● UNIT 0:

PRESENT:
- Simple:
·Routines, habits ( usually, always, often, rarely, never, etc)
·Facts
·Timetable
·Stative verbs

- Continuous:
·Now ( now, right now, at the moment)
·Temporary actions ( this year, at the present, today, these days/ month)
·Future plans ( tomorrow, tonight, next Friday)

- Perfect simple:
·Began in the past and continues until the present
·Took place at indeterminate time in the past but is connected to the present
·( never, ever, already, just, yet, recently, for, since, lately)

PAST:
- Simple:
·Finished in the past ( last night, yesterday, 2 years ago, etc)

- Continues:
·In progress at specific time ( while, when, as)
·In progress, interrupted ( past simple)
·2 actions in progress, at the same time

- Perfect simple:
·Happens before another past action ( already, by…, before, until, just)

FUTURE:
- Simple ( will) :
·Predictions
·Spontaneous
·Timetable

- Be going to:
·Future plans
·About to happen

- Perfect simple:
·Will be completed by a certain time in the future ( habré terminado)
·Example: By this time next week, we will have finished the school project.
·( By this time next week, by 3 o´clock, by the end of…, by then, by August)

- Continuous:
·In progress ( estaré viajando)
 ·Example: At this time next Monday, Alison will be playing in the concert.
·( At this time tomorrow/ next.., on Thursday, in the next decade, soon)

● UNIT 1:

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

- Expresan acciones que empezaron en el pasado y aún continúan.
- Expresar acciones terminadas pero recientes cuyos efectos son visibles todavía.
- Expresiones:
For a year, since 2002, how long…?, all night/ morning/ day/ week.
- Forma:
·Afirmativa: suj. + have/ has + been + verbo terminado en -ing.
·Negativa: su. + have/ has + not + been + verbo terminado en -ing.
·Interrogativa: Have/ has + suj. + been + verbo principal terminado en -ing.
- Example:
·How long have you been cooking?
·Janet is tired. She has been studying for the exam all night.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

- Hablar de una acción prolongada que ocurrió en el pasado antes que otra acción
breve también pasada.
- Expresiones:
For hours, since last April, all morning, when, until, before.
- Forma:
·Afirmativa: suj. + had + been + verbo principal terminando en -ing.
·Negativa: suj. + had + not + been + verbo principal terminando en -ing.
·Interrogativos: Had + suj. + been + verbo principal terminando en -ing.
- Example:
·She had been living in Australia for 10 years when she decided to return to the
EEUU.
·He had been working in that restaurant for two months when he found another job.

SUFIJOS PARA FORMAR SUSTANTIVOS:

-tion/ -sion, -ment, -ness, -ance/ -ence, -ship y -ity.

·Punctuate - Punctuation - Puntuación

·Conclude - Conclusion - Conclusión
·Announce - Announcement - Anuncio
·Happy - Happiness - Felicidad
·Annoy - Annoyance - Molestia
·Indifferent - Indifference - Indiferencia
·Champion - Championship - Campeonato
·Personal - Personality - Personalidad

SUFIJOS PARA FORMAR ADJETIVOS:

-al, -able/ -ible, -ous, -ive, -ful y -less.
·Nation - National - Nacional
·Predict - Predictable - Predecible
·Contempt - Contemptible - Despreciable
·Danger - Dangerous - Peligroso/a
·Attract - Attractive - Atractivo/ a
·Beauty - Beautiful - Bonito/ a
·Pain - Painless - Indoloro/ a

VERBOS SEGUIDOS DE GERUNDIO Y DE INFINITIVO:

- Forget + gerundio: imposibilidad de olvidar algo ocurrido en el pasado.

- Forget + infinitivo: significa “ olvidarse de hacer algo”.
- Remember + gerundio: significa “ recordar haber hecho algo en el pasado”.
- Remember + infinitivo: significa “ acordarse de hacer algo”.
- Regret + infinitivo: significa “ lamentar lo que se va a decir a continuación”.
- Stop + gerundio: significa “ dejar de hacer algo/ un hábito”.
- Stop + infinitivo: significa “ parar ( una acción) para hacer otra cosa”.

● UNIT 2:

CONDICIONALES:

- 0 conditional:
·If/ unless + present , present simple
·FACT
·Example: If you don't prepare, you don´t do well.

- First conditional:
·If/ unless + present simple , will + verb
·FUTURE
·Example: If it rains this weekend, I will stay at home.

