Chapter 10 Equipment and Casing Design

Chapter 10 E QUIPMENT A ND
C ASING D ESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Many questions arise relative to sizing the equipment needed for a specific job. It is often
necessary to alter design factors so that the available equipment can be used. Because there
are no established rules for design factors, they are often varied to meet specific requirements.
This discussion will include design criteria for casing and blowout preventers. Also included is a
discussion on how to select casing seats based on pore pressure requirements. The basic
concepts of casing design have generally related to using the casing string that meets
requirements at the lowest possible cost.
Before considering economics specifically, it is necessary to know the setting depths of the
casing strings, whether specific plans must be made to control corrosion, and whether special
considerations may be necessary to account for casing wear, which is related to rotating time.
The setting depths of casing strings may be selected based on governmental regulations, hole
requirements, or routine practices. Casing strings are generally identified based on their
specific purpose in the hole and are described below.
TYPES OF CASING STRINGS
STRUCTURAL CASING OR DRIVE PIPE

This string of casing is used to provide initial hole support close to the surface and will generally
vary in length from about 30 to 300 feet. The casing may be driven or hole drilled. The casing
may be cemented in place if it is necessary to drill a hole. Figure 10-1 represents a casing
design for a deep, offshore well.
CONDUCTOR CASING
This string of casing in some areas may be the first casing string set and cemented. In others,
particularly offshore, it is the first string of casing that provides any protection against formation
pore pressures. The general practice is to cement around this string of casing back to the
surface. If cement returns are not obtained at the surface, a so-called top-job is common,
where cement is displaced into the annulus from the surface through a small string of pipe.
SURFACE CASING
Surface casing was initially referred to as the casing string set to isolate fresh water sands near
the surface. However, depending on location, the surface casing is also used to seal off
shallow formations that may cause drilling problems and to provide a conduit that permits the
use of mud weights in the range of 12 to 14 ppg in the pressure transition zone of deep wells.
Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-1

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Chapter 10
INTERMEDIATE OR PROTECTIVE CASING

As the name implies, this string of casing
is used to seal-off open formations so the
well can be drilled deeper. In some
instances, such as when production liners
are used, this casing may also be used as
a part of the production casing. It is
possible that more than one string of
intermediate casing may be required to
reach total depth.
PRODUCTION CASING
This string of casing is set and cemented
to isolate the productive formations. The
amount of cement used is generally
related to company preference and would
be based on the volume needed to bring
the cement back to a pre-determined
height. The volume of cement may be
based on caliper log calculations or may
be a given amount of excess based on
experience. It should be remembered
Figure 10-1. Casing Design for a Deep, Offshore Well with a
that cement will travel more readily up the Drilling Liner
large side of the hole. As a result, it may
be necessary to use more excess than calculations indicate to cover the casing adequately in
the small part of the hole if the casing is not centralized in the hole.
LINERS
Liners are strings of pipe that do not extend back to the surface. One of the primary advantages
of using liners is the savings in steel costs. Also, liners may be run quickly, compared to full
casing strings, which improves the chances of getting the liner to the desired depth. A
disadvantage of a liner is the previous casing string must withstand the pressures encountered
after drilling below the liner which means a heavier design with larger diameter casing. The
casing above the liner is also subject to drill string wear for longer periods of time.
Both protective and production liners are set and their purpose is the same as a full string of
casing. Another problem associated with liners has been getting a good cement seal around
the liner. In general, liners are neither moved nor centralized when cementing, and as a result,
it is difficult to get cement on all sides of the liner. Liner hangers are available which permit liner
movement during cementing; however, they are not commonly used. Other problems
associated with liners include normal clearances, which are sometimes small, particularly with
deep production liners.
10-2 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Drilling Practices
Equipment And Casing Design
CASING SPECIFICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
Casing used in the oil field has been standardized by the API (American Petroleum Institute).
Casing size ranges from 4½ to 20 inches where the size is the nominal outside diameter. The
API has specified the sizes and performance properties of casing and that data can be found in
the API tables provided in the Appendix at the end of this chapter. 1 There are other casing
sizes, weights and grades available in the industry that is not covered by the API specifications.
Data on non API casings should be obtained from the manufacturer. Non API casing does not
have to conform to API specifications though most manufacturers will make pipe that does
conform to those specifications.
API Specification 5CT, Specification for Casing and Tubing, specifies the following:
1. Process of manufacture
2. Chemical composition
3. Mechanical properties
4. Testing procedures
5. Dimensions, weights and lengths
6. Threading and couplings
7. Inspection and
8. Markings
This manual does not contain all the information in API Spec 5CT, but some of the information
is included to aid the student in understanding casing design.
CASING MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Casing is manufactured by a seamless process or is electric welded. The seamless process
uses a billet that is pierced by a mandrel, and then the pipe is sized to meet API specifications.
Seamless casing is a continuous piece of pipe with no seams. The electric weld process uses
flat sheets of metal cut to the proper length. The sheet metal is formed into a tube and welded
together by an electrical resistance weld or electrical flash weld. Both process methods meet
API specifications, and the purchaser must specify which casing he desires.
CASING CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

All casing manufactured to API specifications will conform to the chemical requirements found in
Table 10-1.

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Chapter 10
Table 10-1. Chemical Requirements for Casing and Tubing from API Spec 5CT, November 1, 1989. The values are
by weight percent.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Phos-
Group Grade Type Carbon Manganese Molybdenum Chromium Nickel Copper Sulfur Silicon
phorous
min max min max min max min max max max max max max
H-40 0.030 0.030
J-55 0.030 0.030

1
K-55 0.030 0.030
N-80 0.030 0.030

1 1 1 1
C-75 1 0.50 1.90 0.15 0.40 0.030 0.030 0.45
C-75 2 0.43 1.50 0.030 0.030 0.45
C-75 3 0.38 0.48 0.75 1.00 0.15 0.25 0.80 1.10 0.030 0.030
C-75 9Cr 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.10 8.00 10.0 0.50 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.00
C-75 13Cr 0.15 0.22 0.25 1.00 12.0 14.0 0.50 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.00
2
L-80 1 0.43 1.90 0.25 0.35 0.030 0.030 0.45
2 L-80 9Cr 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.10 8.00 10.0 0.50 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.00
L-80 13Cr 0.15 0.22 0.25 1.00 12.0 14.0 0.50 0.25 0.020 0.010 1.00
C-90 1 0.35 1.00 0.75 1.20 0.99 0.020 0.010
C-90 2 0.50 1.90 NL NL 0.99 0.030 0.010

3
C-95 0.45 1.90 0.030 0.030 0.45
4
T-95 1 0.35 1.20 0.25 0.85 0.40 1.50 0.99 0.020 0.010
T-95 2 0.50 1.90 0.99 0.030 0.010
P-105 0.030 0.030

3
P-110 0.030 0.030
Q-125 1 0.35 1.00 0.75 1.20 0.99 0.020 0.010
Q-125 2 0.35 1.00 NL NL 0.99 0.020 0.020

4
Q-125 3 0.50 1.90 NL NL 0.99 0.030 0.010
Q-125 4 0.50 1.90 NL NL 0.99 0.030 0.020

1
For Grade C-75, Type 1, Chromium, nickel and copper combined shall not exceed 0.50%.
2
The carbon content for L-80 may be increased to 0.50% max. if the product is oil quenched.
3
The carbon content for C-95 may be increased to 0.50% max. if the product is oil quenched.
4
The molybdenum content for Grade T-95, Type 1 may be decreased to 0.15% minimum if the wall
thickness is less than 0.700 inch.
NL = No limit. Elements shown must be reported in product analysis.
CASING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The mechanical properties for API casing are shown in Table 10-2. The API designation for
each grade of casing is a letter followed by a number. The letter was arbitrarily chosen to show
a distinction between grades. The number designates the minimum yield strength shown in
Table 10-2. For example, K-55 has a minimum yield strength of 55,000 psi. The minimum yield
strength is the tensile stress required to produce the extension under load and is shown in
Table 10-3.

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A more common definition of yield strength is when a stress is applied to a material; the material
will have a predetermined permanent deformation or "set" when the stress is removed. The
predetermined permanent deformation is defined by the API as in Table 10-3.
Table 10-2. Tensile and Hardness Requirments for Casing and Tubing from API Spec 5CT, November 1, 1989
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Specified Allowable
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Hardness
Wall Hardness
*
Group Grade Type min. max min max Thickness Variation
psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa HRC BHN Inches HRC
H-40 40,000 276 80,000 552 60,000 414

J-55 55,000 379 80,000 552 75,000 517
1 K-55 55,000 379 80,000 552 95,000 655
N-80 80,000 552 110,000 758 100,000 689
C-75 1,2,3 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655

C-75 9Cr 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655 22 237
C-75 13Cr 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655 22 237
L-80 1 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
L-80 9Cr 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
L-80 13Cr 80,000 552 95,000 655 95,000 655 23 241
C-90 1,2 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.500 or less 3.0
C-90 1,2 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.501 –0.749 4.0
2 C-90 1,2 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 0.749 –0.999 5.0
C-90 1,2 90,000 620 105,000 724 100,000 690 25.4 255 1.0 or more 6.0
C-95 95,000 655 110,000 758 105,000 724
T-95 1,2 95,000 655 110,000 758 105,000 724 25.4 255 0.500 or less 3.0
T-95 1,2 95,000 655 110,000 758 105,000 724 25.4 255 0.501 –0.749 4.0
T-95 1,2 95,000 655 110,000 758 105,000 724 25.4 255 0.749 –0.999 5.0
P-105 105,000 724 135,000 931 120,000 827

3
P-110 110,000 758 140,000 965 125,000 862
Q-125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 0.500 or less 3.0
4 Q-125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 0.501 –0.749 4.0
Q-125 125,000 860 150,000 1035 135,000 930 0.75 or more
*
In case of dispute, laboratory Rockwell C hardness tests shall be used as the referee method.

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Chapter 10
Table 10-3. Total Extension under Load of Gauge Length
EXTENSION EXTENSION
GRADE GRADE
PERCENT PERCENT
H-40 0.5 C-90 0.5
J-55 0.5 C-95, T-95 0.5
K-55 0.5 P-105 0.6
C-75 0.5 P-110 0.6
L-80 0.5 Q-125 0.65
N-80 0.5
The tensile strength, yield point, and breaking strength for a ductile material are shown in Figure
10-2. The tensile strength (also referred to as ultimate strength) is the maximum point on the
stress - strain curve. The breaking strength is where the pipe parts.
Figure 10-2. Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for a Ductive Steel

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Some non-API grades of casing are shown in Table 10-4 along with the minimum yield strength
and tensile strength.
Table 10-4. Non-API Casing Grades
Yield strength, psi

Grade
Minimum Tensile
S80 80,000 95,000
S0090 90,000 105,000
SS95 95,000 100,000
S95 95,000 110,000
S105 105,000 110,000
S00125 125,000 135,000
S00140 140,000 150,000
V150 150,000 160,000
S00155 155,000 165,000
DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS AND LENGTHS

The API specifies the dimensions weights and lengths for casing. Casing is designated by the
outside diameter of the casing and the inside diameter varies depending upon the wall
thickness. For example, 5½”, 20#/foot casing has a nominal outside diameter of 5½ inches
which dictates an inside diameter of 4.778 inches. The API allows certain tolerances in outside
diameter, wall thickness, weight and drift diameter. Those tolerances are as follows:
Outside Diameter, OD
4 inches and smaller +0.031 in.
4½ inches and larger +1.000%* to -0.50%
Wall Thickness, t -12.5%
Weight
Single lengths +6.50% to -3.5%
Carload Lots -1.75%
*Upper limit tolerance of OD shall not exceed 0.125 inches
Inside Diameter, ID: governed by the outside diameter and weight tolerances.
Drift Diameter: is the minimum internal diameter that will allow passage of a drift mandrel of a
specified length. The drift diameter is always smaller than the inside diameter. The drift
mandrel for 8⅝ inch and smaller casing will be 6 inches long. For 9⅝ inch and larger casing the
drift mandrel will be 12 inches long.

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Chapter 10
Sometimes it is desirable to order casing with a special drift larger than the API drift. For
instance, 8⅝", 32#/foot casing has an API drift of 7.796 inches which will not pass a 7⅞ inch bit.
The 8⅝" casing can be order with a special drift of 7.875 inches which will pass a 7⅞ inch bit.
Many casing weights with drift sizes slightly less than a common bit size can be special ordered
with a drift that will pass the common bit size. The purchaser must tell the manufacturer a
special drift pipe is being requested when ordering.
Length: Casing comes in three lengths
Range 1 16 to 25 feet in length
Most casing used in the industry is Range 3, because the longer joint minimizes the number of
connections and reduces the time necessary to run casing.
Additional tolerances for couplings and upset ends can be found in API Spec 5CT.
CASING THREADS AND COUPLINGS

The API recognizes four thread types. They are:
1. Short 8 round thread
2. Long 8 round thread
3. Buttress thread and
4. Extreme line thread
Short and long threads and couplings (ST&C and LT&C respectively) have a rounded thread
with eight threads per inch; hence the name, eight round thread. The ST&C is a shorter thread
length than the LT&C and is therefore, weaker. ST&C and LT&C are the predominant threads
used in the industry because of the ease of manufacture, low cost and reliability. The eight
round thread is always weaker than the pipe body connection so casing is designed based upon
the joint strength.
ST&C and LT&C threads along with Buttress threads (BT&C) are threaded and coupled pipe.
As can be seen in Figure 10-3, the coupling is not a part of the casing and is manufactured
separately. The coupling will be the same grade as the pipe tube unless the purchaser
requests a higher grade coupling. The joint strength for some heavier casings will be increased
by using a higher grade coupling.
Because the ST&C and LT&C are rounded threads, a void will exist at the root and crest of each
thread when made up. The void must be filled with thread compound to form a seal. The
connection is not designed to be a dependable, high pressure seal for gas or solid free, low
viscosity fluids. For some casing weights and grades, the internal leak resistance of the
coupling is the limiting factor for burst.

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Figure 10-3. API Threaded and Coupled Casing Connections (From API Sec 5CT)
The BT&C connection (Figure 10-3) uses longer thread and coupling run out and the threads
are more square resulting in a stronger connection than the round thread. In most cases, the
BT&C connection is stronger than the pipe body as can be seen in the API tables at the end of
the chapter. Again, thread compound within the threads provides the sealing mechanism, and it
is not a good, high pressure connection.
BT&C connections are used in geothermal and steam injection applications because of its
strength in compression. High temperature wells often go through extremes of tension and
compression during production and injection cycles. The round thread is not strong in
compression and should not be used.
The Extreme-Line connection is different from the other connections because it is an integral
part of the joint as can be seen in Figure 10-4. An integral joint means that the threaded ends
are cut onto the upset end of the casing. On an integral joint connection, the wall thickness
near the end of the tube must be increased to allow machining of the threads. The thicker the
wall, the stronger the connection will be. The external upset of the Extreme-Line connection is
smaller than the coupling OD of the other connections, so it is a weaker joint. The smaller OD
of the Extreme-Line connection allows pipe to be run in wells with restricted clearances. The
Extreme-Line connection also has a smaller drift diameter because of the internal upset.

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Chapter 10
Figure 10-4. API Extreme-Line Casing Joint (From API Spec 5CT)
The Extreme-Line connection uses a metal-to-metal seal at the end of the pin and base of the
box to provide a sealing mechanism. The connection also uses a square thread like the
Buttress connection. The Extreme-Line connection is more expensive to manufacture because
of the close tolerances required for the metal-to-metal seal and the need for pipe with upset
ends.
More information on API threads can be found in API standard 5B. Other premium connections
are also available from various manufacturers. Some of the special features offered by other
manufacturers are:
1. Multiple metal-to-metal seals for improved pressure resistance.
2. Flush connections for small annular clearances.
3. Threads for large diameter casings to minimize cross threading problems.
4. Threads with seal rings to improve pressure resistance.
5. Thread profiles with smooth internal bore to reduce turbulence in high flow rate wells.

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6. Threads with corrosion barriers to minimize corrosion problems.
7. Threads with multiple shoulders to increase torsional strength.
MARKINGS
All casing manufactured to API specifications will be stenciled and die stamped with
identification marks referring to at least the Manufacturer, Spec 5CT, Size, Weight per foot,
Grade, Process of Manufacture, and Type of Thread. For example, a joint of 7", 38#/foot, Q-
125, LT&C casing manufactured by ABC Company would be stenciled as follows:
ABC Spec 5CT 7 38 Q-1 S 0001 LCSG
ABC is the manufacturer.
Spec 5CT is required on all pipe made to API specs.
7 is the outside diameter of the casing.
38 is the weight per foot.
Q-1 is the grade and type.
S is the process of manufacture. (S) Seamless (E) Electric Welded.
0001 is the serial number of joint.
LCSG signifies API long, round thread.
Casing is also color coded for ease of visually identifying the grade. One or two colored bands
will be painted on the casing at a distance not greater than two feet from the coupling or box.
The color coding is as follows:
Grade H-40 No color marking, or black at the manufacturer's option
Grade J-55 One bright green band
Grade K-55 Two bright green bands
Grade N-80 One red band
Grade P-110 One white band
Grade Q-125 One orange band
Grade C-75 One blue band
Grade C-75, 9CR One blue band and two yellow bands
Grade C-75, 13CR One blue band and one yellow band

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Chapter 10
Grade L-80 One red band and one brown band
Grade L-80, 9CR One red and one brown and two yellow bands
Grade L-80, 13CR One red and one brown and one yellow band
Grade C-90 One purple band
Grade C-95 One brown band
COLLAPSE RESISTANCE
Collapse resistance is the most difficult casing performance value to calculate. The mode of
failure depends upon the diameter to wall thickness ratio or D/t. There are four collapse
pressure formulas that govern collapse which are:
1. Yield strength collapse pressure
2. Plastic collapse pressure
3. Transition collapse pressure
4. Elastic collapse pressure
YIELD STRENGTH COLLAPSE PRESSURE

The yield strength collapse pressure formula is derived from Lame's equation where the
collapse pressure value generates minimum yield stress on the inner wall of the tube. The
formula is as follows:
⎡ (D / t ) − 1⎤
Py = 2Y p ⎢ ⎥ Equation 10-1
⎢⎣ (D / t ) ⎥⎦
2
The nomenclature for all the formulas is given at the end of the chapter.
The formula for yield strength collapse pressure is applicable for D/t values up to the value of
D/t corresponding to the intersection with the plastic collapse formula. The intersection is
calculated by the following formula:
(A − 2)2 + 8(B + C / Yp ) + (A − 2)
(D / t )yp = Equation 10-2
(
2 B + C / Yp )
The applicable D/t ratios for yield strength collapse are shown in Table 10-5.

