Structures," Proc. IEEE (Corre-
spondence) 54, 1601 (1966).
7. G . Cheroff, F . Fang, and F . Hochberg, "Effect of Low Temperature Annealing on
the Surface Conductivity of Si in the Si-SiO.-Al System," IBM Journal, 8, 416
(1964); P. Balk, "Effects of Hydrogen Annealing on Silicon Surfaces," Electro-
chemical Society Spring Meeting, San Francisco, May 1965, Abstract 109.
-8. P. V . Gray and D . M . Brown, "Density of SiO.-Si Interface States," Appl. Phys.
Letters, 8,31 (1966).
9. E . H . Snow. A . S. Grove, B . E . Deal, and C . T . Sah, "Ion Transport Phenomena in
Insulating Films," J. Appl. Phys., 36, 1664 (1965).
10. E . Y o n , W . H . K o , and A . B. Kuper. "Sodium Distribution in Thermal Oxide on
Silicon by Radiochemical and M O S Analysis," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices,
ED-13, 276 (1966).
11. D . A . Tremere. unpublished.
12. P. Lamond, J . Kelley, and M . Papkoff, "Stable M O S Transistors," Electro-Tech-
nology, Dec. 1965, p. 40.
13. For a review of "Surface Effects of Radiation on Semiconductor Devices," see
J . P. Mitchell and D . K . Wilson, Bell System Tech. J., 46, 1 (1967).
14. A . S. Grove and E . H . Snow, "A Model for Radiation Damage in Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Structures," Proc. IEEE (Correspondence), 54, 894 (1966).
15. B , E . Deal, M . Sklar, A . S. Grove, and E . H . Snow, "Characteristics of the Surface-
State Charge (Q„) of Thermally Oxidized Silicon," J. Electrochemical Soc, 114,
266 (March 1967).
16. P. Balk, P. J . Burkhardt. and L . V. Gregor, "Orientation Dependence of Built-in
Surface Charge on Thermally Oxidized Silicon," Proc. IEEE (Correspondence), 53,
2133 (1965).
17. R . Williams, "Photoemission of Electrons from Silicon into Silicon Dioxide,"
Phys. Rev.. 14C. ¿.569.(1965). .
18. A . M . Goodman, "Photoemission of Electrons from Silicon and Gold into Silicon
Dioxide," Phys. Rev.. 144. 588 (1966).
References C i t e d 355
19. B. E . Deal, E . H . Snow, and C . A . Mead. "Barrier Energies in Metal-Silicon
Dioxide-Silicon Structures." J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 27, 1873 (1966).
20. O. Leistiko. A . S. Grove, and C . T . Sah. "Electron and Hole Mobilities in Inver- -
sion Layers on Thermally Oxidized Silicon Surfaces," IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices.' ED-12, 248 (1965)'.
21. J . R . Schrieffer, "Effective Carrier Mobility in Surface-Space Charge Layers,"
Phys. Rev., 97, 641 (1955).
22. M . M. Atalla. A . R . Bray, and R . Lindner. "Stability of Thermally Oxidized
Silicon Junctions in Wet Atmospheres," Proc. IEE, 106, P a n B, Supplement No. 17,
1130 (1960).
23. E . H . Snow, in "A Study of Failure Mechanisms in Silicon Planar Transistors,"
Technical Documentary Report Dec. 1965, R A D C Contract A F 3 0 (602)-3776.
24. W. Shockley, W . W. Hooper, H . J . Queisser, and W . Schroen, "Mobile Electric
Charges on Insulating Oxides with Application to Oxide Covered P-N Junctions."
Surface Science, 2, 277 (1964).
25. W. Schroen and W. W. Hooper, in "Failure Mechanisms in Silicon Semiconductors,"
Final Report R A D C A F 3 0 (602)-3016 (1964).
26. E . H . Nicollian and A . Goetzberger, "Lateral A C Current Flow Model for Metal-
Insulator-Semiconductor Capacitors," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. ED-12, 108
(1965); S. R . Hofstein and G . Warfield, "Physical Limitations on the Frequency
Response of a Semiconductor Surface Inversion Laver," Solid-Slate Electronics, 8,
321 (1965).
27. D . R . K e r r . J . S. Logan. P. J . Burkhardt. and W. A . Pliskin, "Stabilization o f S i O :
Passivation Layers with P 0 ."" IBM Journal. 8, 376 (1964;.