- Second conditional:
·If/ unless + past simple , would/ could/ modals
·PRESENT
·Example: If I were you , I would study.

- Third conditional:
·If/ Unless + past participle , would /could / modals + have + participle
·PAST
·Example: If you had studied , you would have passed.

TIME CLAUSES:

·I will clean my room , as soon as , I get up

future when past simple
 after

WISH/ IF ONLY:
- Wish/ if only + past simple:
·Situaciones presentes que quisiéramos cambiar o mejorar.
·Example: I wish I knew more about Mars (Ojala supiera más sobre Marte).
·Si el verbo que va en Past Simple es to be, hay que usar were en todas las
personas: I wish Paul were here ( Ojalá Paul estuviera aquí).

- Wish/ if only + past perfect simple:

·Hechos pasados, lamentando lo que ha ocurrido:
·Example: I wish I hadn't missed the train ( Ojala no hubiera perdido el tren).

- Wish/ if only + could/ would + base form:

·Deseo sobre situaciones futuras, indicando que es poco probable de que ocurran.
·Example: I wish I could fly to the moon ( Ojala pudiera viajar a la luna).
·Si el sujeto de wish y el del verbo en la forma base son diferentes, usamos would: I
wish students would visit the space museum ( Ojala los estudiantes visitaran el
museo espacial).

● UNIT 3:

THE PASSIVE:

- Verb to be in the same verb tense from the + Main verb = past
active voice sentence participle

- Special forms:

· Verbs that introduce an opinion, thought or belief often have a special passive form.
(Say, think, believe, expect, consider).

·Active: People believe that technology is crucial for any business.

Passive:
1- Structure: It + be + past participle + that cause
Example: It is believed that technology is crucial for any business.
2- Structure: Subject + be + past participle + infinitive
Example: Technology is believed to be crucial for any business.

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

Present simple Liz uses the computer every day The computer is used by Liz every day

Present continuous Liz is using the computer every day The computer is being used by Liz every..

Past simple Liz used the computer every day The computer was used by Liz every day
Past continuous Liz was using the computer every day The computer was being used by Liz….

Present perfect simple Liz has used the computer every day The computer has been used by Liz...

Past perfect simple Liz had used the computer every day The computer had been used by Liz..

Future simple Liz will use the computer every day The computer will be used by Liz every...

Modals Liz should use the computer every day The computer should be used by Liz….

Modal perfects Liz may have used the computer every day The computer may have been used by….

Have to Liz has to use the computer every day The computer has to be used by Liz...

Be going to Liz is going to use the computer every day The computer is going to be used by...

THE CAUSATIVE:
·Esta estructura es usada para referirse a una acción que no realizamos nosotros, sino que
se la encargamos a alguien.
·Structure: Have/ get + object + past participle
·Example: Yesterday, my car broke down…. I had it fixed ( by a mechanic)
V O P.P

● UNIT 4:

LOS MODALES:
Son invariables, por lo que tienen una misma forma para todas las personas y no se
conjugan.
No necesitan do/ does para formar la negativa ni la interrogativa.
Siempre van seguidos de un verbo base.
- Can:
·Solo se usa con present simple.
·Expresar habilidad o capacidad. Ex: Beth can speak 5 languages
·Hacer peticiones, dar y pedir permiso. Ex: Can I join the hockey team?
·Indicar posibilidad. Ex: We can watch Formula One races on TV.
·Hacer sugerencias. Ex: You can take a taxi to go to the train station.

- Be able to:
·Tiene el mismo significado que can, pero con can solo puede emplearse el present
simple, en el resto de tiempos verbales usamos be able to.

·Ex: I will be able to attend basketball practice this afternoon.

Marry was able to finish the race.

- Can´t:
·Prohibición. Ex: They can't use hi-tech equipment.
·Deducción negativa. Ex: That can't be Pam. She was injured during training.
·Certeza de que algo es imposible.

- Could:
 · Expresar habilidad o capacidad en el pasado. Ex: Mark could play golf when he
was young.
· Hacer peticiones más educadas que con can. Ex: Could you take me to the
stadium?
· Indicar posibilidad más remota que con can. Ex: Jane could become an Olympic
athlete.
· Hacer sugerencias menos directas que con can. Ex: You could invite your friends
to see the match.

- May/ might:
· Expresan posibilidad ( más remota cuando se emplea might). Ex: I may/ might
compete this year.
· May se puede usar para :
- dar, pedir o denegar permiso. Ex: May I borrow your tennis racquet, please?
- para hacer peticiones más formales que con can.