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Table 10-5. D/t Ranges for Yield Strength Collapse Pressure Formulas
Grade D/t
H-40 16.40 and less
-50 15.24 and less
J-K-55 14.81 and less
-60 14.44 and less
-70 13.85 and less
C-75 & e 13.60 and less
L-N-80 13.38 and less
C-90 13.01 and less
C-T-95 & X 12.85 and less
-100 12.70 and less
P-105 & G 12.57 and less
P-110 12.44 and less
-120 12.21 and less
Q-125 12.11 and less
-130 12.02 and less
S-135 11.92 and less
-140 11.84 and less
-150 11.67 and less
-155 11.59 and less
-160 11.52 and less
-170 11.37 and less
-180 11.23 and less
Grades without a letter are non API grades.
PLASTIC COLLAPSE PRESSURE

The plastic collapse pressure formula and constants were derived from statistical regression
analysis of tests performed on K-55, N-80 and P-110 casing. The data used was that given in a
report on the Development of Collapse Pressure Formulas by W. O. Clinedinst, December 1963
which can be obtained from the API.
The plastic collapse pressure formula is as follows:
⎡ A ⎤
Pp = Y p ⎢ − B⎥ − C Equation 10-3
⎣ D / t ⎦
The plastic collapse pressure formula is applicable for D/t ranges from (D / t )yp to (D / t )pt . The
D/t ranges are shown in Table 10-6 and the equation for (D / t )pt is:
Y p (A − F )
(D / t )pt = Equation 10-4
C + Y p (B − G )

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Chapter 10
Table 10-6. Constants and D/t Ranges for Plastic Collapse Pressure Formulas
Grade A B C D/t
H-40 2.950 0.0465 754 16.40 - 27.01
-50 2.976 0.0515 1,056 15.24 - 25.63
J-K-55 2.991 0.0541 1,206 14.81 - 25.01
-60 3.005 0.0566 1,356 14.44 - 24.42
-70 3.037 0.0617 1,656 13.85 - 23.38
C-75 & E 3.054 0.0642 1,806 13.60 - 22.91
L-N-80 3.071 0.0667 1,955 13.38 - 22.47
C-90 3.106 0.0718 2,254 13.01 - 21.69
C-T-95 & X 3.124 0.0743 2,404 12.85 - 21.33
-100 3.143 0.0768 2,553 12.70 - 21.00
P-105 & G 3.162 0.0794 2,702 12.57 - 20.70
P-110 3.181 0.0819 2,852 12.44 - 20.41
-120 3.219 0.0870 3,151 21.21 - 19.88
Q-125 3.239 0.0895 3,301 12.11 - 19.63
-130 3.258 0.0920 3,451 12.02 - 19.40
S-135 3.278 0.0946 3,601 11.92 - 19.18
-140 3.297 0.0971 3,751 11.84 - 18.97
-150 3.336 0.1021 4,053 11.67 - 18.57
-155 3.356 0.1047 4,204 11.59 - 18.37
-160 3.375 0.1072 4,356 11.52 - 18.19
-170 3.412 0.1123 4,660 11.37 - 17.82
-180 3.449 0.1730 4,966 11.23 - 17.47
TRANSITION COLLAPSE PRESSURE

When developing the formulas for calculating
collapse pressure, the values calculated using
the yield strength and plastic formulas intersect
as shown in Figure 10-5. Unfortunately, that is
not true for the values calculated by the plastic
and elastic formulas. A plastic/elastic transition
collapse pressure formula was developed which
intersects the D/t value where the average plastic
collapse pressure formula gives a collapse
pressure of zero and is tangent to the minimum
elastic collapse pressure formula. The transition
formula is used to calculate the collapse pressure
between its tangency to the elastic collapse
pressure curve and its intersection with the plastic
collapse pressure curve. The area affected by
the transition formula is the solid portion of the
line labeled Pt in Figure 10-5. The transition
collapse pressure formula is:
Figure 10-5. Collapse Pressure vs D/t Showing the
Range of Various Collapse Pressure Formulas

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⎡ F ⎤
Pt = Y p ⎢ − G⎥ Equation 10-5
⎣ D / t ⎦
The formula is applicable for D/t ranges from (D / t )pt to (D / t )te where (D / t )te is equal to:
2+B/A
(D / t )te = Equation 10-6
3B / A
The D/t ranges and formula constants for the transition collapse pressure formula are shown in
Table 10-7.
Table 10-7. Constants and D/t Ranges for Transition Collapse Pressure Formulas
Grade F G D/t
H-40 2.063 0.0325 27.01 -42.64
-50 2.003 0.0347 25.63 - 38.83
J-K-55 1.989 0.0360 25.01 - 37.21
-60 1.983 0.0373 24.42 - 35.73
-70 1.984 0.0403 23.38 - 33.17
C-75 & E 1.990 0.0418 22.91 - 32.05
L-N-80 1.998 0.0434 22.47 - 31.02
C-90 2.017 0.0466 21.69 - 29.18
C-T-95 & X 2.029 0.0482 21.33 -28.36
-100 2.040 0.0499 21.00 - 27.60
P-105 & G 2.053 0.0515 20.70 - 26.89
P-110 2.066 0.0532 20.41 - 26.22
-120 2.094 0.0565 19.88 - 25.01
Q-125 2.106 0.0582 19.63 - 24.46
-130 2.119 0.0599 19.40 - 23.94
S-135 2.133 0.0615 19.18 - 23.44
-140 2.146 0.0632 18.97 - 22.98
-150 2.174 0.0666 18.57 - 22.11
-155 2.188 0.0683 18.37 - 21.70
-160 2.202 0.0700 18.19 - 21.32
-170 2.213 0.0734 17.82 - 20.60
-180 2.261 0.0769 17.47 - 19.93
ELASTIC COLLAPSE PRESSURE

The elastic collapse pressure formula was derived from the theoretical elastic collapse pressure
formula developed by W. O. Clinedinst in a paper entitled “A Rational Expression For The
Critical Collapsing Pressure of Pipe under External Pressure" presented at the annual meeting
of the API in Chicago in 1939. The formula is shown in Equation 10-7.
The D/t ranges for the elastic collapse pressure formula are shown in Table 10-8.

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Chapter 10
46.95 × 106
Pe = Equation 10-7
(D / t )[(D / t ) − 1]2
Table 10-8. D/t Ranges for Elastic Collapse Pressure Formula
Grade D/t
H-40 42.64 and greater
-50 38.83 and greater
J-K-55 37.21 and greater
C-75 & E 32.05 and greater
L-N-80 31.02 and greater
C-90 29.18 and greater
C-T-95 & X 28.36 and greater
P-105 & G 26.89 and greater
P-110 26.22 and greater
Q-125 24.46 and greater
S-135 23.44 and greater
Grades without a letter are non API grades
COLLAPSE PRESSURE UNDER AXIAL TENSION STRESS

To further complicate the calculation of collapse, the collapse resistance must be adjusted for
axial tension which has a detrimental effect. Casing under tension will collapse at a lower
pressure. The axial, radial and tangential stresses are all inter-related. For strictly a yield
strength failure, the relationship between the three principal stresses is shown by the Hencky-
von Mises maximum strain energy of distortion equation
VME=
1
2
[
(σt −σa )2 +(σ r −σt )2 +(σ a −σ r )2 ] Equation 10-8
The equation produces what is commonly called an ellipse of biaxial yield stress as seen in
Figure 10-6. As is evident from this figure, axial tension reduces collapse resistance and axial
compression increases collapse resistance. Tension has the opposite effect on burst. Tension
increases burst resistance but is usually ignored when designing casing strings.

Drilling Practices
The API uses an equation derived from the Hencky-von Mises equation for calculating an axial
stress equivalent grade. Then, the axial stress equivalent grade is used to calculate the
collapse pressure rating using the applicable collapse pressure equation. The equation for
calculating the axial stress equivalent grade can be found in API Spec 5C3 and is as follows:
(
Ypa = ⎡⎢ 1 − 0.75 σ a / Yp )2 − 0.5(σ a / Yp )⎤⎥Yp Equation 10-9
⎣ ⎦
The API collapse resistance formulas are not valid for the yield strength of axial stress
( )
equivalent grade Y pa less than 24,000 psi.
Figure 10-6. Ellipse of Biaxial Yield Stress
Since a different yield strength is being used in the collapse pressure formulas, the constants
“A, B, C, F and G” cannot be obtained from Table 10-6 and Table 10-7. The applicable D/t
values will also change because yield strength is a part of the formulas for calculating the D/t
limits. The API tables at the end of the chapter, entitled Minimum Collapse Resistance of
Casing Under Axial Load, can be used to determine the collapse pressure due to axial tension;
however, interpolation will be required. Calculating the collapse pressure is a time consuming
process unless the equations are programmed on a computer.
The equations for calculating the constants “A, B, C, F and G” are as follows:
A = 2.8762 + 0.10679 × 10 −5 × Yp + 0.21301 × 10 −10 × Yp2 − 0.53132 × 10 −16 × Yp3

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Equation 10-10
B = 0.026233 + 0.50609 × 10 −6 × Yp Equation 10-11
C = −465.93 + 0.030867 × Yp − 0.10483 × 10 −7 ×Y p2+0.36989 × 10 −13 × Yp3
Equation 10-12
3
6⎡
3B / A ⎤
46.95 × 10 ⎢ ⎥
F= ⎣2 + B / A⎦ Equation 10-13
2
⎡ 3B / A ⎤⎡ 3B / A ⎤
Yp ⎢ − (B / A )⎥ ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣2 + B / A ⎦⎣ 2 + B / A ⎦
FB
G= Equation 10-14
A
The method used to calculate collapse pressure is best demonstrated with an example.
Example 10-1
Given: 9⅝", 47.00#/foot, N-80 casing with 5,000 feet of 9⅝", 53.50#/foot casing
hanging below it.
Determine: Determine the adjusted collapse resistance of the 47.00#/ft casing.
Solution: The collapse resistance of 9⅝", 47.00#/foot, N-80 with no tension is 4,760
psi. The inside diameter is 8.681 inches. D/t would be equal to:
Dp
(D / t ) = Equation 10-15
(D p − Di )/ 2
9.625
(D / t ) =
(9.625 − 8.681) / 2
(D / t ) = 20.39
The weight of the 9⅝" casing hanging below the 47.00#/foot would be:
T = W f ×L
T = 53 . 50 × 5,000 = 267 ,500 lbs
The cross sectional area of the 47.00#/foot casing is:

Drilling Practices
As =
π
4
(D p
2
− Di
2
) Equation 10-16
As =
π
4
(9.625 2
− 8.6812 )
As = 13 .572 in 2
The axial stress in the 47.00#/foot casing caused by tension is calculated

as follows:
T
σa = Equation 10-17
As
267 ,500
σa =
13 .572
σ a = 19,709 psi
The axial stress equivalent grade must now be calculated:
Y pa = ⎡⎢ 1 − 0.75 σ a / Y p ( )2 − 0.5(σ a / Y p )⎤⎥Yp

⎣ ⎦
Y pa = ⎡⎢ 1 − 0.75(19,709 / 80,000 ) − 0.5(19,709 / 80,000 )⎤⎥80,000

2
⎣ ⎦
Y pa = 68,303 psi
Now calculate all the constants for the D/t equations and collapse
equations.
A = 2.8762 + 0.10679 × 10 −5 × Y p + 0.21301 × 10 −10 × Y p2 − 0.53132 × 10 −16 × Y p3
A = 2.8762 + 0.10679 × 10 −5 × 68,303 + 0.21301 × 10 −10 × 68,303 2 − 0.53132 × 10 −16 × 68,303 3
A = 3.032
B = 0.026233 + 0.50609 × 10 −6 × Yp
B = 0.026233 + 0.50609 × 10 −6 × 68,303
B = 0 .0608
C = −465.93 + 0.030867 × Yp − 0.10483 × 10 −7 ×Y p2+0.36989 × 10 −13 × Yp3

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
C = −465.93 + 0.030867× 68,303 − 0.10483× 10−7 × 68,3032 + 0.36989× 10−13 × 68,3033
C = 1,605
3
⎡ 3B / A ⎤
46.95 × 106 ⎢ ⎥
F= ⎣2 + B / A⎦
2
⎡ 3B / A ⎤⎡ 3B / A ⎤
Yp ⎢ − (B / A )⎥ ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣2 + B / A ⎦⎣ 2 + B / A ⎦
3
6 ⎡ 3 × 0.0608
/ 3.032 ⎤
46 .95 × 10 ⎢ ⎥
F = ⎣ 2 + 0.0608 / 3.032 ⎦
2
⎡ 3 × 0.0608 / 3.032 ⎤ ⎡ 3 × 0.0608 / 3.032 ⎤
68,303 ⎢ − (0.0608 / 3.032 )⎥ ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ 2 + 0.0608 / 3.032 ⎦ ⎣ 2 + 0.0608 / 3.032 ⎦
F = 1.983
FB
G=
A
1.983 × 0.0608
G=
3.032
G = 0.0398
Calculate the D/t ratios for the various collapse equations.
(A − 2)2 + 8(B + C / Yp ) + (A − 2)
(D / t )yp =
(
2 B + C / Yp )
(3 .032 − 2 )2 + 8 (0 .0608 + 1,605 / 68 ,303 ) + (3 .032 − 2 )
(D / t )yp =
2 (0 . 0608 + 1,605 / 68 ,303 )
(D / t )yp = 13 . 94
Yp (A − F)
(D/ t )pt =
C +Yp (B − G)
68,303 (3.032 − 1.983)

(D / t )pt =
1,605 + 68,303 (0.0608 − 0.0398)

Drilling Practices
(D / t )pt = 23.54
2+B/A
(D / t )te =
3B / A
2 + 0 . 0608 / 3 . 032
(D / t )te =
3 × 0 .0608 / 3 . 032
(D / t )te = 33 . 57
Use yield strength collapse formula if D/t is less than 13.94.
Use plastic collapse formula if D/t is 13.94 to 23.54.
Use transition collapse formula if D/t is 23.54 to 33.57.
Use elastic collapse formula if D/t is greater than 33.57.
The actual D/t ratio for 47.00#/foot casing is 20.39, so the plastic collapse
formula will be used to calculate the collapse resistance.
⎡ A ⎤
Pp = Y p ⎢ − B⎥ − C
⎣D / t ⎦
⎡ 3.032 ⎤
Pp = 68,303 ⎢ − 0.0608 ⎥ − 1,605
⎣ 20.39 ⎦
Pp = 4,397 psi
The collapse strength has been reduced from 4,760 psi to 4,397 psi with 267,500 pounds of
axial tension. The adjusted collapse pressure can also be obtained from the tables at the end
of the chapter. Use the table on page 29 of the Bul 5C2 entitled Minimum Collapse Resistance
of Casing Under Axial Load Grades L-80 and N-80 (See Appendix, page 10-89). The 9⅝",
47.00#/foot casing has the following collapse resistance with 15,000 and 20,000 psi stress:
σ a1 = 15,000 psi Pc1 = 4,500 psi
σ a 2 = 20,000 psi Pc 2 = 4,390 psi
σ a = 19,709 psi Pc = ?
⎡ (P − Pc 2 )(σ a1 − σ a ) ⎤
Pc = Pc1 − ⎢ c1 ⎥ Equation 10-18
⎣ (σ a1 − σ a2 ) ⎦
⎡ (4,500 − 4,390 )(15,000 − 19,709 ) ⎤

Pc = 4,500 − ⎢ ⎥ = 4,396 psi
⎣ (15,000 − 20,000 ) ⎦

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Interpolating to a stress value of 19,709 psi will yield a collapse resistance of 4,396 psi.
Interpolation from the collapse tables is easier and quicker if the collapse pressure equations
are not programmed on a computer; however, non-API grades and weights are not included in
the tables. Calculating the reduced collapse pressure will be required. Figure 10-7 is a plot of
collapse resistance versus tension for 7”, 32.00#/foot, P-110 casing.
Internal pressure can be used to help prevent collapse. The internal pressure acts upon the
inside wall of the casing and the external pressure acts upon the external wall of the casing.
The external surface area is greater than the internal surface area; therefore, the internal
pressure cannot be subtracted from the external pressure without compensating for the
difference in surface area. The following equation can be used to calculate the equivalent
external pressure.
Peq = Po − (1− 2 / (D / t ))Pi Equation 10-19
Figure 10-7. Collapse Resistance versus Tension for 7", 32#/ft, P-110 Casing
BURST OR INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE
The internal yield pressure of casing is determined by the lowest of the following three
calculated values:
1. Internal yield pressure of the pipe body