; 5
28. E . H . Snow and B. E . Deal, "Polarization Phenomena and Other Properties of
Phosphosilicate Glass Films on Silicon," J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 263 (1966).
29. E . H . Snow and M . E . Dumesnil, "Space Charge Polarization in Glass Films."
J. Appl. Phys., 37, 2123 (1966).
30. B. E . Deal, E . H . Snow, and A . S. Grove, "Properties of the Silicon Dioxide-
Silicon System," SCP and Solid State Technology, 9, 25 (1966).
31. S. M . H u , "Properties of Amorphous Silicon Nitride Films," J. Electrochem. Soc,
113. 693 (1966).
32. G . H . Schneer, W. vanGelder, V . E . Hauser. and P. F . Schmidt, " A Silicon Nitride
Junction Seal on Silicon Planar Transistors," Paper 5.3 at the I E E E Electron
Devices Meeting, Washington, October, 1966.
33. J . V. Dalton, "Sodium Drift and Diffusion in Silicon Nitride Films," J. Electrochem.
Soc, 113, I65C (1966).
34. See papers (Abstract Nos. 146-163) given at the Electrochemical Society Fall
Meeting, Philadelphia, October, 1966.
\
c
X
£
Index
V*

C Acceptors, 97 Breakdown, critical field

v¿5* Accumulation, 265
Activation energy, epitaxial growth, 12
intrinsic carrier concentration, 95
oxidation, 23, 29
solid-state diffusion, 39
Alloy junction, 2
Amplifier, transistor, 213
Anodization, 22
Atomic or molecular weight, of Ge, Si,
GaAs, and S I O T (Table), 102
Autodoping, 83
Avalanche breakdown. 191-194
Average resistivity of diffused layers,
54-57
Band theory, 91-95
Band-to-band recombination-, 128
Barrier energies in M O S structures,
345-346
Base, factor, 218
of junction transistors, 210
resistance, 228-230
Base-width modulation (Early effect), 226
Bias, forward, 150, 161, 180-191
reverse, 150, 161, 172-180
Bipolar transistor [see Junction
transistors)
Boltzmann distribution, 99
Boltzmann statistics, 99, 100
Boundary layer, theory, 14-18
thickness, 16
"Box" impurity distribution, 54
Breakdown, avalanche, 191-194
critical field, for Ge, G a A s , Si, and
S i 0 (Table), 103
2
for Si, 193 '
of p-n junctions, 150, 191-201
soft, 200
Zener (tunneling), 191
Breakdown voltage, common-base, 230
common-emitter, 230-234
of diffused junctions, 196
of field-induced junctions, 305
of linearly graded junctions, 195
of one-sided step junctions, 194
of planar junctions, 197
reach-through limited, 199
surface effects on, 311
Bubble analogy, 94
Built-in electric field, 32, 59-63, 224
Built-in voltage, of field-induced
junctions, 269, 291
of linearly graded junctions, 165
of step junctions. 157
Capacitance, 169
of linearly graded junctions, 171
of one-sided step junctions, 171 ••
small-signal, 169
Capacitance-voltage characteristics, of
MOS structures, 271-276 -
frequency effects on, 274
of p-n junctions, 169-172
Capture cross section, 131
of gold, 141
of surface states, 145
Carrier concentration, intrinsic, 96, 101
Carrier removal, 142, 144
Centers, recombination-generation, 129
Channel, characteristic, 305

357

1
C
 .358
Channel, conductance, junction
field-effect transistors, 245. 250
surface field-effect transistors, 276,
318,324 .
currents, 305
junction field-effect transistors, 244
metallurgical. 330
surface field-effect transistors, 318
Charges in insulator, 279-282, 337-341
Chemical potential, of electrons, 98, 156
Chemical reaction, first-order, 10
Chemical surface-reaction rate constant.
10, 25
Chemical transport, 44
Collector of junction transistors, 210
- Collisions, time interval between, 107
Common-base mode, 212
breakdown voltage. 230'
current gain, 211, 219
Common-emitter mode. 212
breakdown voltage, 230-234
current gain, 211, 220
Complementary error function. 46
Complete ionization, 97
Concentration gradient, at junction. 48.