- Should/ ought to:

· Dar consejo y hacer recomendaciones. Ex: You should/ ought to get up early to
train.
· Ought to apenas se usa en negativa ni en interrogativa.
· Should es el más usado de los dos.

- Need to:
·Obligación o necesidad. Ex: Many swimmers need to improve their breathing
technique.

- Have to:
· Mismas funciones que must aunque la obligación no es tan fuerte.
· Como must solo puede usarse en present simple, en el resto de tiempos verbales
usamos have to.
·Ex: We have to win tomorrow's match.

- Must (solo presente):

·Expresa obligación o necesidad, especialmente, cuando la impone la ley o alguien
de la autoridad. Ex: Athletes must train many hours a day.
· Expresa una conclusión lógica ( deber de, tener que). Ex: Paul must be tired. He
has been training hard all week.
- Musn´t:
· Prohibición. Ex: You mustn't kick the ball in basketball.

- Don´t have to:

· Ausencia de obligación o necesidad. Ex: He doesn't have to take tennis lessons
this year.
· No tener que/ no tener por qué.

- Needn´t:
· No hay obligación o necesidad de hacer algo. Ex: You needn´t bring a ball.
 - Would:
· Pedir de forma educada. Ex: Would you close the door, please?
· Ofrecer de forma educada. Ex: Would you like to go sailing?

LOS MODALES PERFECTOS:

- Could have + participio:

·Se puedo hacer en el pasado pero no se hizo. Ex: We could have beaten the other
team.

- Can't/ couldn't have + participio:

·Expresa la certeza de que algo no pudo haber ocurrido. Ex: John can't/ couldn't
have played in the match because he was injured.

- May/ might have + participio:

·Se usa para hacer una suposición de un hecho pasado. Ex: He may/ might have
hurt his ankle.

- Must have + participio:

·Expresa una conclusión lógica de un hecho pasado. Ex: She must have earned
millions of euros this year.

- Should/ ought to have + participio:

·Quejarnos de lo ocurrido o lamentarnos de que no se haya cumplido lo que
esperábamos. Ex: We should/ ought to have discussed the issue with the coach.

- Shouldn't have + participio:

·Expresa nuestra opinión crítica sobre un hecho pasado, indicando que no debería
haber ocurrido. Ex: You shouldn't have gone out last night.

- Would have + participio:

· Indica que se quiso haber hecho algo en el pasado pero no se pudo debido a
factores o circunstancias externas. Ex: I would have gone with you, but I was very
busy.

SHOULD/ HAD BETTER:

Had better se utiliza para lo mismo que should, o sea, para decir lo que creemos que se
debería hacer, dar un consejo o una opinión.
- Afirmativa: suj. + had better + verbo en forma base ( “Es mejor que” + un verbo en
presente de subjuntivo)
Ex: You'd better sit this game out. (Es mejor que no participes en este partido.)
- Negativa: suj. + had better + not + verbo en la forma base
Ex: You'd better not do extreme sports. ( Es mejor que no practiques deportes de
riesgo.)
- Interrogativa: no se suele usar en interrogativa.
Tiene un uso distinto qué should, ya que también se utiliza para expresar una advertencia,
como avisando al oyente de que algo malo o desagradable le puede ocurrir si no hace lo
que le decimos. Significa: “Será mejor que..” o “Más vale que..”
 - Ex: You'd better go to bed early. (Será mejor que te acuestes temprano.)
You'd better not run long distances. ( Más vale que no corras largas distancias)

● UNIT 5:

REPORTED SPEECH:

TENSE DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Present simple “The suspect cooperates with the He said that the suspect cooperated
police.” with the police.

Present continuous “The suspect is cooperating with the He said that the suspect was
police.” cooperating with the police.

Past simple “The suspect cooperated with the He said that the suspect had
police.” cooperated with the police.

Past continuous “The suspect was cooperating with the He said that the suspect had been
police.” cooperating with the police.

Present perfect simple “The suspect has cooperated with the He said that the suspect had
police.” cooperated with the police.

Present perfect continuous “The suspect has been cooperating with He said that the suspect had been
the police.” cooperating with the police.

Past perfect simple “The suspect had cooperated with the He said that the suspect had
police.” cooperated with the police.

Past perfect continuous “The suspect had been cooperating with He said that the suspect had been
the police.” cooperating with the police.