Drilling Practices
2. Internal yield pressure of the coupling
3. Internal leak resistance of the coupling at the E1 or E7 plane.
The API burst pressure equation for pipe body is based upon Barlow's equation. The factor
(0.875) accounts for the 12.5% tolerance in wall thickness variation. The equation is as follows:
⎡ 2Y p t w ⎤
Pbody = 0.875 ⎢ ⎥ Equation 10-20
⎣⎢ D p ⎥⎦
The API also presents equations for calculating the internal yield of the coupling and internal
leak resistance of the coupling 2. The internal leak resistance for the coupling is based upon the
seal being at the E1 plane for round threads and the E 7 plane for buttress threads where the
coupling is the weakest and the internal pressure leak resistance the lowest. It is also based
upon the internal leak resistant pressure being equal to the interface pressure between the pipe
and coupling threads resulting from makeup and the internal pressure itself, with stresses in the
elastic range.
As an example, consider 9⅝", 53.50#/foot, P-110 casing. From the API tables in the Appendix
at the end of the chapter, the pipe body burst is 10,900 psi; whereas, a LT&C connection is
rated to 9,670 psi. The buttress connection is rated to 9,160 psi. The rated internal yield
strength will be the lower of the three calculation methods.
JOINT STRENGTH
API round threads can fail by one of two modes, fracture or thread pullout. If the joint fails by
fracture, the pin or coupling will part. For the threaded connection to fail by joint pullout, the pin
will pullout of the coupling. As the tension in the pin increases, it starts to yield. Once yielding
begins, the connection will neck down reducing the OD. The reduction in diameter will allow the
threads to come apart without failing. The joint strength for API round thread will be the lower of
the two values. Joint strengths can be found in the API tables in the Appendix
PIPE BODY YIELD STRENGTH
The pipe body yield strength is the calculated axial tension required to cause the pipe to yield.
The equation for calculating pipe body yield strength is:
( )
Tst = 0.7854 D p 2 − Di 2 Y p Equation 10-21
CASING DESIGN
Casing strings are designed based on tension, collapse, and burst. This is a biaxial casing
design method. Compression may be considered when landing casing. The general casing
design criteria is based on using the minimum weight and grade casing that will meet the hole
requirements. Specific designs often depend on the casing available either from company

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
stocks or from a company's normal supplier. Before designing the casing the following
information is necessary:
1. The setting depths.
2. The formation pore pressures and mud weights.
3. Formation behavior, such as salt sections, which may result in collapsed casing
during later production operations.
4. Corrosive characteristics of fluids to be produced.
5. Rotating time in the casing.
6. Auxiliary operations that may be necessary such as squeeze cementing or formation

stimulation.
CASING SETTING DEPTHS

Casing setting depths depend on the following:
1. Governmental requirements.
2. Routine practices.
3. Hole problems.
4. Pore pressures.
Governmental regulations are generally based on minimum requirements. The rules may be
specific, based on past problems, or flexible depending on what happens while drilling.
Governmental rules may be altered with special permission, or changed if hole information
justify.
Routine practices are based on casing programs that have generally been used in the field. It is
not uncommon to have routine depths for surface casing that are based more on practice than
on requirements. Protective casing is sometimes set based on the amount of open hole rather
than a drilling requirement. With the emphasis placed on environmental protection, there are
always efforts made to be completely safe.
One such theory that has developed includes the concept that each string of casing must
provide complete protection from a potential blowout from open formations below the casing.
Carrying this another step, one may assume the hole is emptied when the well kicks and that
the only hydrostatic pressure is the weight of gas and that all formations will fracture if the
pressure against the formation reaches the rock overburden gradient of 1.0 psi per foot. Using
a gas gradient of 0.1 psi per foot and a normal pore pressure of 0.465 psi per foot, the setting
depth of each subsequent string of casing would be determined by dividing the last casing
depth by 0.365 (0.465 - 0.10). For example, if the last string of casing was at 4,000 feet, the
next string of casing would be set, regardless of other conditions, at 10,959 feet. This would be
a ridiculous requirement because when drilling into a pressure transition zone there would be no
way to set enough casing strings. For example, assume the casing is set at 4,000 feet and the

Drilling Practices
pore pressure at 10,000 feet is comparable to a gradient of 0.73 psi per foot. On the same
basis, the casing should have been set at 6,340 feet (4,000/0.63). However, the pressure at
6,349 feet or for that matter, at 9,000 feet was normal and no casing string was actually
required. For this reason, the setting depths of casing for pressure control should be based on
the fracture gradients, the pore pressures, differential pressures across exposed formations,
and the volumetric capabilities of the exposed formations. Precautions should be taken so that
if mistakes are made, the well can be contained without losing control either at the surface or
underground and if by accident, control is lost, the well can be brought under control without
excessive pollution underground or at the surface.
One procedure for selecting the setting depth of casing based on the pressure control
requirements would be to determine maximum requirements at the bottom of the hole and work
towards the requirements from the surface casing setting depth. This procedure is shown in
Example 10-2.
Example 10-2
Given: Gulf Cost Area
Planned well depth = 15,000 feet
Bottom hole pressure anticipated = 13,800 psi
Surface casing to be set at 4,000 feet in normal pore pressure.
Production casing or liner at 15,000 feet = 4½ inch.
Anticipated top of the pressure transition zone = 9,800 feet.
Determine: Casing setting depths.
Solution: Assuming the mud weight required will be at least one-half pound per
gallon more than that required to control bottom-hole pressure, the total
hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud will be as follows:
(1/ 2ppg )(0.052)(15,000) + 13,800 = 14,190 psi

14,190
or the mud weight required = = 18.2ppg
(15,000 )(0.052)
To reach this level, all open sections of the hole must withstand a mud
weight equal to 18.2 ppg. This is a pressure gradient of 0.946 psi/foot.
To be precise, it would be necessary to know the pore pressures and
fracture gradients at all depths before a determination can be made on
the exact setting depths of casing.
In this example, Eaton's procedure for calculating fracture gradients will

be used. Just below the surface casing seat in normal pressure
formations, the fracture gradient is estimated as follows:

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Poisson's ratio = 0.39
Overburden gradient = 0.895 psi/foot
Normal pore pressure gradient = 0.465 psi/foot
⎛ 0.39 ⎞
Fg = (0.895 − 0.465 )⎜ ⎟ + 0.465 = 0.74 psi/ft
⎝ 0.61 ⎠
If it is assumed that the maximum mud weight should be one-half pound

per gallon less than the fracture gradient equivalent in pounds per gallon,
the maximum mud weight is limited to 13.73 ppg. It is also assumed that
the mud weight should exert a pressure equivalent to one-half pound per
gallon in excess of pore pressure at the point where the first string of
protective casing is set. This means the pore pressure gradient at the
protective casing seat cannot exceed an equivalent mud weight of 13.23
ppg (0.688 psi/ft). For the purpose of this problem, it will be assumed that
the protective casing must be set at 11,000 feet where the pore pressure
gradient is 0.688 psi/foot.
The fracture gradient at 11,000 feet will be calculated using Eaton's

procedures.
Pore pressure gradient = 0.688 psi/foot
⎛ 0.45 ⎞
Fg = (0.96 − 0.688 )⎜ ⎟ + 0.688 = 0.91 psi/ft
⎝ 0.55 ⎠
The required mud weight gradient at total depth was 0.946 psi/foot, which
is considerably above the fracture gradient of 0.91 psi/foot at 11,000 feet.
Another string of protective pipe will have to be set before reaching total
depth. If room is left for circulating the fluid, the mud gradient cannot
exceed 0.884 psi/foot, and the pore pressure of the formation where it will
be necessary to set the next string of pipe should not exceed 0.858
psi/foot. Based on the assumed pore pressure data in Figure 10-8, the
next string of pipe should be set at 13,920 feet.
The fracture gradient at 13,920 is calculated as follows:
Pore pressure gradient = 0.858 psi/foot

Drilling Practices
⎛ 0.46 ⎞
Fg = (0.97 − 0.858 )⎜ ⎟ + 0.858 = 0.953 psi/ft
⎝ 0.54 ⎠
Figure 10-8. Depth versus Pressure Gradients for Example 10-2
Based on the required mud weight of 18.2 ppg or 0.946 psi/foot at 15,000
feet, it will be difficult to reach 15,000 feet without problems. The fracture
gradient of 0.953 psi/foot, below the casing seat at 13,920 feet, limits the
maximum mud weight to just above 17.8 ppg or 0.927 psi/foot, if the mud
weight is maintained at a level of 0.5 ppg below the fracture gradient. In
this case, some compromise will be necessary, the difference between
the fracture gradient at 13,920 feet and the pore pressure gradient of
15,000 feet is 0.033 psi/foot (0.953 - 0.920). This simply means that the
margins of safety will have to be reduced to a level of about 0.33 pounds
per gallon. At 13,920 feet, the circulating pressure cannot exceed 237
psi, and at 15,000 feet the swab pressure reductions will have to be
limited to 255 psi. To accomplish this, the operator will have to keep the
mud extremely thin, pull the pipe slowly and watch all indicators of trouble

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
very carefully. The mud weight and estimated fracture gradients are
shown in Figure 10-8. It is clearly shown where the operator must be
careful. Information such as that shown in Figure 10-8 can be pre-
planned; however, there is no substitute for listening to the well as drilling
progresses and correcting the plan when the need arises.
If the operator had arbitrarily set the protective pipe at 10,000 feet in Example 10-2, it would be
difficult to reach total depth with only one additional string of protective pipe.
The pore pressure gradient at 10,000 feet is 0.57 psi/foot. In soft rock areas, the calculated
fracture gradient would be 0.87 psi/foot. If the mud weight is kept at a level equivalent to one-
half pound per gallon less than 0.87 psi/foot, the maximum pore pressure gradient of the open
formations will be 0.818 psi/foot. According to Figure 10-8, this pore pressure will be reached at
13,230 feet. Thus, the 7-inch pipe will have to be set at 13,230 feet. The calculated fracture
gradient at 13,230 feet is 0.947 psi/foot. The mud weight at 15,000 feet must exceed the pore
pressure gradient of 0.92 psi/foot and to be safe, should be at least one-half pound per gallon
more than the pore pressure. If the fracture gradient is 0.947 psi/foot at 13,230 feet, it would
not be possible to circulate a mud that imposed a pressure gradient of 0.946 psi/ft at 15,000
feet. Actually, the operator might make it by reducing his mud weight a little and keeping the
mud very thin. However, the chances are good that he will lose the well.
Another alternative in this case is to set the surface casing at a deeper depth, which would
permit setting the first string of protective pipe deeper. The time to make decisions of this type
is in the planning stage of the well.
The operator will have to determine whether to set liners or casing after setting the 9⅝ inch
protective casing string. If liners are to be used, the 9⅝ inch casing has to be designed to
withstand the pore pressures at 15,000 feet. To reach 15,000 feet and set a 4½ inch liner or
casing string is going to require the following strings of pipe:
1. Drive or structural pipe
2. Conductor pipe
3. Surface pipe
4. First string of protective pipe
5. Second string of protective pipe
6. Production pipe
The required casing and hole sizes are dependent on requirements in a given area; however,
one combination is shown in Table 10-9.

Drilling Practices
Table 10-9. Possible Casing and Hole Size Combinations
String Pipe Hole size, inches Casing Size, inches Setting Depths, feet
Drive - 30 100
Conductor 26 20 800
Surface 17½ 13⅜ 4,000
Protective 12¼ 9⅝ 11,000
Protective 8½ 7 13,920
Production 6⅛ 4½ 15,000
All of the facts in these examples have been assumed. Fracture gradients have been
calculated. In actual practice, particularly in coastal areas, casing seat leak-off tests should be
used to determine fracture gradients. It can be seen that the proper selection of all casing seats
may be the key to reaching the required depth with the desired casing size. Even in
development areas, there are no guarantees that the formation and pore pressures expected
will be those encountered. For this reason, alternative courses of action should be planned for
unexpected problems.
The casing seat in the above example was selected based on pore pressures and fracture
gradients. Other factors may have to be considered when selecting casing seats. Many times,
hole problems may force the setting of casing before any pore pressure or fracture gradient
conditions. Hole problems that may force the setting of casing include severe sloughing or
heaving shale, open salt sections, and pipe sticking problems caused by high pressure
differentials across permeable zones.
Salt sections may alter casing and mud programs. At times, casing is set to seal off open salt
sections and then fresh water muds are used. Some salt sections may be penetrated and left
open if salt water or oil base muds are used. The final decision may depend on both economic
and environmental conditions.
Differential pipe sticking may force the setting of casing. In some areas, pipe sticking problems
can be related directly to the pressure differentials across open permeable zones. For example,
with permeable zones open, a pressure differential of 1,500 psi in some Gulf Coast areas
signals a potential pipe sticking problem. Because many other factors, discussed in the chapter
on hole problems, also affect pipe sticking, the pressure differential is only one criteria.
However, because many factors affect pipe sticking, the operator may decide that the best
economic decision is to set casing.
It should be remembered that while many factors may affect the selection of casing seats, that
most of them leave the operator a choice. However, pore pressures and fracture gradients
generally do not leave a choice and reaching total depth may depend on setting one string of
casing deep enough that the next string of casing can be set deep enough. As can be seen in
Example 10-2, the operator may run out of alternatives if casing is set too shallow and many
times this is the reason total depth is not reached.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
The design of casing strings is generally related to minimizing the cost of casing. The basic
principles involved in the design of casing are classical in nature. This simply means that the
minimum performance properties of the casing are set by API standards or, in the case of non-
API grades, set by the manufacturer. These performance ratings are affected by the tension
imposed when setting casing and the changes in performance are considered in the design
program.
There are differences in casing design between various operators. Some consider buoyancy
effects on the casing; others do not. Design factors are different. Commonly used design
factors are as follows:
Tension 1.6 - 2.0

Collapse 1.0 - 1.125
Burst 1.0 - 1.25
It is not uncommon to reduce the design factor in tension to 1.6 and in some cases to 1.3.
Usually, the design factor for the body is lower than the design factor for the coupling. Some
operators do not consider buoyancy, and as a result, may use a lower design factor. Some
operators use a design factor less than 1.0 for collapse, because the common assumption is
made that the casing is completely empty, which is seldom, if ever, the case for surface or
intermediate casing. Thus, rather than estimate the potential pressure imposed inside the
casing, design factors less than 1.0 are used. Design factors for burst are not as likely to be
reduced as those for collapse. Burst becomes an important consideration in high pressure gas
wells where the bottom-hole pressure is reduced only by the pressure imposed due to a column
of gas. In oil wells or wells that produce high quantities of liquids, design factors for burst are
often lowered. Many times, tension is the determining factor at the top rather than burst.
For collapse, a common assumption is that the inside of the casing has no fluid or the pressure
inside the casing is zero. Typically, the pressure on the outside of the casing is assumed to be
from the hydrostatic pressure of the mud when the casing is run. Even though cement densities
are higher, the casing will always have at least water in it while cementing. It is a known fact
that the pressure within the cement decreases when the cement sets up. In fact, the pressure
on the outside of the casing may no longer be equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the original
mud weight shortly after cementing.
For surface or intermediate casing, zero pressure on the inside of the casing can occur if a gas
well blows out and the flow is uncontrolled at the surface (flowing to atmosphere). It can also
occur if lost circulation is encountered and the fluid level falls below the casing shoe. Some
operators assume that fluid level cannot fall below the hydrostatic pressure of the lowest
pressured formation. Unfortunately, formation pressures are not always known.
For production casing, the pressure on the inside of the casing can approach zero if the well is
swabbed or blown dry. At some point during the life of the well, there is a good chance that the
pressure inside the casing will approach zero.
The maximum pressure on a casing string will occur when the well contains nothing but gas and
is shut-in. For surface and intermediate casing, this can occur after the well has flowed to the
surface and then shut-in. It can also happen with an underground blowout involving a gas well.
Over a period of time, gas will migrate up the annulus and the mud will be displaced to the

Drilling Practices
induced fracture. Given a long enough period of time (less than 24 hours in most cases), the
surface pressure will be the frac gradient less the hydrostatic of the gas to the surface. The
maximum surface pressure will be the shut-in bottomhole pressure less the gas hydrostatic or
the frac gradient less the gas hydrostatic, whichever is lower. In most cases, the frac gradient
will be the limiting factor.
For production casing, the maximum shut-in, surface pressure will be determined by the shut-in
bottomhole pressure less the gradient of the produced fluid. For gas, the pressure may be high
while the surface pressure could be zero for wells that will not flow.
The internal pressure is always at least partially offset by hydrostatic pressure on the outside of
the casing. One of the biggest casing design differences between operators is the
determination of the pressure on the outside of the casing. The pressure can be calculated
assuming:
• The fluid in the annulus is the original mud when the casing was run,
• The fluid in the annulus is salt water (equivalent to approximately 9.0 ppg),
• The fluid in the annulus is fresh water, or
• The fluid in the annulus is the original mud weight but the fluid level is some distance
from the surface.
For production casing, the maximum internal pressure may not be due to shut-in surface
pressures. It depends upon the completion. Pumping a hydraulic fracture treatment down the
casing is a very common practice because it reduces surface treating pressures and therefore
cost. The maximum pressure will probably be associated with the fracture treatment. Pumping
cold frac fluids down the casing will significantly increase the tension in the un-cemented
section of the casing.
Tubing leaks are another consideration for production casing. Many wells are completed with
tubing and a packer. The tubing, casing annulus will contain a packer fluid to prevent corrosion.
If a tubing leak develops near the surface, the surface annulus pressure can be equal to the
shut-in tubing pressure. The pressure on the remainder of the production casing will be the
shut-in surface pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure of the packer fluid. That pressure will be
higher than a gas gradient; therefore, the casing pressures can be higher than if the well were
shut-in with a column of gas. Some operators consider this and some do not.
The first step in the design of a casing string is to determine the casing available. The API
tables at the end of the chapter show the API grades of casing and Table 10-4 shows some of
the more common non-API grades.
It should be noted that in general, the lower grades of steel are more resistant to hydrogen
sulfide embrittlement. Efforts are made not to use high strength steels (N-80 or above) when
hydrogen embrittlement may be a problem. Problems may be encountered with the lower
grades of steel and special efforts must be used to minimize corrosion in hydrogen sulfide
environments.
The general plan in the design of casing strings is to start at the bottom of the hole and work
towards the surface. At the bottom of the hole, collapse is considered, then tension and internal