50, 165
Concentrations, electron. 100
hole, 100
intrinsic carrier, 96. 101
Conduction. 92
band, 92
band edge. 94
electron, 93
on oxide surfaces, 347-350
Conductivity type, 98
Conductivity modulation. 227
-Gontinuum. of recombination-
generation centers, 302
of surface states, 302
Cooperative diffusion, 63
Critical field, for junction breakdown.
191, 193
Crystal structure, of Ge, -Si. and G a A s
(Table). 102-103
Current crowding, in junction transistors.
229
Current gain, of junction transistors. 219
common-bast. 2' :
common-emitter. 211
effect of collector current on. 220
Index
Current gain, of junction transistors,
effect of reverse bias leakage
current on. 219
small-signal, 213
surface effects on. 303. 309
Current-voltage characteristics, of
gate-controlled diodes. 298-304
of junction field-effect transistors.
248-251
of p-n junctions. 172-191
of surfacefield-effecttransistors. 321 -326
Cut-off frequency, of junction
field-effect transistors. 254
of surface field-effect transistors, 328
of junction transistors, 223
Decay, of injected carriers. 119-121
Degenerate semiconductors, 101
Density, of gases. 20
of Ge, Si, G a A s , and Si02 (Table), 102
of states, effective, for Ge, Si, and
GaAs (Table). 102
Depletion approximation. 157. 267
Depletion region, 156
surface, 266, 293
maximum width of. 268. 293
width or. 159, 163. 166-169
Dielectric constant, for Ge, Si, GaAs.
and S i 0 (Table). 103
2
Diffused junction. 3
breakdown voltage of. 196
space-charge region for, 167-169
Diffused layers. 43-58
evaluation of, 52-58
two-dimensional. 59
Diffusion, drive-in, 49-52
equation, 42
field-aided. 59-63
formulas (Table), 88
of electrons and holes, 113
of gold in silicon, 41
rate limitation, external, 65-69
solid-state: 35-83
space-charge effects on. 59-63
through silicon dioxide layers, 75-77
Diffusion current, forward bias.
183-186
reverse bias, 173, 175-177
Diffusion length, of impurities. 46
of minority carriers, 124
Index
Diffusivity, 37
in gases. 20
in silicon, 38-40
in silicon dioxide, 41
of electrons, 113
of holes, 113
thermal, 43
Diodes (see p-n Junctions)
Diodes, finite length (narrow base).
190
Distributed surface states or
recombination centers, 302
Distribution function, Boltzmann. 99
Fermi-Dirac, 98
Drain, junction field-effect transistors.
243
surface field-effect transistors. 318
Drift, 106
of ions in M O S structures, 337-340
velocity, 106
Drive-in diffusion, 43, 49-52
Donors, 97
Early effect. 226
Effective densities, of states. 100
for Ge, Si, and G a A s (Table). 102
Effective mass, 107
Einstein's relationship, 37. 113
Electric field. 152
built-in, 32, 59-63, 224
Electrochemical oxidation. 22
Electron, capture, 129
chemical potential of. 98
concentration, 100, 104
conduction, 93
diffusivity of, 113
emission. 129
emission probability. 131
mobility of. 108
potential energy of, 152
transport of, 106-114
Electrostatic potential, 152
Emission probability, of electrons, 131
or holes, 132
Emitter, efficiency. 218
factor. 218
of junction transistors. 2)0
Emitter-dip effect. 63
Emitter-push effect, 63
Energy bands. 91
359
Energy gap. for Ge, Si, GaAs. and S i O ;
(Table). 102
Epitaxial diodes, breakdown voltage
limitations. 199
Epitaxial growth, 7-20
redistribution of impurities in.
78-83
Equilibrium criterion. 101
Error function, complementary. 46
properties of (Table), 48
Etching, 8
External rate limitation, on diffusion.
65-69
Extraction of carriers, 118
Fast surface states, 283. 335-337
in thermally oxidized silicon. 336
Fermi-Dirac distribution, 98
Fermi-Dirac distribution function. 98
Fermi-Dirac statistics. 98
Fermi level. 98
as a function of temperature. 104
in equilibrium, 156
intrinsic. 99. 101
Fermi potentials. 157
Field-aided diffusion, 32. 59-6?. 224
Field-effect transistors (.tee Junction
field-effect transistors and Surface
field-effect transistors)
Field-induced channel surface field-effect
transistors, 330
formulas for (Table). 3?"