Future simple “The suspect will cooperate with the He said that the suspect would
police.” cooperate with the police.

Direct speech Reported speech

Can Could

May Might

Must/ Had to Must/ Had to

Direct speech Reported speech

Now Then

Today That day

Tonight That night

Yesterday The previous day/ the day before

Last week The previous week/ the week before

A month ago The previous month/ the month before

Tomorrow The following day/ the day after/ the next day

Next week The following week/ the week after

Here There

This That

These Those

- Reported questions:
·1 - Las Yes/ No questions: se emplea el verbo ask y a continuación if o whether.
Entonces, como la pregunta deja de serlo y se convierte en una afirmación, no hay
inversión sujeto - verbo ni signo de interrogación.
Ex: Have you turned on the alarm? Frank asked. - Frank asked if/ whether I had
turned on the alarm.

·2- Las Wh-questions: son las que empiezan con what, who, where, when, why,
whose, how, how long,etc. Al pasarlas al estilo indirecto ponemos dicha partícula en
lugar de if o whether. Luego van el sujeto y el verbo, y prescinden del signo de
interrogación y de las comillas.
Ex: When did you find the stolen money? he asked - He asked when they had found
the stolen money.

- Reported orders/ requests:

·Se cambia el imperativo por un infinitivo. Pero antes del infinitivo se usa un verbo
que exprese mandato, como tell u order, seguido del complemento indirecto.
·También siguen esta estructura ask, beg o warm.
Ex: “Be careful with your bag” Amy said. - Amy warned me to be careful with my bag.
·Cuando se trata de una oración negativa, se pone not delante de to.
Ex: “Don't be late”, he told his son. - He told his son not to be late.

- Reported suggestions:
·Primero se pone el sujeto y después el verbo suggest o recommend en pasado, y a
continuación, decimos lo que sugirió esa persona.También se puede usar advice o
invite. Se puede para a estilo directo de dos formas:

1-Usando una oración de complemento directo introducida por that, con su sujeto y
el verbo base:
Ex: “Change your password from time to time” Carol recommended - Carol
recommended that I change my password.

2-Usando el gerundio, sin especificar el sujeto:

 Ex: “Let's buy a camera for his birthday.” - He suggested buying a camera for his
birthday.

- Reporting verbs:
Los más comunes son ask, tell y say, pero también podemos usar otros.

·Afirmaciones: admit, announce, answer, apologise, boast, claim, complain, declare,

explain, inform, insist, mention, offer, remind, reply, state.
·Preguntas: enquire, request, want to know, wonder.
·Órdenes: demand, order, shout, warn.
·Sugerencias: advise, invite, recommend, suggest.
·Otros verbos: beg, deny, refuse.

● UNIT 6:

RELATIVE PRONOUNS:
We use Relative Clauses to give information. We use:
- Who/ that to refer to people.
- Which/ that to refer to things.
- When/ that to refer to a moment in time.
- Where to refer to places.
- Whose for possessions.
Hay dos tipos:
- Defining Relative Clauses:
·A Defining Relative Clause identifies an object, a person, a place, a moment in time
or a possession.
·We need this information to know who or what is being talked about.
·When we write these sentences, we don't use any commas.
·Ex: The woman who wrote this book was a genius.
- Non- Defining Relative Clauses:
·We use Non- Defining Relative Clauses to add extra information which not needed
to understand the sentence.
·We use commas in these clauses when we write them.
·They are rarely used in conversational language.
·We don't use that in Non- Defining Relative Clauses.
·Ex: My uncle, who lives in Sydney, is a very successful writer.

ESTRUCTURAS FORMAL E INFORMAL:

- Uso formal:
Cuando el relativo va acompañado de una preposición, se sigue utilizando which si
el antecedente es una cosa; pero si es una persona en vez de who se emplea
whom.
- Examples:
·This is the company in which my father works. (Formal)
This is the company (which) my father works in. (Informal)
·The person to whom I talked was the shop owner. (Formal)
The person (who) I talked to was the shop owner. (Informal)
ADJETIVOS SEGUIDOS DE PREPOSICIÓN:
Detrás de to be es frecuente encontrar adjetivos acompañados de una preposición seguida
de un sustantivo, un pronombre o un gerundio.
- Algunos pueden ir seguidos de una preposición determinada:
·The hotel is responsible for any theft.
· We are involved in a new environmental programme.

- Otros pueden ir con distinta, pero no cambia su significado:

·She was tired from standing all day.
·They were tired of calling him.