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
yield towards the surface. When designing for a high pressure gas well, burst is usually the
determining factor at the top. If surface pressures are lower (oil well), tension may be the
determining factor at the top. Compression from the weight of subsequent casing strings may
also be considered near the surface.
When designing for collapse, the collapse strength of the casing must be de-rated for tension as
shown in Example 10-1. Adjustments are usually a few hundred feet.
A question often arises on how to treat buoyancy when designing casing strings. For example,
in considering collapse, the casing is assumed to be completely empty. If this were true,
buoyancy would be based on the complete displacement of the pipe rather than just metal
displacement. However, when the casing might be completely empty, a substantial portion of
the casing is supported by cement, and the casing is not hanging free. Equation 10-39 can be
used to determine the buoyancy factor, when only the displacement of the metal is concerned.
B = 1 − (0.015 )(MW ) Equation 10-22
If it is desired to determine buoyancy for the total displacement of empty casing, the total weight
of the displaced fluid must be considered. This creates a potential situation where the casing is
floating and tension effects would be zero. These various situations have been introduced to
simply show the difficulty involved in making decisions on the application of design factors and
design requirements for casing.
Some of the same problems mentioned for collapse design also apply for tension. However, in
tension, the casing is being supported as it is being run into the hole and buoyancy effects are
pronounced whether the casing is being run or pulled. Thus, the use of buoyancy factors is
generally used in tension design. At times, the casing is run only partially filled, which reduces
its suspended weight and this would reduce tensile loads.
Burst design is based on having a high pressure inside the casing and a low pressure on the
outside. The general consideration is that the bottom-hole pore pressure reduced by a gas
gradient might be inside the pipe and very little pressure might be on the outside of the pipe
toward the surface. Other conditions affecting burst requirements are the pressures required to
fracture formations, break down perforations or squeeze cement around the top of the liners.
When applying high surface pressures, it is common to use pipe and a packer to prevent the
pressures from being applied to most of the casing. However, a problem with potential burst
limitations may occur inside the casing above the formations to be fractured when squeeze
cementing the liner top. While the casing may not be designed for burst in the lower sections of
the hole, burst must be considered when applying pressure. Also, experience may dictate that
burst be considered for pipe in lower sections of the hole if repeated problems require it.
Compression of casing is generally considered when landing or setting casing. It is common

practice to hang or land the casing in tension. Some operators will hang the entire buoyed
weight of the casing in tension while others hang only 80 percent of the tension. The surface or
conductor casing that is supporting the hanging casing is placed in compression.
Example 10-3 will be used to illustrate a typical design program for casing. Compression will
not be considered in this example because the design includes the consideration of burst
requirements. For collapse, it will be assumed that the pressure on the inside of the casing is
zero and the pressure on the outside of the casing is equivalent to the hydrostatic pressure of
the mud. For burst or internal yield, the maximum surface pressure will be determined from

Drilling Practices
shut-in bottomhole pressure or frac gradient, whichever is lower. The pressure on the outside
of the casing will be calculated based on a fresh water gradient. Buoyancy will be used to
calculate tension in the casing. The minimum section length of any casing will be 1,000 feet.
Example 10-3
Given: 9⅝ inch protective casing is to be set at 10,000 feet
Mud weight = 14.0 ppg
Fracture gradient at 10,000 feet = 0.90 psi/foot
5½ inch production casing is to be set at 15,000 feet
Mud weight = 16.0 ppg
Bottomhole pressure at 15,000 feet is equivalent to 15.5 ppg
Design factors to be used: Collapse = 1.0
Tension = 1.8
Burst = 1.0
Determine: Design: (a) the 9⅝ inch protective casing
(b) the 5½ inch production casing
Solution: (a) Design of the 9⅝ inch protective casing
Collapse Pressure: The collapse resistance required will be determined

by the mud weight in the well when the casing is run. The internal
pressure will be assumed to be zero psi.
Pc 10,000 = (0.052 )(MW )(Depth )
Pc 10,000 = (0.052)(14)(10,000)
Pc 10,000 = 7,280 psi
Pc 0 = 0 psi
Burst Pressure: The determination of burst pressure will depend on the

operator’s objectives. If he wants the protective casing to withstand the
anticipated bottom-hole pressure before setting production pipe, then he
must have a heavier design. If he wants the protective casing to
withstand only the pressures at 10,000 feet then he can use minimum
requirements. For this problem, burst requirements are going to be
based on the pressure conditions before setting 5½ inch casing.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
The shut-in bottomhole pressure can be determined by the expected mud

weight at total depth if the actual pressure is not known.
Pb 15,000 = (0.052 )(MW )(Depth )
Pb 15,000 = (0.052 )(15.5 )(15,000 )
Pb 15,000 = 12,090 psi
The shut-in surface pressure was determined to be 10,048 psi using a

computer program and assuming a gas gravity of 0.60. Additionally,
Example 10-4 illustrates how to calculate the average gas gradient in a
well assuming average temperature and pressure. The gas gradient
would then be:
Pb 15,000 − Pb 0
Gg =
Depth
12,090 − 10,048
Gg =
15,000
Gg = 0.136 psi / ft
The maximum surface pressures based on the fracture gradient of 0.90-

psi/foot at 10,000 ft would be 7,720 psi using a computer program. The
gradient would be:
Pb 10,000 − Pb 0
Gg =
Depth
9,000 − 7,720
Gg =
10,000
Gg = 0.128 psi / ft
Because of the fracture gradient at 10,000 feet, the surface pressure

cannot exceed 7,720 psi before setting 5½ inch casing and this will be
assumed to be the maximum surface pressure. The maximum burst
pressure at 10,000 feet based on a fresh water gradient on the outside of
the casting would be as follows:
Pb 10,000 = (9,000) − (0.052)(10,000)(8.34)
Pb 10,000 = 4,663 psi

Drilling Practices
9 5/8" INTERMEDIATE CASING
COLLAPS
1000
2000
3000
43.5#/ft, P-110 43.5#/ft, P-110
4000
DEPTH, (feet)
5000
6000
47.0#/ft, P-110
7000
8000
53.5#/ft, P-110
9000
BURST
10000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
PRESSURE, psi
Figure 10-9. Casing Design for 9⅝" Intermediate Casing in Example 10-3
Step 1
Figure 10-9 shows the maximum collapse and burst pressures versus
depth and the casing to be used.
The buoyancy factor is:
B = 1− (0.015 )(MW )
B = 1− (0.015 )(14 )
B = 0.79

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Axial neutral point in casing = (10,000)(0.79) = 7,900 feet
The casing is assumed to be in compression below 7,900 feet and

tension above 7,900 feet. It is not exactly true and depends upon where
the casing weight changes but it is close enough for design purposes.
Using API grades of casing, find a casing that has a collapse resistance
greater than 7,280 psi, which is the collapse pressure at 10,000 feet times
the design factor (1.00):
Select first P-110, 53.50#/foot casing with a collapse resistance = 7,950

psi.
Step 2
Reduce casing costs by reducing the weight per foot of the casing. Next,
select P-110, 47.00#/foot casing where the collapse resistance is 5,300
psi. The setting depth not considering tension can be calculated as
follows:
Pcx = (0.052 )(MW )(x )
5,300 = (0.052 )(14 )(x )
x = 7,280 feet
This is above the neutral point at 7,900 feet and must be de-rated for
tension; therefore, assume a setting depth of 7,200 feet.
T7,200 = (7,900 − 7,200 )(53.50 # / ft )
T7,200 = 37,450 pounds
As =
π
4
(D p
2
− Di
2
)
As =
π
4
(9.625 2
− 8.6812 )
As = 13.572in 2
The axial stress is
T7,200
σa =
As

Drilling Practices
37,450
σa =
13.572
σ a = 2,759 psi
From the API collapse table for P-110, the adjusted collapse resistance
for 47.00#/foot casing at 0 and 5,000 psi stress are 5,300 and 5,270 psi,
respectively. Interpolating at a stress of 2,759 psi yields an adjusted
collapse value of 5,283psi. The actual design factor for collapse will be:
Adjusted Collapse
DFc =
Pc 7,200
5,283
DFc =
(0.052)(7,200 )(14)
DFc = 1.01
Step 3
Next, select P-110, 43.50#/foot casing which has a collapse resistance of

4,420 psi. The setting depth not considering tension is:
Pc x = (0.052)(MW )(x )
4,420 = (0.052)(14 )(x )
x = 6,071 feet
This depth is above the neutral point at 7,900 feet, thus the collapse
resistance will have to be de-rated for tension effects. Assume a setting
depth of 5,900 feet.
T5,900 = (7,200 − 5,900 )(47 # / ft ) + (37,450 )
T5,900 = 98,550 pounds
As =
π
4
(D p
2
− Di 2 )
As =
π
4
(9.625 2
− 8.755 2 )
As = 12.559in 2

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
The axial stress is:
T5,900
σa =
As
98,550
σa =
12.559
σ a = 7,847 psi
for 43.50#/foot casing at 5,000 and 10,000 psi stress are 4,370 and 4,320
psi, respectively. Interpolating at a stress of 7,847 psi yields an adjusted
collapse value of 4,342 psi. The actual design factor for collapse will be:
Adjusted Collapse
DFc =
Pc 5,900
4,342
DFc =
(0.052)(5,900 )(14 )
DFc = 1.01
Step 4
Next, select N-80, 43.50#/foot casing, with a collapse resistance of 3,810

psi. The setting depth not considering tension is:
Pc x = (0.052 )(MW )(x )
3,810 = (0.052 )(14 )(x )
x = 5,234 feet
The maximum setting depth would probably be higher than 5,000 feet.
Since the burst and collapse lines have crossed on Figure 10-9, check to
see if the burst rating is high enough. From the API tables (see
Appendix), the internal yield pressure is 6,330 psi (column 15). The
minimum setting depth for the top of the N-80 casing can be obtained
from Figure 10-9 (4,600 feet) or calculated as follows:
( )
Pb x = Pb 0 + Gg (x ) − (0.052 )(MW )(x )
6,330 = 7,720 + (0.128 )(x ) − (0.052 )(8.34 )(x )
x = 4,547feet

Drilling Practices
The pressure differential at any point is the surface pressure plus the
hydrostatic pressure inside the casing minus the hydrostatic pressure
outside the casing.
Since only approximately 400 feet of the N-80 can be used (between
5,000 and 4,600 feet), it will not be considered in the design. For this
casing design, the length is too short because a minimum section length
of 1,000 feet was specified.
Step 5
Check the burst on the 43.5#/ft, P-110 and see how far it can be run.
From the API tables, the internal yield is 8,700 psi. Since it exceeds the
maximum surface pressure of 7,720 psi, it can be run back to the surface.
The design factor for the P-110 casing would be:
Burst Strength
DFb =
Pb 0
8,700
DFb =
7,720
DFb = 1.13
Step 6
Check the 9⅝ inch casing design in Example 10-3 for tension. The P-
110, 53.50#/foot and 47.00#/foot casing at the bottom does not need to
be checked because the design factor will be very high. Start checking
the design factor for tension at the top of the 43.50#/foot P-110 casing at
the surface. T5,900 was previously calculated to be 98,550 pounds. The
joint strength for an LT&C connection is 1,106,000 pounds from the API
tables (column 21). The tension at the surface would be:
T0 = (5,900 )(43.5 # / ft ) + (98,550 )
T0 = 355,200 pounds
The design factor would be:
Joint Strength
DFt =
T0
1,106,000
DFt =
355,200
DFt = 3.11

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
The design factor is over the required design factor of 1.80; therefore, no
adjustment is required.
Table 10-10 summarizes the program for the 9⅝ inch casing.
Table 10-10. Casing Design Summary for 9⅝ in. Intermediate Casing in Example 10-3
CASING DESIGN DATA SUMMARY
WELL: DUSTER NO. 1 POOL: WILDCAT STATE: TEXAS DATE 11/20/2004
DESIGN FACTORS
SECTION CASING DESCRIPTION TOTAL
JOINT
NUMBER SIZE, WT., GRADE, CONN. BOTTOM LENGTH WEIGHT
COLLAPSE STRENGTH BURST
INTERMEDIATE CASING
1 9⅝, 53.50, P-110, LT&C 10,000 2,800 149,800 1.09 HIGH HIGH
2 9⅝, 47.00, P-110, LT&C 7,200 1,300 61,100 1.01 HIGH HIGH
3 9⅝, 43.50, P-110, LT&C 5,900 5,900 256,650 1.01 3.11 1.13
10,000 467,550
MINIMUM DESIGN FACTORS
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE: 9,000 psi COLLAPSE: 1.00
SURFACE PRESSURE: 7,720 psi BURST: 1.00
MUD WEIGHT FOR COLLAPSE: 14.0 ppg TENSION: 1.80
(b) Design of the 5½ inch Production Casing
Collapse Pressure: The collapse resistance required will be determined

by the mud weight in the well when the casing is run. The internal
pressure will be assumed to be zero psi.
Pc 15,000 = (0.052 )(MW )(Depth )
Pc 15,000 = (0.052 )(16.0 )(15,000 )
Pc 15,000 = 12,480 psi
Pc 0 = 0 psi

Drilling Practices
Burst Pressure: The surface burst pressure was calculated during the
9⅝ inch casing design and is as follows:
P b 0 = 10 ,048 psi
The burst pressure at 15,000 feet would be:
Pb 15 ,000 = (0 .052 )(15,000 )(15 .5 − 8 .34 ) = 5,585 psi
Figure 10-10 shows the maximum collapse and burst pressures versus
depth and the casing to be used.
The buoyancy factor is:
B = 1− (0.015 )(16 )
B = 0.76
Axial neutral point in casing = (15,000)(0.76) = 11,400 feet
Step 1
Using API grades of casing:
Select first P-110, 23.00#/foot casing with a collapse resistance of 14,540

psi.
Step 2
Next, select P-110, 20.00#/foot casing, with a collapse resistance of

11,100 psi. The setting depth (not considering tension) can be
calculated.
Pc x = (0.052 )(MW )(x )
11,100 = (0.052 )(16 )(x )
x = 13,341feet
Assume a setting depth of 13,300 feet which is below the neutral point;
therefore, no collapse pressure adjustment for tension is required.
Step 3
Next, select P-110, 17.00#/ft casing where the collapse resistance is

7,480 psi. The setting depth not considering tension is:
Pc x = (0.052 )(MW )(x )

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
7,480 = (0.052 )(16 )(x )
x = 8,990 feet
5 1/2" PRODUCTION CASING
COLLAPSE
2000
17.0#/ft, P-110
4000
6000
DEPTH, (feet)
8000
10000
20.0#/ft, P-110
12000
BURST 23.0#/ft, P-110
14000
16000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
PRESSURE, psi
Figure 10-10. Casing Design for 5½" Production Casing in Example 10-3
T8,700 = (11,400 − 8,700 )(20.00 # / ft )

Drilling Practices
T8,700 = 54,000 pounds
As =
π
4
(D p
2
− Di 2 )
As =
π
4
(5.5 2
)
− 4.892 2 = 4.962in 2
The axial stress is:
T8,700
σa =
As
54,000
σa =
4.962
σ a = 10,882 psi
for 17.00#/foot casing at 10,000 and 15,000 psi stress are 7,300 and
7,200 psi, respectively. Interpolating at a stress of 10,882 psi yields an
adjusted collapse value of 7,282 psi. The actual design factor for
collapse will be:
Adjusted Collapse
DFc =
Pc 8,700
7,282
DF c =
(0 .052 )(8,700 )(16 )
DF c = 1 . 01
Step 4
Next, select N-80, 17.00#/foot casing, with a collapse resistance of 6,280

psi
The setting depth not considering tension is:
Pc x = (0.052 )(MW )(x )
6,280 = (0.052 )(16 )(x )
x = 7,548 feet

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
T7,300 = (8,700 − 7,300 )(17.00 # / ft ) + 54,000
T7,300 = 77,800 pounds
The axial tension is:
T7,300
σa =
As
77,800
σa =
4.962
σ a = 15,679 psi
From the API collapse table for N-80, the adjusted collapse resistance for
17.00#/foot casing at 15,000 and 20,000 psi stress are 5,860 and 5,680
Adjusted Collapse
DFc =
Pc 7,300
5,836
DFc =
(0.052)(7,300 )(16 )
DFc = 0.96
Since the design factor is 0.96, the N-80 casing cannot be set as deep as
7,300 feet. Try a setting depth of 6,900 feet.
T6,900 = (8,700 − 6,900)(17.00# / ft ) + 54,000
T6,900 = 84,600 pounds
T6,900
σa =
As
84,600
σa =
4.962
σ a = 17,049 psi