Field-induced junction. 269. 2yi. 305
breakdown voltage of. 305
Field-plate controlled p-n junction. 264
Film growth rate, 11, 17. 79
temperature dependence of. 12
Finite length (narrow base) diodes. 190
First-order chemical reaction, 10
Flat-band voltage, 278, 281
Flux. 10. 24. 36
Forbidden gap, 91
Formulas, for field-induced channel
surface field-effect transistors. 333
for junction field-effect transistors. 259
for junction transistors. 242
for p-n junctions, 207
for surface space-charge regions. 288
in solid-state diffusion. 88
semiconductor physics. 116

360
Formulas, semiconductors in non-
equilibrium. 148
Forward bias. 150. 161
Forward current, diffusion. 183-186
recombination. 186-190
temperature dependence of. 188-189
Forward current-voltage characteristics,
empirical representation. 189
for Ge, Si. and G a A s junctions.
188-189
Fourier's law of heat conduction, 237
Four-point probe technique, 58
Frequency effects, on MOS capacitance-
voltage characteristics, 274
Frequency limitation, of junction
field-effect transistors. 254
of-junction transistors, 223
of surface field-effect transistors, 328
Furnace, oxidation, 23
Gallium arsenide, intrinsic carrier
concentration. 96
properties of (Table), 102-103
Gallium arsenide p-n junctions, forward
current. 189
reverse current. 179
Gas constant. 19
Gases, properties of, 18-20
Gas-phase mass transfer. 13
coefficient, 10, 14, 16, 18. 24
in terms of concentrations in the
solid, 25. 65, 67, 79
Gate, junction field-effect transistors.
243
Gate-controlled diode. 264. 290, 296
current-voltage characteristics of, 298
Gate leakage current, junction field-effect
transistors, 252
surface field-effect transistors. 327
Gaussian impurity distribution, 50
Generation, of electron-hole pairs, 119
Generation current-, 173, 300
Generation rate, in reverse-biased
depletion region, 174, 301
surface. 301
Germanium, intrinsic carrier
concentration, 96
properties of (Table), 102-103
surface recombination velocity, 145
surface-state density, 144
Index
Index _ Jo I
Germanium p-n junctions, forward Interstitial impurities, 40 Junction transistors, emitter efficiency, 218
current, 188 Intrinsic carrier concentration, 96, 101 emitter factor, 218
reverse current. 178 Intrinsic Fermi level, 99, 101 formulas for (Table), 242
Gettering, 201 Inversion layer, 267 frequency limitation. 223
Gold, capture cross section. 141 mobility, 346-347 graded base region. 224
diffusion in silicon. 41 temperature dependence of, 347 high-current effects, 227
effect on resistivity, 142 loniacontamination of oxide, 337-340 maximum voltage limitations.
Graded base region. 224 Ionization energy, 95 230-234
Graded channel regions, junction Ionizing radiation, effect on fast surface minimum voltage limitations, 234-236
field-effect transistors. 253 states, 145 one-dimensional model. 209
Gradient of impurity concentration, 48, effect on oxide space charge, 340-341 planar. 208
50 punch-through condition. 230
Grooving, 52 Junction field-effect transistors, 243-259 recombination factor, 218
Grown junction. 1 channel, 244 saturation. 234
Growth rate, epksxial film. I i . 17, 79 channel conductance, 245, 250 surface effects, on current gain, 303,
comparison to surface field-effect 309 i -
Henry's law, 24, 44 transistors, 320-321 surface recombination, effect of, 218,
constant. 25, 67 current-voltage characteristics, 248-254 303
High-current effects, 227 cut-off frequency, 254 switch, 214
High-level injection. 119. 227 .. drain, 243 terminology, 214 .
Hole, capture. 129 drain-current saturation, 251 thermal limitation, 236-238
concentration, 100. 104 formulas for (Table), 259 thermal resistance, 238
diffusivity of. 113 frequency limitation, 254 transit-time limitation, 222
emission. 130 gate. 243 transport factor, 219
emission probability, 132 gate leakage current. 252
transport of. 106 graded channel regions, 253 Kinetics, of oxidation. 23-31
Horizontal epitaxial reactor, 8 linear region, 248 of recombination process. 127-134
principles of operation, 244-248 of vapor-phase growth. 10-13
Ideal gas law, 19 saturation, 247
Illumination, effect on junction reverse saturation region, 248 Lattice, constant for Ge. Si, GaAs. and
current. 180 series resistance, effect of, 256 S i O i (Table), 102
Impurity, concentration gradient. source, 243. mobilities for Ge. Si, and G a A s
48. 50 source-to-drain resistance, in (Table), 103
interstitial, 40 saturation, 255 scattering, 109
scattering, 109 transconductance, 252 strain, effect on diffusion, 63
substitutional, 39 turn-off voltage, 250 Lead-silicate glass, 351
Injected carriers, decay of, 119 Junction transistors, 208-242 Lifetime, band-to-band recombination,
Injection, 117 ' base factor, 218 128
from a boundary, 125 base resistance, 228-230 effect of radiation damage on, 143
high-level, 119, 227 base-width modulation, 226 in low-level injection. 134-136
low-level, 119 breakdown voltage, 230-234 of excess minority carriers. 121
Instabilities in MOS structures, 337 common-base breakdown voltage. 230 within a reverse-biased depletion -
Insulator, 92 common-emitter breakdown voltage, region, 174
charges in, 279-282, 337-341 230-234 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion
lead-silicate glass, 351 conductivity modulation, 227 for Ge, Si, GaAs, and SIO2
phospho-silicate glass, 350 current components, 214 (Table), 103
silicon nitride. 352 current crowding, 229 Linear region, junction field-effect
Integrated circuits, 3 current gain, 219-222 transistors, 248
Intermediate centers, recombination- cut-off frequency, 223 surface field-effect transistors, 320
generation, 129-134 - Early effect, 226 - - Linear oxidation law, 27

362
Linear oxidation rate constant, 27
-temperature dependence of, 30
Linearly graded junction, 163-166
breakdown voltage, 195
built-in voltage, 165
capacitance, 171
maximum electric field, 164
space-charge region, 163-166
Liquid source, 43
Low-level injection, 119
lifetime in, 134-136
Majority carrier, 98, 105
concentration, as a function of
temperature, 105 •
Masking,'75-77
thickness, 77
Mass. effective. 107
Mass-transfer coefficient. 10, 14, 16. 18.
24, 67, 79
in terms of concentrations in the
solid, 25. 67, 79
"Mass-transfer control, 11, 26
Maximum electric field, in linearly
graded junctions, 164
in step junctions, 158
Maximum surface recombination
velocity, 140
Maximum voltage limitations, of
junction transistors. 230-234
Metal. 92
Melting point, f o r G e , Si, GaAs~, and
S i 0 (Table), 103
2 np product (see pn product)
Metal-insulator-semiconductor
structures (see M O S structures)
.Metal-insulator-semicpnductor surface
field-effect transistors (see
Surface field-effect transistors)
Metallurgical channel surface field-effect
transistors, 330
Metal-oxide-semiconductor structures
(see M O S structures)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor surface
field-effect transistors (see Surface
field-effect transistors)
Minimum voltage limitations of junction
transistors. 234-236
•Minority carriers. 105
concentrations under forward bias. 185
MIS structures (see MOS structures)
Index
MIS transistors (see Surface field-effect
transistors) - -
Mobility. 37
in silicon, 109
inversion layer, 347
temperature dependence of, 347
lattice, for Ge, Si. and G a A s (Table).
103
of electrons. 108
of holes, 108
surface. 346
temperature dependence of, 110
Molecular or atomic weight, Ge, Si,
G a A s , and S i O ; (Table), 102
Mole fraction, 9
MOS structures, 264
capacitance-voltage characteristics. 271
channel conductance. 276
drift (instability). 337
frequency-effects. 274
turn-on voltage, 273
MOS transistors (see Surface
field-effect transistors)
Multiplication, 193
Multiplication factor. 194
Narrow-base diodes. 190
Non-equilibrium conditions. 117-148
Normally "off" surface field-effect
transistors. 330
Normally "on" surface field-effect
transistors, 330
;i-type conductivity, 98
One-sided step junction, 159
breakdown voltage, 194
capacitance, 171
formulas (Table), 207
Orientation effect, on oxidation rate. 30
on surface state charge, 343
Out-diffusion, 67
Oxidation, electrochemical, 22
furnace. 23
kinetics of. 23
rate constants, 27
space-charge effects on. 31
thermal. 22
Oxide, diffusivities in. 41
masking. 75-77
Index
Oxide, properties of, 334-355
space charge. 337-341
surface conduction. 347-350
Parabolic oxidation law, 27
rate constant, 27
temperature dependence of rate
constant, 29
Phospho-silicate glass, 350
Photocurrent, junction, 180
Planar junction, 149
breakdown voltage, 197
Planar technology, 3
Planar transistors, 208
Plasma oxidation, 22
p-n junctions, 149-207
alloy, 2
breakdown, 150, 191-201
built-in voltage, 157, 165
capacitance, 169-172
concentration gradient at, 165
current-voltage characteristics, 172-191
curvature, effect on breakdown of.