Drilling Practices
From the API collapse table for N-80, the adjusted collapse resistance for
17.00#/foot casing at 15,000 and 20,000 psi stress are 5,860 and 5,680
Adjusted Collapse
DFc =
Pc 6,900
5,786
DFc =
(0.052)(6,900 )(16 )
DFc = 1.01
Step 5
Consider burst next. The burst resistance of the N-80, 17.00#/foot pipe is
7,740 psi, and the minimum setting depth of the casing can be calculated
as follows:
( )
Pb x = Pb 0 + Gg (x ) − (0.052 )(MW )(x )
7,740 = 10,048 + (0.136 )(x ) − (0.052 )(8.34 )(x )
x = 7,753feet
Since that is below the maximum setting depth for collapse, the N-80
cannot be used.
Step 6
Determine the minimum setting depth for the P-110, 17.00#/foot pipe,
with a burst of 10,640 psi. The maximum burst pressure that can occur at
the surface is 10,048 psi. Therefore, the P-110, 17.00#/foot casing will be
used from the surface to 8,700 feet. The design factor for the P-110
casing would be:
Burst Strength
DFb =
Pb 0
10,640
DFb =
10,048
DFb = 1.06
Table 10-11 summarizes the program for the 5½ inch casing.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Table 10-11. Casing Design Summary for 5½ in. Production Casing in Example 10-3
CASING DESIGN DATA SUMMARY
WELL: DUSTER NO. 1 POOL: WILDCAT STATE: TEXAS DATE 11/20/2004
DESIGN FACTORS
SECTION CASING DESCRIPTION TOTAL
JOINT
NUMBER SIZE, WT., GRADE, CONN. BOTTOM LENGTH WEIGHT
COLLAPSE STRENGTH BURST
PRODUCTION CASING
1 5½, 23, P-110, LT&C 15,000 1,700 39,100 1.17 HIGH HIGH
2 5½, 20, P-110, LT&C 13,300 4,600 92,000 1.00 HIGH HIGH
3 5½, 17, P-110, LT&C 8,700 8,700 147,900 1.01 2.20 1.06
15,000 279,000
MINIMUM DESIGN FACTORS
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE: 12,090 psi COLLAPSE: 1.00
SURFACE PRESSURE: 10,048 psi BURST: 1.00
MUD WEIGHT FOR COLLAPSE: 16.0 ppg TENSION: 1.80
Step 7
Check the 5½ inch casing design in Table 10-11 for tension. The P-110,
23.00#/foot and 20.00#/foot casing at the bottom does not need to be
checked because the design factor will be very high. Start checking the
design factor for tension at the top of the 17.00#/foot P-110 casing at the
surface. T8,700 was previously calculated to be 54,000 pounds. The joint
strength for an LT&C connection is 445,000 pounds from the API tables.
The tension at the surface would be:
T0 = (8,700 − 0 )(17.00 # / ft ) + 54,000
T0 = 201,900 pounds
The design factor would be:
Joint Strength
DFt =
T0
445,000
DFt =
201,900

Drilling Practices
DFt = 2.20
All the tension design factors are over the required design factor of 1.80;
therefore, no adjustments are required.
BENDING STRESSES
Bending stresses must be considered when designing casing for highly directional wells or
where doglegging is a substantial problem. This is especially true for horizontal applications
where medium and short radius build rates are used. Bending of the casing adds additional
stresses to the casing. When a section of casing is bent in a dogleg, one side of the casing will
have an additional tension and the opposite side will have an additional compression. A
simplified equation for determining the stress caused by bending is:
σ b = ±(218 )(DLS )(D p ) Equation 10-23
The axial tension in the casing will be the bending stress plus the axial stress and should be
considered when designing for collapse. API Bul 5C4, "Bulletin on Round Thread Casing Joint
Strength with Combined Internal Pressure and Bending," can be used to determine the joint
strength subject to both bending and internal pressure.
If the casing has large OD couplings or centralizers are placed on each coupling, then the
bending stresses may be larger than those calculated with the above equation. With the
couplings or centralizers touching the wall, the middle of the casing can also touch the wall of
the hole causing a bend in the casing larger than the dogleg severity. Axial tension is required
to force the center of the joint toward the wall of the hole; therefore, it would be more of a
problem up the hole. Lubinski's 3 work can be used to derive the equation, but normally
consideration of the bending stress caused by the dogleg severity is sufficient.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Casing wear and corrosion should also be considered when designing casing strings. Casing
wear is caused by the drill string rotation and tripping resulting in a reduction of wall thickness.
Casing wear will increase as the dogleg severity and tension increase. In other words, casing
wear is usually a more significant problem near the top of the casing string; however, it can be a
problem deeper in the well if the dogleg severity is high enough or if the casing is buckled.
Bradley and Fontenot 4 presented a method for estimating casing wear based upon laboratory
experiments and field correlation. The paper can be used to estimate potential wall thickness
reduction, and then the API equations can be used to calculate remaining collapse and burst
strength. The DEA (Drilling Engineering Association) also did a study on casing wear. Where
wells are completed with liners, the intermediate string then becomes the production string and
casing wear should be considered in the casing design if drilling for an extended period of time.
Corrosion can also be a problem with production casing and tubing. Corrosion is the
deterioration of metal when it reacts with its environment. Corrosion can occur from a single
corrodent or from multiple corrodents acting simultaneously. Some corrodents and their
potential sources are given in Table 10-12.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Of the potential corrodents, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide usually cause the most
problems. Water must be present in some form before carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
become corrosive. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid and the carbonic
acid reacts with the steel to form iron carbonate which flakes off the casing or tubing reducing
the wall thickness. Both temperature and pressure affect the corrosiveness of carbon dioxide.
Increasing pressure reduces the corrosive action of carbon dioxide, and increasing temperature
will enhance the corrosive action. Therefore, it is hard to predict exactly where corrosion will
take place in the wellbore. Altunbay 5 devised a systematic approach to evaluating corrosion
potential based upon temperature, pressure, flow rate, etc.
Table 10-12. Corrodents and their Potential Sources
CORRODENT POTENTIAL SOURCES

Formation, make-up water, aeration, gas, sweet crude and
Carbon dioxide
gas, bacterial activity.
Formation, sour crude and gas, make-up water,
Hydrogen Sulfide
degradation of additives, bacterial action
Soluble salts Formation, mud additives.
Mineral acids Stimulation additives.
Oxygen Aeration.
Organic acids Mud additives, bacterial activity, stimulation additives.
Using chrome steels is one method used to reduce the corrosion rates associated with carbon
dioxide. API steel types 9Cr and 13Cr, shown in Table 10-1 and Table 10-2, can be used to
help prevent corrosion, but chrome steels are much more expensive. When carbonic acid
reacts with the chrome steel, stable chromium-oxide forms on the surface, and prevents further
reaction of the carbonic acid. Fast moving, solid particles can remove the chromium-oxide
scale reducing the effectiveness.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an acid gas that, in solution with water, forms very corrosive acids. A
little H2S, CO2, and water can cause catastrophic corrosion problems. While drilling, H2S and
CO2 can cause corrosion problems with drill pipe and casing strings. The best way to prevent
corrosion in a drilling environment is to maintain a drilling fluid pH of 10 or higher and use
appropriate inhibitors for the corrosive agent.
During the corrosion process with hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen atoms are formed on the metal
surface and the atoms combine to form hydrogen gas. In the presence of H2S, the rate at which
hydrogen atoms combine to form hydrogen gas is reduced. As a result, atomic hydrogen can
enter the metal at a significant rate. Combining of atomic hydrogen within the metal reduces its
ductility and causes the metal to break in a brittle manner rather than yielding. The process is
termed hydrogen embrittlement and the resulting failure is termed sulfide stress cracking (SSC).
Variables associated with sulfide stress cracking are:
1. Metal chemical composition
2. Yield strength of material

Drilling Practices
3. Hardness of metal
4. Heat treatment and microstructure of the steel
5. Stress in the metal
6. Pressure
7. Temperature and
8. Exposure time
Any material used in a sour environment should conform to the latest revision of NACE
(National Association of Corrosion Engineers) Standard MRO-175; Sulfide Stress Cracking
Resistant Materials for Oil Field Equipment. A sour environment is defined by NACE as having
a total pressure of 65 psia (448 kPa) or greater and if the partial pressure of H2S in the gas is
greater than 0.05 psia (0.34 kPa). Figure 10-11 is from the MRO-175, and graphically
represents what is considered a sour environment for a sour gas system and a sour multiphase
system. A multiphase system includes oil, gas and water. Point “A” on the top graph
represents an H2S concentration of 100 ppm in a well with a total pressure of 1,000 psi and is
considered a sour environment. Point “B” represents an H2S concentration of 50 ppm in a well
with a total pressure of 200 psia and is not considered a sour environment.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Figure 10-11. Sour Service Environment from NACE MRO 175-90
The higher the yield strength or hardness of the steel, the more susceptible the steel will be to
sulfide stress cracking. In general, steels having Rockwell C hardness (HRC) of 22 or less are
resistant to sulfide stress cracking. In Table 10-2, C-75 grade in Group 2 has a HRC of 22 or
less. All of Group 1 except N-80 is acceptable for H2S service. If the chemical composition is
adjusted to permit the development of a well tempered, predominantly martensitic
microstructure by proper quenching and tempering; steels having strengths equivalent to
hardnesses of 26 HRC maximum are resistant to sulfide stress cracking. In Group 2, grades L-
80 and C-90 have a HRC less than 26.
Table 10-13 is a reproduction of Table 10-3 in the MRO-175 Standard and shows how
temperature affects sulfide stress cracking. As the temperature increases, higher yield strength
casing can be used. As long as the temperature remains above 150°F, API grades N-80 (Q&T)
and C-95 can be used. Above a temperature of 175°F, P-110 and P-105 can be used in a sour
environment.

Drilling Practices
1. Maintenance of pH 10 or higher to neutralize H2S in the drilled formation
2. Use of chemical sulfide scavengers
3. Use of a drilling fluid in which oil is the continuous phase
4. When aluminum drill pipe is used, the drilling fluid pH should not exceed 10.5 to
avoid accelerated weight loss corrosion.
5. Maintenance of pH 10 or higher to neutralize H2S in the drilled formation
Table 10-13. From NACE MRO-175-90
Operating Temperature
For All Tempertures1 For 150oF (65oC) or Greater2 For 175oF (80oC) or Greater
Tubing and Casing Tubing and Casing Tubing and Casing

API Spec 5CT Grs H-40,3 API Spec 5CT Gr N-80 (Q & T) API Spec 5CT Grs H-40, N-80
J-55, K-55, C-75 (types 1,2,3), & Gr C-95 P-105, & P-110
& L-80 (type 1) Proprietary Q & T Grades Proprietary Q & T Grades
API Spec 5CT Grs H-403 with 110 ksi or less to 140 ksi maximum yield
J-55, K-55, C-75, maximum yield strength strength
& L-80
Proprietary Grades Per
Paragraph 3.2.3
UNS K12125
Pipe4,5
API Spec 5L Grs A & B and
Grs X-42 through X-65
ASTM A-53
A 106 Gr A, B, C
A 333 Gr 1 & 6
A 524 Gr 1 & 2
A 381 Cl 1 Y35-Y65
Drill Stem Materials6

API Spec 5D Grs D, E,
X-95, G-105, &
S-135 (See 11.3.1.1.)
1
Impact resistance may be required by other standards and codes for low operating temperatures.
2
Continuous minimum temperature; for lower temperatures, select from Column 1.
3
80 ksi maximum yield strength permissible.
4
Welded grades shall meet the requirements of Sections 3 and 5 of this standard.
5
Pipe shall have a maximum hardness of 22 HRC.
6
For use under controlled environments as defined in Paragraph 11.2.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
9. Note in Maintenance of pH 10 or higher to neutralize H2S in the drilled formation
Table 10-13, drill stem materials are acceptable for a sour environment but only under
controlled conditions. Section 11 of MRO-175 set forth those conditions which include one or
more of the following:
Section 11 of the standard also includes specifications for other drilling and well servicing
equipment such as BOP's, hard surfacing, choke manifolds and lines, and drilling risers.
Kane and Greer 6 studied the effects of stress and H2S concentration on sulfide stress cracking
of high strength steels. Figure 10-12 gives some of the results. As the stress within the steel
increases, the probability of sulfide stress
cracking increases. If possible, high
stresses should be avoided in sour
service environments.
Sulfide stress cracking is characterized by

a sudden failure of a component at
stresses less than the minimum yield
strength. A finite amount of time is
required for the hydrogen to enter the
steel and combine. As the stress
increases, the time to failure decreases.
Stepwise (blister) cracking has occurred

in a sour service environment even on
lower strength steels that have been
recommended for sour service.4 Analysis
of failed elements has indicated that the
presence of stepwise cracking was
because of hydrogen damage associated
with general corrosion in the presence of
H2S. Use of lower strength steel does not Figure 10-12. Maximum Stress Levels with no Failures for
guarantee protection from H2S in the Various Tubular Grades at 75oF. After Kane and Greer6
presence of high corrosion rates.
CARE AND HANDLING
Care and handling of tubulars are very important. For instance, burst resistance may be
reduced by as much as 70 percent from tong marks as deep as 15 to 17 percent of the wall

Drilling Practices
thickness and with out of roundness of 3 to 4 percent. Collapse resistance can be reduced by
25 percent if the pipe is deformed by 1 percent.6
The API RP 5C1 7 lists common causes of trouble for casing and tubing. Half of the problems
are related to transporting, handling and running practices.
During transportation, joints can be damaged by rolling and bumping into each other and other
objects. Pipe should be stripped to prevent contact between layers, and spacers between each
joint should be provided for marine transportation.
Keep pipe away from substances that can cause corrosion such as sea water and chemicals.
Closed end protectors will prevent internal corrosion, and threaded pipe should always be
doped with the proper thread compound.
The thread protectors should remain in place whenever the pipe is handled to prevent damage
to threads. Pipe should never be picked up with hooks in the ends because it can damage the
threads even with thread protectors in place. If the pipe is being moved with a crane, a
spreader bar and sling should be used.
Pipe should not be dropped or banged around while unloading. Nicks, dents and out of
roundness can cause significant reductions in burst and collapse pressures. Places where the
pipe is damaged can be work hardened increasing its susceptibility to sulfide stress cracking.
High strength tubulars can be easily damaged by shock or impact loading because the steel is
more brittle.
Never store pipe on the ground. The pipe should be stored on adequately stripped racks at
least 18 inches off the ground. Do not stack casing more than 10 feet high in storage areas.
Pipe should not be racked more than three layers high on the rig unless there is a way to lower
the pipe to the cat walk without dropping it.
Pipe should be inspected on location for damage during shipment. A visual inspection of the
threads and pipe body along with a full length drift should reveal any handling damage. The
thread compound must be removed from the threaded ends before they can be adequately
inspected.
On location, the casing should be carefully tallied and the joints numbered. More than one
person should count the total number of joints on location and compare the total to the bill of
landing. It is hard to count the number of joints in the well, but it is easy to count the joints left
on the rack.
With mixed strings, it is imperative that the casing be placed on the rack in the order it will be
run. The bottom of the casing string will be on the top of the rack. The drilling supervisor
should arrange transportation so that the top of the string arrives first and will be placed on the
bottom layer. Rearranging the pipe is difficult and damage can result from handling. Mixing up
one joint of casing can have disastrous results.
Figure 10-13 is a casing selection chart. It is taken from article “Tubulars Isolate Downhole
Pressures” published in Oil and Gas Journal in October 9, 1978.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Casing and liner size, in 4 4 1/2 5 5 1/2
Bit and hole size, in 4 3/4 5 7/8 6 1/8 6 1/2 7 7/8
7 5/8
Casing and liner size, in 6 5/8 7 8 5/8 9 5/8
7 3/4
Bit and hole size, in 7 7/8 8 1/2 8 3/4 9 1/2 10 5/8 12 1/4
9 5/8 11 3/4 13 3/8

Casing size, in. 8 5/8 10 3/4
9 7/8 11 7/8 14
Bit and hole size, in 10 5/8 12 1/4 14 3/4 17 1/2
11 3/4 13 3/8
Casing size, in. 16 20
11 7/8 14
Bit and hole size, in 14 3/4 17 1/2 20 26
Casing size, in. 16 20 24 30
This chart can be used to select the casing bit sizes required to fulfill many drilling programs. To use the chart, determine the
or liner size for the last size pipe to be run. Enter the chart at that point . The flow of the chart then indicates hole sizes that may be required
to set that size pipe (i.e. 5 in. liner inside 6 1/8 in. or 6 1/2 in hole).
Solid lines indicate commonly use bits for that size pipe and can be condsidered to have adequate clearance to run and cement the
casing or liner (i.e. 5 1/2 in. casing inside 7 7/8 in. hole). The broken lines indicate less common hole sizes use (i.e. 5 in. insided 6 1/8 in. hole).
The selection of one of these broken paths requires special attention to be given to the connection, mud weight, cementing and doglegs.
Large connection OD, thick mud cake buildup, problem cementing areas (high water loss, lost returns, etc.) and doglegs aggravate
the attempt to run casing and liners in low clearance situations.
Once the hole size has been selected, a casing large enough to allow passage fo a bit to make that hole can be selected. The solid
lines are commonly required casing sizes, encompassing most weights (i.e. 6 1/2 in. bit inside 7 5/8 in. casing). The broken lines indicate
casing sizes wheere only the lighter weights can be used (i.e. 6 1/8 in bit inside 7 in. casing).
The selection process is repeated until the anticipated number of casing sizes has been reached.
Figure 10-13. Casing Selection Chart from Oil and Gas Journal article "Tubulars Isolate Downhole Pressures,"
October 9, 1978
SIZING OF BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
In recent years, there has been a major push to increase the pressure rating of blowout
preventers used in routine drilling operations. Arguments for the increase in pressure ratings
are generally based on conditions that include empty casing with bottom-hole pressure