197
depth, 52
diffused, 3
field-induced, 269. 291. 305
forward current, temperature
dependence of. 188-189
gate-controlled. 264, 290. 296
grown. 1
one-dimensional model. 150
photocurrent, 180
reverse current, temperature
dependence of. 179
surface effects on, 289
transient behavior, 201-204
pn product, in equilibrium, 101
in quasi-equilibrium. 184
in space-charge region. 139, 184
Poisson's equation, 153
Polarization in insulators. 351-353
Potential energy of electrons, 152
Predeposition, 43-48
Properties of gases. 18-20
Properties of G e , Si, GaAs, and S i 0
(Table), 102-103
/7-type conductivity. 98
Punch-through condition in junction
transistors. 230
363
Q of diffused layer, 47, 50
Q of transistor base. 226
Q « . 342
Quasi-equilibrium. 184-185
Quasi-Fermi levels, 162, 184-185
Radiation damage, effect of, on fast
surface states, 145
on lifetime, 143
Radiation-induced space charge in
oxides, 340
Rate constant, chemical surface reaction.
10, 25
oxidation, 27
temperature dependence of,' 29-30
Reach-through limited junction
breakdown voltage, 199
Reactor, horizontal. 8
vertical, 8
Recombination, band-lo-band. 128
centers. 129
continuum of, 302
origin of. 140-145
current. 183. 186-190
factor, junction transistors, 218
in surface space-charge region. 298-304
kinetics of, 127-134
through intermediaie centers, 1 2 9 - ¡ 3 4
Rectification. 150
Redistribution of impurities, during
thermal oxidation. 69-75
in a predeposited l a y c . 74
in epitaxial growth, 78-?3
Resistivity, 111-113
average, of base region. 230
of diffused layers, 54
Reverse bias. 150, 161-163, 172-180
leakage current, effect on current gain,
219
Reverse current, diffusion. 173. 175-180
generation, 173-175
of G e . Si. and G a A s junctions.
178-179
temperature dependence, 179
under illumination. 180
2
Reynolds number, 16. 17, 23
Saturation, junction transistors. 234
Saturation current, in junction
field-effect transistors. 247
364
Saturation current, in surface field-erfect
transistors. 326
Saturation region, junction field-effect
transistors. 248
surface field-effect transistors. 320
Scattering mechanisms. 109
Schmidt number, 17
Segregation coefficient, 69, 74, 77
Semiconductor. 93
degenerate. 101
physics. 91-116
formulas (Table), 116
• surfaces, 263-288
under non-equilibrium conditions,
117-148
formulas (Table), 148
Series resistance effect, on junction
field-effect transistors, 256
on surface field-effect transistors, 329
Shockley-Read-Hall theory. 129
Silicon, diffustvities in, 38-40
intrinsic carrier concentration. 96
properties (Table), 102-103
surface recombination velocity. 145
surface state densities in, 144
Silicon dioxide. 22
diffusivities in, 41
masking, 75-77
properties of, 102-103. 334-355
Silicon nitride. 352
Silicon p-n junctions, forward current,
188
reverse current, 178
Silicon-silicon dioxide system, properties
of. 334-355
Silicon tetrachloride. 7, 8
Small-signal capacitance. 169
Small-signal current gain, of junction
transistors, 213
Sodium contamination, in oxides, 339
Soft breakdown, 200
Solid solubility, 44
Solid source. 43
Solid-state diffusion. 35-88
Source, junction field-effect transistors,
-43
surface field-effect transistors. 318
Source-to-drain resistance in saturation,
junction field-effect transistors. 255
surface field-effect transistors. 329
Index
Space-charge, radiation induced. 340
within insulator. 280
within oxide. 337-341
Space-charge effects, on diffusion. 59-63
on oxidation. 31
Space-charge neutrality. 101 .