Drilling Practices
controlled only by a column of gas. Arguments against the increase in pressure ratings include:
(1) the assumed condition of casing full of gas only it is not a probable condition while drilling
the well and if it should occur the test pressure is 50 percent higher than the working pressure
for all blowout preventers, (2) that calculations for gas gradients always assume completely dry
gas which is not a probable condition, and (3) in the case of blowout preventers rated at 15,000
psi, it will be necessary to remove the larger diameter, lower pressure blowout preventer stack
and install the 15,000 psi stack after setting protective casing which is also considered a risk
taking procedure.
Empty casing during drilling operations could occur when all the mud in the hole is displaced by
gas or when gas rising in the annulus will eventually displace all the liquids into the lost
circulation zone. Under high pressure conditions, condition one should never exist because the
operator would accept an underground blowout rather than keep the well open until only gas
remained. Condition two is a possibility and would generally only occur when a well is left
unattended. One possible condition would be in an offshore location when it becomes
necessary to move the rig off location because of weather conditions. Under these conditions,
the fluid level in the hole may drop due to filtration thereby reducing the effective head and
permitting gas to flow into the wellbore. Another situation, which is extremely remote, would be
if a well kicked and an underground blowout occurred at the time it was necessary to move the
rig off location.
To illustrate specific conditions, consider Example 10-2, where the second string of protective
casing was set at 13,920 feet. The pore pressure at 13,920 feet was 11,943 psi and the total
pressure required to fracture the formation just below the casing seat would be 13,266 psi. The
estimated bottom-hole pressure was 13,800 psi. The primary question to be answered in this
case is whether a blowout preventer stack rated at 15,000 psi is needed to drill this well.
To answer, it will be necessary to examine all the facts, the possible maximum surface
pressure, the equipment in use, and the risks involved in changing blowout preventer stacks
after setting 7-inch casing at 13,920 feet.
In the first place, if gas occupied the entire wellbore, there would not be an underground
blowout, because the pressure at 13,920 feet would be less than the fracture pressure of
13,266 psi. Therefore, the maximum pressure at the surface will be based on the maximum
bottom-hole pressure minus the pressure exerted by a borehole full of gas. Example 10-4
illustrates the potential maximum pressure conditions at the surface.
Example 10-4
Given: Same conditions shown in Example 10-2
Bottom-hole temperature 250oF
Surface Temperature 70oF
Bottom-hole pressure 13,800 psi
Gas specific gravity 0.7
Determine: The maximum pressure conditions at the surface.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
SP
Solution: Gas gradient, psi/foot = Equation 10-24
53.3zT
Using the average for temperature yields:
250 + 70
Tavg = = 160°F
2
Tavg (°R ) = 160 + 460 = 620°R
Assume:
Ps = 11,500 psi
Then:
zs = 1.55
zb = 1.75
zavg = 1.65
Pavg = 12,650 psi
Tavg = 620oR
Gg =
(0.7)(12,650 ) = 0.162 psi / ft
(53.3)(1.65)(620 )
Pressure exerted by the gas = (15,000)(0.162) = 2,430 psi
Maximum surface pressure = 13,800 – 2,430 = 11,370 psi
This is a rough estimate of the maximum possible surface pressure, which assumes no
accumulation of liquids. In all probability, there will be an accumulation of liquids at least below
the casing seat at 13,920 feet. It is doubtful in this case, that the maximum surface pressure
would ever exceed 10,000 psi. Assuming that this did happen, it should be remembered that
10,000 psi working pressure blowout preventers have been tested to 15,000 psi. While under
normal conditions the working pressure should not exceed 10,000 psi, the preventers hold more
pressure than 10,000 psi in conditions of emergency.
At times, the attitude develops that no risks will be taken. This is a correct attitude if risks were
completely avoidable. Consider the conditions given in Example 10-2 and Example 10-4. If the
operator decides to change to blowout preventers rated at 15,000 psi after setting the 7-inch
casing, he must do this after cementing and before drilling out of the 7-inch. During this
change-over, suppose the cement job fails around the 7-inch and the well kicks with no surface
control. The argument that the cement job should be tested first is justified except there is no
guarantee that the cement job will not subsequently fail. In fact, it is safer to assume the

Drilling Practices
blowout preventers, which have been tested to 15,000 psi, will hold a pressure of 11,370 psi.
The requirement that the test pressure should be 50 percent above the working pressure for
blowout preventers is arbitrary. The requirement might have been set at 25 percent above the
working pressure, in which case, the working pressure for blowout preventers tested to 15,000
psi, would be 12,000 psi. The operator and those who regulate should think about the
alternative risks before imposing conditions that will, in the long run, increase costs and
problems without any reduction in risks.
If it is a simple operation to change out the blowout preventer stack, then the stack should be
changed. If it is extremely difficult or very risky, the better altenative may be to leave the 10,000
psi stack in place. In any suface BOP operation, it will usually be less risky to change out the
stack. Subsea operations may be a different story.
The pressure rating of wellhead equipment must also meet the requirements of the well. The
maximum anticipated surface pressures should be calculated and then the wellhead equipment
should be selected based on the maximum pressures. In an existing field, the surface
pressures will be known.
DRILL STRING HANDLING AND MAKE UP
The drill string design is more straight forward than casing design. Seldom is burst or collapse
a consideration. The design is based primarily on tension. Torsion may be a problem in
directional wells.
First, there are a number of different weights and grades of drill pipe available to the industry.
Table 10-14 lists the most common grades available. Grade E is by far the most common.
Grade E has a minimum yield strength of 75,000 psi. The minimum yield strength for each
grade can be found in Table 10-14.
Table 10-14. Drill Pipe Grades
Tensile
Minimum Yield Maximum Yield Strength
Grade psi psi psi
E 75,000 105,000 85,000
X 95,000 125,000 105,000
G 105,000 135,000 115,000
S 135,000 165,000 145,000
The API recognizes four classes of drill pipe. They are:
• New
• Premium Class
• Class 2 and

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
• Class 3.
The DS-1 8 Standard has an additional class of drill pipe. It is premium class, reduced TSR.
The pipe has the same pressure and tensile ratings as premium class, but has a reduced
torsional strength. The tool joint diameters do not meet the API specifications for premium class
drill pipe. The pipe can be used in drilling wells with low torque values. For more information
see the DS-1 Standard.
New is drill pipe that has never been used. The drill string is almost never designed assuming
the drill pipe is new. Once it is in the hole, the drill pipe is considered used. Most publications
give the strength of drill pipe as the strength for new pipe. The API tables at the end of the
Chapter give the performance properties of new and used drill pipe.
In most drilling operations, the drill pipe is assumed to be Premium Class unless an inspection
has down graded it to Class 2 or 3. The designation Premium Class assumes that the outside
diameter has been worn down by 20% and that 80% of the wall thickness remains. The class of
drill pipe can also be reduced due to tool joint wear. The API RP 7G (Recommended Practices
for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits) should be consulted for the minimum tool joint
diameters of each class (see Appendix).
The worn outside diameter is used to calculate the new tensile and torsional data based on the
minimum yield. Equation 10-42 can be used to determine the worn outside diameter from which
the new cross sectional area can be determined. The API RP 7G also contains the tensile and
torsional data for all the classes of drill pipe.
( )
D pw = D p − Di × t h + Di Equation 10-25
Class 2 pipe assumes that 70% of the wall thickness is remaining and that all of the wear has
occurred on the outside diameter. Class 2 is not generally recommended for drilling. It is most
often used on small drilling rigs that are incapable of pulling enough to part the pipe. The
torsional and tensile yield of Class 2 pipe is calculated the same as Premium Class.
Pipe is termed Class 3 if the wall thickness has been reduced by more than 30%. Class 3 is not
recommended for any drilling operation and is usually considered junk.
Drill string is a conduit connecting the surface to the bit and is used for all drilling operations. It
consists of a drill bit at the bottom, followed up by a bottomhole assembly (BHA), and then drill
pipe to the surface.
The drill string is an expensive part of the drilling rig. In 1991, it was estimated to cost about
$600,000 for a 20,000 ft drill string and had a life span of 7 years. 9 If the drill pipe is damaged,
there is the cost of replacing it. If the pipe is damaged in the hole, there is the additional cost of
recovering the pipe from the hole. Thus, a strategy must be developed to carefully manage the
drill string to prevent drill string failures, reduce costs, and prolong its usage on a rig.
MULTI-PRONGED APPROACH
Most of the drill string failures are a result of fatigue. 10 Fatigue is considered to occur in three
stages as shown in Figure 10-14. These stages are:10

Drilling Practices
• Initiation stage: A microscopic crack is created. The crack might be created from
corrosion, wear or damage. In Figure 10-14, this stage is shown as A-B.
• Growth stage: As the drill string is subjected to repeated stress cycles, the crack grows
with each cycle. In Figure 10-14, this stage is shown as B-D. Once the crack becomes
of sufficient size, it becomes possible to detect it with inspection methods. This critical
size is shown as Point C in the figure. It is estimated that 90% of a component’s life
might already be consumed before a crack in it is detected.10
• Failure stage: When the crack reaches a critical point, the string component might
fracture. The critical point is a function of hole conditions, drilling parameters, or string
material properties. In Figure 10-14, this stage is beyond point D.
A B C D
Initiation Growth Failure
Figure 10-14. Stages to Fatigue Failure
The best approach to prevent fatigue or prolong life of a drill string is either weaken the failure
drivers or strengthen the failure retarders. This approach focuses on three areas:
• Drill string design
• Drill string inspection
• Drill string handling while drilling
A drill string designed with higher material toughness will move point D, in Figure 10-14, further
to the right, thereby sustaining string even with an increased number of cracks.
Improvements in inspection methods and programs can help detect cracks earlier and hence,
move point C to the left. The early detection can help to take remedial measures and move the
string strength to point B or before.
While drilling, the higher the stress levels and the more frequent the high-stress cycles, the
more chances there are for a string to crack. Thus, a control of stress level and cycles can
lengthen all points A, B, C and D. A decrease in corrosion delays the initiation of a crack and
hence moves points A and B to the right.
Proper handling of the drill string components can prevent damage to the string and hence
move points A and B to the right.
Such a unified approach can help protect the current inventory and any new drill string acquired,
thereby mitigating drill string failures. 11

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
DRILLING STRING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The main objective of drill string design in all wells is to keep the stresses at any point in the
string to below the capacities of the string component, and to select components and configure
assemblies which decrease fatigue as much as economically possible. 12
There are significant benefits from including drill string design considerations as early as during
purchases made for drilling projects. Shell reported cumulative savings of $13.6 million dollars
reducing failures by 55% in 1994 by changing drill string component specifications. 13
It is important to understand design approach in a deviated well and a vertical well.14 In

deviated wells, some of the traditional bottomhole assembly (BHA) components are eliminated.
A portion of the weight on bit (WOB) is probably applied by running normal weight drill pipe in
compression. If the compressive loads are too high, the drill pipe may be buckled. Drill pipe is
not run in compression in a vertical well.
The bore hole wall in a deviated well supports a portion of the hanging weight of the drill string;
therefore, there is less tension load at surface on a deviated well. However, the torque and
drag required to move the drill string are higher compared to a vertical hole. The load limit for a
drill string will be its tensile capacity in a vertical hole, but it may be its torsional capacity in a
deviated hole.
The tool joint is normally weaker in torsion than the pipe to which it is attached. To prevent
downhole makeup, the torsion capacity of a tool joint is considered its makeup torque. If
predicted surface torque is above the makeup torque, the string will be torsion capacity limited.
The tool joint outside diameter and inside diameter generally determine the strength of the joint
in torsion. The OD affects the box area and the ID affects the pin area. The torsion strength
and makeup torque of both the box and pin should be determined. The smaller of the values for
the box and pin should be considered the value for the tool joint.12
In vertical wells, loads are calculated based on hanging weight. Friction between pipe and wall
are small and is handled by adding design factors or margin of overpull. In a deviated well,
friction effects may be large, so they can not be ignored.
Adequate safety factors must be provided to prevent loss or damage to drill string components.
However, a more conservative approach might result in unnecessarily heavy and more
expensive drill string. Consider a drill collar as an example. Many drill collar connection failures
are a result of bending stresses rather than torsional stresses. A connection with a BSR of
2.5:1 is generally accepted as a balanced connection. However, the acceptable value range is
from 3.20:1 to 1.90:1.12 Furthermore, a ratio acceptable in one operating area may not be
acceptable in another. It is always a good practice to use local experience including failures
and other conditions to determine the minimum acceptable values for that particular area and
type of operation.
The drill string design for a vertical hole is a once-through calculation. In a deviated well, drill
string design is an iterative process. In a deviated well, the drill string is designed, the torque
and drag and calculated and the drill string is redesigned based on the results of the torque and
drag model. Drill string design in a directional well is beyond the scope of this manual.
The drill string design generally starts with the bottomhole assembly. The bottomhole assembly
should be designed so that the top of the assembly remains in tension (actually not buckled)

Drilling Practices
while drilling with the maximum anticipated drilling weight. A typical design may leave the top
10 to 15% in tension (a design factor of 1.10 or 1.15).
A typical bottomhole assembly design can be found in Example 10-5.
Example 10-5
Given: Maximum anticipated weight on 8¾ inch bit is 50,000 lbs
Drill collar size is 6½ inch by 2-13/16 inch
Mud weight is 11.5 pounds per gallon
Excess collars should be 10% to insure the drill pipe remains in tension
Determine: The number of 30 foot collars to be run.
Solution: The weight per foot of a drill collar can be determined as follows
(
Wf = 2.67 D p 2 − Di 2 ) Equation 10-26
( )
Wf = 2.67 6.5 2 − 2.8125 2 = 92 lbs per foot
The length of the drill collars can be calculated by the following equation
W (DF )
Lc = Equation 10-27
Wf B
The buoyancy factor is calculated as follows:
B = 1 − (0 . 015 )(MW )
B = 1 − (0.015 )(11.5 ) = 0.83
50,000(1.10 )
Lc = = 720 feet
(92)(0.83 )
The number of drill collars would be:
720/30 = 24 drill collars
and the total collar weight is:
W tc = 24 × 30 × 92 × 0.83 = 54,979 lbs
With BHA components, most of the bending will occur in the connections. In vertical wells, all
BHA components will buckle when weight is applied to the bit and the connection can fatigue.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
In order to minimize pin or box failures, the bending strength ratio (BSR) needs to be within
certain limits. The BSR is measure of the relative stiffness of the box and pin in a connection.
In API RP7G, the API indicates that the stiffness of the box and pin are balanced when the BSR
is approximately equal to 2.50:1. BSR’s greater than 2.50 may cause pin failures and BSR’s
lower than 2.50 may cause box failures.
The BSR of a given connection is a function of the ID of the pin and the OD of the box. The
BSR can be calculated from equations in API RP7G; however, graphs are available in API
RP7G to determine the BSR. The graphs are similar to Figure 10-15, which is for BHA
components with an ID of 2-13/16 inches. When using the graphs, use the closest inside
diameter.
Table 10-15. BSR Recommendations
Traditional DS-1 Recommended

Drill Collar OD
BSR Range BSR Range
< 6 inches (152 mm) 2.25 to 2.75 1.80 to 2.50
6 to 7⅞ inches (152 - 200 mm) 2.25 to 2.75 2.25 to 2.75
≥ to 8 inches (203 mm) 2.25 to 2.75 2.50 to 3.20
Traditionally, the industry has assumed that a BSR of 2.5 ±0.25 is acceptable. Fatigue failure of
connections will be minimized but not prevented. In some drilling areas, the BSR may need to
be slightly higher or lower. If experience in an area indicates that the BSR needs to be different,
use the experience based BSR. The DS-1 Standard indicates that the optimum BSR may be
different based on the outside diameter of the BHA component. The BSR of a given connection
is a function of the ID of the pin and the OD of the box. The BSR can be calculated from
equations in API RP7G; however, graphs are available in API RP7G to determine the BSR. The
graphs are similar to Figure 10-15, which is for BHA components with an ID of 2-13/16 inches.
When using the graphs, use the closest inside diameter.
Table 10-15 lists the recommendation in the DS-1 Standard.
Many operators will place approximately 6 to 10 joints of HWDP (hevi-water drill pipe) at the top
of the drill collars as a transition to the drill pipe. It may help reduce drill pipe failures at the top
of the drill collars by allowing a transition zone. Exact bit weights are not known since weight
indicators are not extremely accurate.
If jars are placed in the BHA of a vertical or near vertical well, the jars are placed at the top of
the drill collars. Then, an additional three to four collars are run on top of the jars. Jars operate
more effectively with collars immediately above the jars. In a vertical well, the collars must
remain in tension while drilling; therefore, the amount of collars calculated in Example 10-5 must
be below the jars. In some directional wells and most horizontal wells, the jars are run in
compression. The jars should not be placed near the neutral point.

Drilling Practices
11.5
8.75
11 8.25
10.5 7.75
Outside Diameter, inches

Outside Diameter, inches
6 5/8 H90
8 5/8 REG 8 5/8 H90
10 7.25 6 5/8 REG
NC 77
5 1/2 FH
NC56
9.5 6.75
5 1/2 H90
5 1/2 REG
7 5/8 H90 6.25 NC50
9
NC70 5 H90
5.75 4 1/2 H90

8.5 7 5/8 REG
NC46
NC 61
6 5/8 FH 4 1/2 FH
NC40
NC44
7 H90
5 1/2 IF 5.25 4 H90
8
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1
Bending Strength Ratio Bending Strength Ratio
Figure 10-15. Bending Strength Ratio for 2-13/16 in. Inside Diameter
The drill pipe is usually designed with a design factor and an over pull. A common design factor
in tension is 1.10 or 10%. The over pull usually ranges from 50,000 to 100,000 pounds. In
directional wells, it may be higher due to the excess hole drag. The best way to explain how a
drill string is designed is by example. Example 10-6 is a drill string design for a 12,000 foot well
using the bottomhole assembly in Example 10-5. The drilling contractor has Grade E and G
pipe. The Grade E pipe is less expensive to replace and the drilling contractor wants to use as
much Grade E as possible while still maintaining an adequate drill string design.
Example 10-6
Given: The data in Example 10-5
Well depth is 12,000 feet
Drill pipe:
5”, 19.50#/ft, Grade E, Premium Class and
5”, 19.50#/ft, Grade G, Premium Class
Design factor is 1.10
Over pull is 100,000 pounds

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Determine: The drill string design to meet the above requirements.
Solution: First the tensile strength of both grades of pipe must be determined for
Premium Class. From the API tables, the tensile strength of the premium
grade E and G are 311,535 and 436,150 pounds, respectively but it can
also be calculated. The inside diameter of 19.50#/ft drill pipe is 4.276
inches. The worn outside diameter for Premium Class can be calculated
from Equation 10-42.
(
D pw = D p − Di × t h + Di )
D pw = (5 − 4.276 ) × 0.80 + 4.276 = 4.8552 inches
The cross section area of the steel is:
As =
π
4
(D pw
2
− Di
2
) Equation 10-28
As =
π
4
(4.8552 2
)
− 4.276 2 = 4.1538 in 2
For grade E drill pipe with a 75,000 psi minimum yield, the tensile
strength is:
Tst = Y p × As Equation 10-29
Tst = 75,000 × 4.1538 = 311,535 pounds
For grade G drill pipe with a 105,000 psi minimum yield, the tensile
strength is:
Tst = 105,000 × 4.1538 = 436,150 pounds
The collar weight at the bottom of the grade E pipe will be 54,979 lbs.
The maximum pull on the grade E with the 1.10 design factor would be:
Tst
Pmax = Equation 10-30
DF
311,535
Pmax = = 283,214 pounds
1.10
The maximum weight of grade E that can be used with 100,000 pounds
over pull is:
Wmax = Pmax − Wtc − over pull

Drilling Practices
Wmax = 283,214 − 54,979 − 100,000 = 128,235 pounds
The maximum length of grade E drill pipe that can be used is:
W max
Lmax = Equation 10-31
Wf
128,235
Lmax = = 6,576 feet
19.50
The maximum pull on the grade G with the 1.10 design factor would be:
436,150
Pmax = = 396,500 pounds
1.10
The maximum weight of grade G that can be used with 100,000 pounds
over pull is:
Wmax = Pmax − Wtc − over pull - Wt of grade E
W max = 396 ,500 − 54 ,979 − 100 ,000 − 128 ,235 = 113 ,286 pounds
The maximum length of grade G drill pipe that can be used is:
113,286
Lmax = = 5,810 feet
19.50
Since the length of grade G is greater than that necessary to reach the
surface, grade G is acceptable at the surface. The drill string would
consist of the following:
720 feet of drill collars
6,576 feet of 5”, 19.50#/ft, grade E drill pipe and
4,704 feet of 5”, 19.50#/ft, grade G drill pipe

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Pipe Weight Code
Pipe Grade Code
Standard Weight Heavy Weight

Grade E Drill Pipe Grade E Drill Pipe
Pipe Weight Code Pipe Weight Code
Pipe Grade Code Pipe Grade Code
Standard Weight Heavy Weight

High Strength Drill Pipe High Strength Drill Pipe
Figure 10-16. Old API Marking System for Drill String Identification
Table 10-16. Drill Pipe Grade Codes
Grade Grade Code

E-75 E
X-95 X
G-105 G
S-135 S
In the above example, the maximum that can be pulled on the drill string in the event it becomes
stuck is 100,000 pounds over the string weight once the entire grade E has been run. The
weak point will be at the top of the grade E drill pipe. If the drill string is changed while fishing,
the new maximum pull must be calculated.
Deeper wells may require different weights and grades of drill pipe. Keeping track of the
different weights and grades on location is difficult but necessary. Placing a joint of grade E

Drilling Practices
pipe in the top of the drill string could lead to the pipe parting and a major fishing job if not loss
of the hole.
Table 10-17. Drill Pipe Weight Codes
Size OD Nominal Wt. Wall Thickness Weight

Inches lbs/ft Inches Code Number
4.85 0.190 1
2⅜ 1
6.65 0.280 2
6.85 0.217 1
2⅞ 1
10.40 0.362 2
9.50 0.254 1
1
3½ 13.30 0.368 2
15.50 0.449 3
11.85 0.262 1
1
4 14.00 0.330 2
15.70 0.380 3
13.75 0.271 1
1
16.60 0.337 2
20.00 0.430 3
4½
22.82 0.500 4
24.66 0.550 5
25.50 0.575 6
16.25 0.296 1
1
5 19.50 0.362 2
25.60 0.500 3
19.20 0.304 1
1
5½ 21.90 0.361 2
24.70 0.415 3
1
25.20 0.330 2
6⅝
27.70 0.362 3
1
Designates standard weight for drill pipe size

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Standard Weight Grade E-75 Drill Pipe Standard Weight Grade X-95 Drill Pipe
Standard Weight Grade G-105 Drill Pipe Standard Weight Grade S-135 Drill Pipe
Pipe Weight Code
Pipe Grade Code
Heavy Weight Grade E-75 Drill Pipe Heavy Weight Grade X-95 Drill Pipe
Heavy Weight Grade G-105 Drill Pipe Heavy Weight Grade S-135 Drill Pipe
Figure 10-17. API Recommended Practice for Mill Slot and Groove Method of Drill String Identification
Many operators will use only one weight and grade of drill pipe, which leads to a little less
confusion on location. Land operations are more likely to use more than one weight or grade of
drill pipe because it is easy to move the pipe around on location. Offshore locations are much

Drilling Practices
less likely to use more than one weight or grade of drill pipe because it is more difficult to move
the pipe around.
The pipe weight and grade can be identified by the pin end, tool joint. As shown in Figure
10-16, standard weight, grade E drill pipe has no markings on the tool joint. A heavier weight
pipe will have a milled slot for grade E. For high strength drill pipe (Grades X-95, G-105 and S-
135), the tool joint will have a groove and milled slot. The milled slot will be above the groove
for standard weight and below the groove for heavy weight pipe. The grade and weight codes
can be found respectively in Table 10-17 and Table 10-18.
A newer method of marking tool joints can be found in the API RP7G. They are given here in
Figure 10-17.
Directional Wells
As stated earlier, the drill string design for a directional well is different than a vertical well.
First, the BHA weight available for the bit is reduce by the hole inclination. The weight
component along the wellbore is a function of the cosine of the inclination. As the inclination
increases, the weight available for the bit decreases and the weight supported by the hole wall
(Normal Force) increases as illustrated in Figure 10-18. Additionally, many of the drill collars
are removed and replaced by hevi-wate drill pipe. Hevi-wate drill pipe is more flexible in the
doglegs and reduces string weight. Reducing the string weight helps to lower the overall torque
and drag.
INCLINATION, I
WEIGHT AVAILABLE
FOR BIT WEIGHT
W x cos I
WEIGHT, W
NORMAL FORCE
W x sin I
Figure 10-18. Force Distribution from a BHA Component in a Directioanl Well
As the inclination increases in a directional well, drill pipe may be used for some of the bit
weight. So long as the drill pipe does not buckle, drill pipe can be used for bit weight. If the
compressive load is less than the critical buckling load, the drill pipe will not be buckled. The
critical buckling load is a function of the inclination, hole clearance and the stiffness of the drill

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
pipe. Critical buckling loads can be found in the PetroSkills directional manual or in the DS-1
Standard.
COMBINED TORQUE AND TENSION

When torque is added to the drill pipe, the tensile strength is diminished. Torque is an
additional stress induced in the pipe; therefore, the axial stress cannot be as high. In the past,
this was only a problem during fishing operations where combined torque and tension could be
used. During normal drilling operations, torque is applied to the drill pipe while rotating. At that
point in time, the tension in the drill string was not near its limit. When the drill string becomes
stuck, it is possible to place torque in the pipe and pull to its limit.
With the increased usage of a top drive, it has become routine to pull out of the hole while back
reaming (simultaneous torque and tension) especially in directional wells. Now the operator
must be careful not to exceed the limits of the pipe. The operator must be aware of the fact that
the maximum tensile strength is reduced and is a function of the torque. Equation 10-49 can be
used to determine the maximum allowable torque based on the tension in the drill pipe. Note
that the torsional yield strength is based on a shear strength of 57.7% of the minimum yield
strength.
0.5
⎛ 0.096167 J ⎞ ⎡ 2 T 2 ⎤
QT = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢Y p − ⎥ Equation 10-32
⎜ D ⎟⎢ 2
As ⎥⎦
⎝ pw ⎠⎣
The maximum torque and tension combinations for any pipe size can be calculated and
presented on a graph for easy reference on the rig floor. Figure 10-19 through Figure 10-24 are
graphs for some of the more common pipe sizes. The values for pipe sizes not shown in the
graphs can be calculated using Equation 10-49 as shown in Example 10-7.
Example 10-7
Given: Drill pipe:
5”, 19.50#/ft, Grade E, Premium Class
Tension = 250,000 pounds
Determine: The maximum torque that can be applied to the drill pipe at 100% of the
yield strength.
Solution: The inside diameter of 19.50#/ft drill pipe is 4.276 inches. The worn
outside diameter for Premium Class can be calculated from Equation 10-
42.
( )
D pw = D p − Di × t h + Di
D pw = (5 − 4.276 ) × 0.80 + 4.276

Drilling Practices
D pw = 4.8552 inches
Calculate the polar moment of inertia from Equation 10-50
J=
π
32
(D pw
4
− Di
4
)
J=
π
32
(4.8552 4
− 4.276 4 )
J = 21.733 in 4
Calculate the cross sectional area of the steel using Equation 10-45
As =
π
4
(D pw
2
− Di 2 )
As =
π
4
(4.8552 2
− 4.276 2 )
As = 4.1538 in 2
Calculate the maximum torque value using Equation 10-49
0.5
⎛ 0.096167J ⎞ ⎡ 2 T 2 ⎤
QT = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢Yp − ⎥
⎜ D ⎟⎢ A
2
⎥⎦
⎝ pw ⎠⎣ s
0.5
⎡ (0.096167 )(21.733 ) ⎤ ⎡ 2 250,000 2 ⎤
QT = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢75,000 − ⎥
⎣ 4.8552 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 4.1538 2 ⎥⎦
QT = 19,264 ft - lbs

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
30,000
25,000
20,000
Torque, ft-lbs
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000
Tension, pounds
Grade E Grade X Grade G Grade S
Figure 10-19. Combined Torque and Tension for 3½", 13.30#/ft Premium Class Drill Pipe
35,000
30,000
25,000
Torque, ft-lbs
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000
Tension, pounds

Drilling Practices
50,000
40,000
Torque, ft-lbs
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000
Tension, pounds
60,000
50,000
40,000
Torque, ft-lbs
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000
Tension, pounds

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
60,000
50,000
40,000
Torque, ft-lbs
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000
Tension, pounds
Figure 10-23. Combined Torque and Tension for 5", 19.50#/ft Premium Class Drill Pipe
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
Torque, ft-lbs
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000
Tension, pounds
Figure 10-24. Combined Torque and Tension for 5", 25.60#/ft Premium Class Drill Pipe

Drilling Practices
DRILL STRING INSPECTION

A very important part of drill string handling is its inspection. The main purpose of inspection is
to accept good drill strings and reject the bad ones. Another aspect of inspection is to reduce
errors by neither accepting bad strings nor rejecting the good ones.
There are two industry standards on drill strings: API RP 7G and Standard DS-1. The API
standard provides attributes of acceptable used drill string components; it however does not
describe methods to evaluate these characteristics.12 The DS-1 standard provides inspection
procedures by which the characteristics of a used drill string component are to be evaluated. 14
Both of these standards cover all components of a drill string: drill pipe, hevi-wate drill pipe, drill
collars, rotary shouldered connection, drilling jars, kellys, subs, stabilizers, etc. The
classifications of used drill pipe and tool joints are given in Table 10-18.
Table 10-18. API RP 7G and DS-1 Classification System for Used Drill Pipe and Tool Joints 12, 14
Premium Class
Condition Premium Class Class 2
Reduced TSR
Minimum Remaining
> 80% > 80% > 70%I
wall thickness
Slip cuts and < 10% of avg. < 10% of avg. < 20% of avg.
gougesII (Depth) adjacent wallIII adjacent wallIII adjacent wallIII
Drill Pipe
Diameter Reduction < 3% of OD < 4% of OD
Diameter Increase < 3% of OD < 4% of OD
Cracks None None None
> 80% of a 60-80% of
> 80% of a
Torsional Strength Premium class Premium class
Class 2 pipe
Tool pipe pipe
Joints
Pin Stretch < 0.006” in 2” < 0.006” in 2”
Cracks None None None
I. Minimum remaining wall thickness must be > 80% under transverse cut and gouges.
II. Cuts and gouges may be removed by grinding provided the remaining wall is not reduced below the
minimum wall shown in the table.
III. Average adjacent wall is determined by averaging the wall thickness on each side of the imperfection
adjacent to the deepest penetration.
The wall thickness and diameter changes might come from one of following causes: wear,
erosion, corrosion, dents and mashes, crushing, necking, pitting cracks, cuts and gouges:
longitudinal and transverse, stress-induced stretching and string shots
According to the DS-1 standard, a drill string inspection is a three-step process. The steps
include:
1. Selection of a service category based on the severity of the drilling conditions, and the
risks resulting from a possible failure. The category selection will also be guided by a
company’s policies.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
2. Selection of an inspection program based on the drill string component being inspected
and the inspection method used.
3. Selection of an acceptance criterion to evaluate the inspection against measurable

parameters of a drill string.
Service Category
There are five categories established in the DS-1 standard.14 These are:
• Service Category 1: Very shallow, very routine wells in well-developed areas.

When drill stem failures occur, failure costs are so minimal that
the cost of extensive inspection would not have been justified.
• Service Category 2: Routine drilling conditions where the established practice is to

perform minimal inspection and failure experience is low.
• Service Category 3: Mid-range drilling conditions where a standard inspection

program is justified. If a failure occurs, the risk of significant
fishing cost or losing part of the hole is minimal.
• Service Category 4: Drilling conditions more difficult than Category 3. Significant

fishing cost or losing part of the hole is likely in the event of a
drill stem failure.
• Service Category 5: Severe drilling conditions. Several factors combine to make

the cost of a possible failure very high.
The service category is selected by the operator depending upon their risk analysis. Every
operator may assign categories differently. For instance, shallow wells may be category “1 or 2”
on land but may be category “4” offshore because of the more expensive operating
environment. Directional wells will have a higher service category than vertical wells. Very
deep, very high pressure and sour wells are beyond the scope of the DS-1 Standard.
The above categorization shows that more severe conditions would demand more inspections
and tighter acceptance criteria. Therefore, it will be more expensive to inspect a drill string to
Category 5 than to Category 3. It makes sense to prudently select the category and carefully
evaluate the cost to inspect and the potential cost of a failure.
Inspection Program
Once the category of a drill string component is selected, the next step is to choose an
inspection method. The inspection method is selected using Table 10-19 for drill pipe and tool
joints. The BHA components should be inspected before they are picked up. The BHA
inspection includes a visual inspection of the threads and blacklight connection inspection. BHA
components are much more prone to fatigue failures in the connection.
After the components have been picked up, additional inspections should be carried out at
regular intervals as shown in Table 10-20. The various inspection methods and their

Drilling Practices
procedures are summarized in Table 10-21. A more detailed description of the methods can be
found in DS-1 Standard.14
Table 10-19. Recommended Inspection Programs for Drill Pipe after Table 3.2 of DS-1 Standard 14
SERVICE CATEGORY
Component 1 2 3 4 5*
Visual Visual Visual connection Visual connection Visual connection
connection connection Dimensional 1 Dimensional 2 Dimensional 2
Tool joint
Dimensional 1 Blacklight
connection
Visual tube Visual tube Visual tube Visual tube Visual tube
OD gage OD gage OD gage OD gage
Drill pipe tube UT wall UT wall thickness UT wall thickness Electromagnetic 2
thickness Electromagnetic 1 Electromagnetic 1 MPI slip/upset
MPI slip/upset UT slip/upset
Acceptance Class 2 Class 2 Premium class Premium class Premium class
criteria
*
Notes on category 5 inspection: 1) Electromagnetic 1 plus UT wall thickness may be substituted for EMI 2 if EMI2
equipment is not available. 2) Blacklight connection inspection for fatigue cracks in drill pipe tool joints is relatively
expensive when performed on large lots of drill pipe, and fatigue failures in drill pipe tool joints are rare. Users may
consider omitting blacklight connection inspection of drill pipe tool joints from Category 5 inspection program unless
tool joint fatigue cracks have occurred. Other Category 5 inspections are recommended. Blacklight connection
inspection is still required on BHA components for Category 2 and higher.
Table 10-20. Recommended Inspection Periods after DS-1 Standard 14
SERVICE CATEGORY
Component 1 2-3 4-5

Drill Pipe When picked up When picked up Before each well
When picked up and When picked up and When picked up and
HWDP, drill collars,
after 250-400 rotating after 150-300 rotating after 150-250
subs and stabilizers
hours hours rotating hours
Safety valves and
Before each well Before each well Before each well
IBOP’s
Motors, MWD, LWD,
(Per manufacturer’s recommendation)
Jars, and other tools
Table 10-21. Summary of Inspection Methods 14
Acceptance Criteria
The used drill string components are accepted based on the service category. It is applied by
selecting a service category, picking the drill string component class described in Table 10-18,
and selecting the acceptable range. BHA components are accepted based upon the bending
strength ratio.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Inspection Method What is done? What is evaluated?