Space-charge region, for diffused
junctions, 167-169
for linearly graded junctions. 163-166
for step junctions, 153-163
Specific heat of Ge, Si. GaAs. and
S i 0 (Table). 103
2 rate. 301
Step junction. 157
built-in voltage, 157, 161
formulas (Table), 207
maximum electric field. 158
one-sided, 159
space-charge region for, 153-163
Stagnant-film model, 13
Strong inversion. 267-268, 292
Substitutional impurities, 39
Surface conduction on oxides.
347
Surface depletion region. 266
width. 266. 267
Surface effects, on junction breakdown
voltage, 311
on p-n junctions, 289-316
on transistor current gain. 303, 309
Surface field-effect transistors, 264.
317-333
channel. 318
channel conductance, 324
comparison to junction field-effect
transistors, 320-321
current-voltage characteristics. 321-327
cut-off frequency, 328
drain, 318
drain-current saturation, 320
effect of surface states, 327
field-induced channel, 330
formulas for (Table), 333
frequency limitation, 328
gate leakage current, 327
linear region, 320
metallurgical channel, 330 .
normally "off", 330
normally "on", 330
other types. 329-331
principles of operation. 318-321
Index
Surface field-effect transistors,
saturation, 320
saturation region. 320
series resistance, effect of. 329
source, 318
source-to-drain resistance in
saturation, 329
surface scattering, 325
transconductance, 326
turn-on voltage, 324
Surface generation, current. 301
Surface mobility in silicon. 346
Surface potential, 267. 293
Surface-reaction control, 11, 26
Surface-reaction rate constant. 10
Surface recombination. 121, 136-140
centers, 301
effect on emitter efficiency, 218
Surface recombination velocity; 124.
136. 302
maximum, 140
of a surface without a surface
space-charge region, 139
on Ge and Si surfaces, 145
on thermally oxidized silicon. 145, 336
Surface scattering, effect on surface
field-effect transistors, 325
Surfaces, semiconductors. 263-288
Surface space-charge region. 137, 263
equilibrium. 264-271
formulas (Table), 288
non-equilibrium case, 290-296
. recombination-generation within.
298-304
Surface-state charge in thermally
oxidized silicon, 342
Surface states, 144, 282, 335-337
continuum, 302
effect on surface field-effect transistors.
327
in germanium, 144
in thermally oxidized silicon. 144, 336
single level, 336
uniformly distributed. 336
Switch, transistor. 214
Temperature dependence, of film
growth rate, 12
of junction forward current, 188-189
365
Temperature dependence, of junction
reverse current. 179
of linear oxidation rate constant. 30
of parabolic oxidation rate constant.
29
Terminology of junction transistors. 214
Thermal conductivity, for Ge. Si. GaAs.
and S i 0 (Table), 103
2
Thermal diffusivity, 43
for Ge, Si. G a A s , and S i 0 (Table), 103
2
Thermal limitation of transistors. 236-238
Thermally oxidized silicon. 334-355
Thermal oxidation. 22-34
redistribution of impurities in, 69-75
Thermal resistance.. 238
Thermal velocity of carriers. 108. 130
Transconductance, junction field-effect
transistors, 252
surface field-effect transistors. 326
Transient behavior- of p-n junctions.
201-204
Transistors {see Junction transistors)
Transit time limitation. 222
Transport equation. 41
Transport factor, junction transistors.
219
Transport properties, of gases, 20
Trap, 130
Tunneling (Zener breakdown). 191
Turn-off time, for p-n junctions. 202
Turn-off voltage, junction field-effect
transistors. 250
Turn-on voltage, of MOS structures,
273, 297
of surface field-effect transistors. 324
Two-dimensional diffused layers, 59 ..
Uniform distributions, of recombination
centers. 302
of surface states. 302
Unipolar transistors. 243
Valence band. 92
edge, 94
Valence electrons, 91
Vapor-phase growth, 7-21
kinetics of, 10-13
Vapor pressure for Ge. Si, G a A s . and
S i 0 (Table). 103
2
Velocity of carriers, drift, 106
Velocity of carriers, thermal, .108 Work function difference, effect on , . j r
1
Vertical reactor. 8 MOS structures, 278, 345 • • - A ,
Viscosity. 14 .* W
of gases, 20 Zener breakdown (tunneling), 191 • j ^

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