Fluorescent wet magnetic
Blacklight Connection Fatigue cracks
particle inspection
Torsional capacity of pin and
Measurement or go-no-go box, torsional matching of tool
gauging of box OD, pin ID, joint and tube, adequate shoulder
Dimensional 1
shoulder width, tong space, box to support makeup stress,
counter-bore adequate gripping space for
tongs
Dimensional 1 requirements plus Same as dimensional 1 plus
measurement or go-no-go evidence of torsional damage,
gauging of pin lead, counter-bore potential box thread engagement
Dimensional 2
depth, pin flat length, bevel with pin flat, excessive shoulder
diameter, seal width, and width, sufficient seal area to
shoulder flatness avoid galling, non-flat shoulders
Full length scanning (excluding Longitudinal flaws such as
Electromagnetic 1 upsets) using longitudinal field fatigue cracks, corrosion pits,
(transverse flaw) buggy type unit cuts, gouges, and other damages
Full length scanning (excluding
upsets) using a unit with both Longitudinal flaws such as
Electromagnetic 2 longitudinal magnetic field EMI fatigue cracks, corrosion pits,
(transverse flaw) and gamma ray cuts, gouges, and other damages
wall thickness capabilities
Examination of external surface
Flaws such as fatigue cracks,
of drill pipe and HWDP upsets
MPI Slip/Upset corrosion pits, cuts, gouges, and
and slip areas using magnetic
other damages
particle technique
Diameter variations caused by
Full length mechanical gauging excessive wear or mechanical
OD Gauge Tube of the outside diameter of used damage, expansions caused by
drill pipe tubes string shot, and reductions
caused by overpull
Examination of drill pipe and
Flaws such as fatigue cracks,
HWDP upsets and slip areas
UT Slip/Upset corrosion pits, cuts, gouges, and
using shear wave ultrasonic
other damages
equipment
Measure thickness around one
Wall thickness below the
UT Wall Thickness pipe circumference using
specified acceptance limit
ultrasonic meter
Handling damage, indications of
Visual examination of
torsional damage, galling,
connections, shoulders, and
Visual Connection washouts, fins, visibly non-flat
profile check of threads,
shoulders, corrosion,
measurement of box swell
weight/grade markings
Full length visual inspection of Straightness, mechanical or
Visual Tube inside and outside surfaces of corrosion damage, debris such
used tubes as scale or mud

Drilling Practices
DRILL STRING HANDLING WHILE DRILLING
Downhole Wear
Drilling involves rotating and applying tension on the drill string. Adverse drilling conditions can
cause more than 80% of the drill pipe damage.9 The damage can come from drilling in
compression, at critical speeds and in highly deviated holes.
The damage from drilling in compression includes bent pipe and wear on one side of the pipe.
This damage can be corrected by utilizing proper bottom hole assembly (BHA) design. Using
hevi-wate drill pipe as a transition between the drill collars and drill pipe can reduce drill pipe
wear.
The drill string has critical rotating speeds which can produce vibrations. These vibrations can
cause crooked drill pipe, excessive wear in outer diameter, damage and deterioration, and
ultimately, fatigue failures. The critical speed is a function of length, weight and size of drill pipe
and collar, alignment between the axis of rotation and gravitational force, and hole size. API 7G
reports that excessive power is required to maintain constant speed near critical speed
conditions.12
Table 10-22. Diagnosis and Potential Cures for Downhole Vibrations.15
Vibration Real Time Typical

Potential Cure Other Solutions
Mode Diagnosis Environment
Large surface
High angle wells, Higher rotary
torque variation (3- Reduce WOB
or aggressive gear. Torque
Stick-Slip 10 sec period). and increase
PDC with large feedback. Lower
Large downhole RPM
WOB friction mud.
shocks.
Large downhole Vertical wells.
Reduce RPM Use a mud
BHA shocks. Surface Washed-out
and increase motor. Stiffer
whirl torque increases. hole. BHA
WOB. BHA
Surface vibrations unstabilized.
Aggressive side
Reduce RPM Change bit. Full
Downhole shocks. cutting bit.
Bit whirl and increase gauge NB
Overgauge hole Harder rocks.
WOB. stabilizer.
Vertical well.
Top drive or kelly
Bit Vertical wells. Change WOB Change bit. Use
shaking. Downhole
bouncing Hard rock. and RPM. shock sub.
shocks
There is no general method to predict critical rotary speeds. Also, it is not always possible to
identify on surface the damaging vibrations occurring downhole, particularly in deep wells or
directional wells. One way to identify vibrations is through downhole measurements. There are
four types of drill string vibrations: stick-slip, BHA whirl, bit whirl, and bit bouncing. Burgess and
Martin consider the stick-slip and BHA whirl to be the biggest vibration problems. 15 They
provide diagnosis and remedial measures without the need for a trip to change the BHA. These
measures are given in Table 10-22.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
The drill pipe contacts more of the formation and hence wears more on the outside diameter in
deviated wells than in vertical wells. The rate of deviation, or dogleg severity has more impact
on drill pipe wear than the total amount of deviation. It causes high bending stresses and can
cause fatigue damage on drill pipe. It is not possible to eliminate hole deviation, but its impact
on the drill string can be reduced. The remedy includes maintaining low dogleg severity,
replacing drill collars with hevi-wate drill pipe, applying proper torque on all connections, and
minimizing backreaming and string rotation off bottom.
Tool joints rotated under high lateral force against the bore hole wall may generate large heat.
This friction heat may raise the tool joint temperature beyond its critical limits. If radial thrust
load is too high, surface heat checking can occur in the presence of drilling mud alternately
being heated and quenched as it rotates. The heat checking of tool joints can be minimized or
eliminated by maintaining hole control and not exceeding the lateral force beyond 2000 lb.12
Proper Troubleshooting
As it is important to prevent downhole wear, it is equally important to properly troubleshoot when
the wear has occurred. If a pipe is bent, it makes sense to note the location, severity and
condition of the bend, and the drilling parameters. These can help to determine change in BHA
design, use of higher grade pipe, and addition of more hevi-wate above BHA or change in
drilling parameters.
The symptoms of excessive wear include shiny tool joints, eccentric wear on one side of the
joint, shiny tubes in middle third section, and loss of bevel on tool joint shoulders. As mentioned
earlier, the pipe friction with the formation can be reduced by decreasing the lateral force
between the pipe and formation while backreaming or rotating off bottom, using drill pipe
rubbers or using mud motors, changing mud properties to increase lubrication, or hardbanding
tool joints.
The split or belled boxes have various causes: a reduction in outer diameter below minimum
dimensions, high-torque drilling exceeding recommended make-up torque, heat checking, or
hydrogen embrittlement. The remedial measures include spotting mineral oil, modifying BHA
design, and changing drilling parameters.
Washouts can occur at a connection shoulder, in the slip area, or at the internal upsets near the
box or pin end. The damage at the shoulder is indicated by dry or muddy connections in the
setback. This damage can be reduced with better pipe handling, proper refacing, use of thread
protectors, proper make-up torque, and proper matching of bevel diameters. The damage at
the slip area occurs from fatigue cracks that form within a slip die mark on the outer diameter.
The crack grows inward until mud pressure washes them out. This damage can be prevented
by properly maintaining slips, bowls and bushings. The damage at the internal upset area
indicates corrosion and fatigue failure. It suggests a need for rigorous monitoring of the drill
string to prevent catastrophic failures. The best remedy is to remove the worst joints from the
string.
Repetitive fatigue failures at the same depth might indicate that dogleg severity is a problem.
This problem might not show up with a wide survey spacing. A MWD survey data, performed at
100-ft interval, showed a dogleg severity of 1o/100 ft; however a gyro survey performed at short
5-ft spacing showed the severity to be 20o/100 ft in the problem interval. 16 One of the remedial
measure for this problem was to decrease rotary speed through the high dogleg interval, which
reduced the number of stress cycles and hence increased the pipe fatigue life.16

Drilling Practices
Drill String Handling on Rig Floor

In addition to the correct design and inspection of the drill string, the proper handling of drill pipe
on a rig floor is equally important. The following handling procedures should be used while
handling drill pipe on a rig floor.9
1. Do not set slips too hard on the drill pipe. Slips can create indentations which can
initiate cracks in the drill pipe.
2. Prevent drill pipe damage from overused and worn slips, elevators, dies, and bushings.
3. Properly stab drill pipes. If a stab is missed, pick up the pipe to stab again, instead of
kicking the pin into the box. If the pin gets hung up on the shoulder, it can damage
threads or score the shoulder face.
4. Use two tongs to break out connections. Using only one tong might bend pipe in the
slips under extreme high breakout situations, resulting in bent pipe, or fatigue failure.
5. Properly maintain the tongs.
6. Keep the tool joint on a length of drill pipe as close to the rotary slips as possible during
make-up and break out operations to avoid bending pipes. API RP 7G provides a
formula to calculate the maximum height to position the tool joint above the rotary slips.12
7. Ensure proper thread lubrication through consistent redoping and use of approved
thread lubricants. A dope stand averts contamination and makes it easier to apply
thread compounds. Utilize correct procedure while using zinc- and lead-based thread
lubricant compounds to attain the correct amount of connection preload. High
temperature service will require special thread compounds.
8. Clean threads carefully as it can prevent improper makeup torque, thread/shoulder

damage, and washouts. Mud left in drill pipe can corrode the string.
9. Use thread protectors on the drill pipe not in use. It can help to reduce the frequency
and cost of tool joint recutting and loss of tool joint length.
10. Monitor torque gauge for proper torque application.
11. Use mallets with soft lead or brass heads to tap on the pipe. Steel hammers can create
dents, which can lead to cracks.
12. Plan stand rotation during tripping to prevent the same part of the string from stressing.
The rotation will spread fatigue in the string over time.
13. Rotate breaks in stands while tripping to prevent overtorquing the unbroken tool joint
connections. It also provides opportunity to inspect more connections during tripping
and allows proper doping of connections
14. Mark every tool joint serially. It will help to keep track of downhole wear or loss and to
cull joints from a string. It will prevent mixing of pipes during handling or inspections.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
DRILL STRING FAILURE

Even though all inspection procedures are properly followed and the drill string is designed
correctly, there will be scenarios where the drill string fails. This uncertainty stems from the
impossibility of determining the cumulative fatigue damage and correct fatigue life of a drill
string.12, 17 A string is subjected to several individual failure mechanisms—wear, fatigue,
corrosion, tension and torsion stresses—and summation of these individuals. All these items
contribute a number of unknown factors that a string faces during drilling. Hence, no amount of
inspection can eliminate the possibility of a string to fail.
The simpler failure mechanisms can be reduced, if not eliminated, by properly managing load
capacity of drill string components and by performing a good inspection. The drill string design
emphasis on correctly determining tension and torsion stresses; as a result, there are few
failures from these stress mechanisms.10
Similarly, inspections can help reject bad pipes and joints such as mashed flat, washouts, and
cracked with great certainty. Also, the inspections can assist in selecting with confidence those
components which are within the acceptable criteria. However, there are some scenarios where
it is difficult to demonstrate with complete assurance that the component is good or bad. These
scenarios might include flaws such as cuts and pits which are not deep, some inspection
measurements which are masked by background noise, or some inaccessible flaws on pipe. In
short, the risks associated with accepting or rejecting these scenarios are questionable and
hence, might be dictated by the economics of drill string cost and inspection charges. 18
If nothing goes wrong, there are no problems in the design and inspection programs. But if
there is a failure, the question arises “what should we do now?”
If there is a failure, the immediate need is to preserve the failed components, determine the
cause of the failure, and take actions to prevent repeating the failure.
The first step is to preserve the specimen. It is equally true for pre-failure or post-failure
inspection that the specimen should be truly representative of the entire population of the drill
string component. It is best to preserve and inspect all of the pipe in the lot. The specimen
should be handled carefully and should not be damaged further.
The DS-1 Standard provides a systematic approach to determine the cause of the failure and
the actions to take in order to prevent the repetition of the fatigue failure. This approach is
shown in Figure 10-25.

Drilling Practices
Fatigue
Failure Preserve the Inspect
Specimens
Avoid crossover
Drill pipe Is BHA stabilizers.
or BHA BHA connection Yes
Consider longer necks.
connection on a
stabilizer? Reduce BHA sag in
high angle holes.
Drill Pipe Yes or No
Check Yes Near Yes Near

Stiffness transition transition
Ratios
Yes or No Yes or No
Monitor and Box Pin or Box

inhibit mud Box?
corrosion
Pin
Consider hole Near Consider

straightening
Yes Consider Consider
severe makeup torque. decreasing increasing
trip dogleg? Calibrate BSR BSR
torque gauge
No
Reduce WOB Check Make sure pin Make sure

To avoid Yes Was pipe
buckled?
thread dope stress relief boreback box
buckling while friction factor groove present is present
rotating
No
Lay down slip cut pipe. Friction factor Consider cold rolling threads.
Evaluate internal upsets or consider 0.95-1.05 or Shorten inspection interval.
replacing pipe with sharp upsets. Correct makeup Consider packed hole assembly.
Shorten inspection interval. torque Monitor vibrations.
All fatigue failures: If Charpy impact resistance < 40 ft-lb, replace all components.
Figure 10-25. Systematic Response to Fatigue Failure 14
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the adjusted collapse resistance of 9-5/8”, 53.5#/ft, P110 (244.5 mm, 79.6
kg/m, P110) casing with 300,000 lbs (136,078 kg) tension hanging below it.

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
2. Design the intermediate casing in Example 10-3 with 7 5/8” casing (193.7 mm). The
collapse and burst pressure lines will remain the same. Calculate the total cost. You only have
the following casing available to choose from.
7 5/8”, 29.7#/ft, N80, LTC $20.04/ft

7 5/8”, 29.7#/ft, P110, LTC $23.28/ft
7 5/8”, 33.7#/ft, N80, LTC $22.74/ft
7 5/8”, 33.7#/ft, P110, LTC $26.42/ft
7 5/8”, 39.0#/ft, N80, LTC $26.32/ft
7 5/8”, 39.0#/ft, P110, LTC $30.58/ft
3. Design the drill string for a well with the following requirements and drill string.
Drill a 12 ¼” (311.2 mm) hole to 10,000 feet (3048 m)

The maximum bit weight will be 65,000 lbs (29,100 daN)
The drill collars are 8” OD (203.2 mm) by 2 13/16” ID (71.4 mm)
4 ½” (114.3 mm), 16.60#/ft (24.7 kg/m), Grade E, Premium (3.826” ID, 97.2 mm ID)
4 ½” (114.3 mm), 16.60#/ft (24.7 kg/m), Grade S-135, Premium (3.826” ID, 97.2 mm ID)
Use a 1.10 design factor for collars
Design factor of 1.10 with overpull of 75,000 lbs (33,600 daN) on the drill pipe
Mud weight is 9.5 ppg (1140 kg/m3)
NOMENCLATURE
As = Cross sectional area of steel, square inches

(D/t)pt = D/t intersection between plastic collapse and transition collapse
(D/t)te = D/t intersection between transition collapse and elastic collapse
(D/t)yp = D/t intersection between yield strength collapse & plastic collapse
B = buoyancy factor
D/t = Diameter to wall thickness ratio, OD/t
DF = Design factor (decimal)
DFb = Design factor for burst
DFc = Design factor for collapse
DFT = Design factor for tension
Di = Inside diameter, inches
DLS = dogleg severity, degrees per 1000 feet
Dp = Outside diameter, inches
Dpw = Worn outside diameter, inches
Fg = Frac gradient, psi/ft
Gg = Gas gradient, psi/ft

Drilling Practices
J = Polar moment of inertia, in4

J = π
32
(D pw
4
− Di
4
) Equation 10-33
L = Length, ft
Lc = Length of bottomhole assembly component, feet
MW = mud weight in pounds per gallon
Pavg = Average pressure in well, psi
Pb = Burst pressure, psi
Pbody = Pipe body burst pressure, psi
Pbx = Burst pressure at true vertical depth x, psi
Pc = Adjusted collapse pressure, psi
Pc1 = Adjusted collapse pressure at σ a1 , psi
Pc2 = Adjusted collapse pressure at σ a 2 , psi
Pcx = Collapse pressure at true vertical depth x, psi

Pe = Minimum elastic collapse pressure, psi
Peq = Equivalent collapse pressure, psi
Pi = Internal pressure, psi
Pinside = Pressure on the inside of the pipe, psi
Po = External pressure, psi
Pout = Pressure on the outside of the pipe, psi
Pp = Minimum plastic collapse pressure, psi
Ps = Surface pressure, psi
Pt = Minimum transition collapse pressure, psi
Px = Pressure at true vertical depth x, psi
Py = Minimum yield strength collapse pressure, psi
QT = Maximum torque under tension, ft-lb
T = Pipe tension, pounds
Tavg = Average temperature, ºR
th = Wall thickness remaining, 0.80 for Premium Class, 0.70 for Class 2
Tst = Pipe body tensile strength, pounds
tw = Wall thickness, inches (D p − Di )/ 2
Tx = Tension in pipe at true vertical depth x, pounds
VME = Hencky-von Misses equivalent stress, psi
W = Bit weight, pounds

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Wf = Pipe or collar weight per foot, pounds

x = True vertical depth, feet
Yp = Specified minimum yield strength for pipe, psi
Ypa = Axial stress equivalent grade, psi
zavg = Average compressibility factor
zb = Compressibility factor at the bottom
zs = Compressibility factor at the surface
σa = Axial stress, psi
σa1, σa2 = Axial stress at adjusted collapse pressure Pc1 , Pc 2 psi
σb = Bending stress, psi

σr = Radial stress, psi
σt = Tangential stress, psi
SI UNITS
The equation given in the chapter are converted below into SI Units.
P = (0.0098 )(MW )(Depth ) Equation 10-34
⎡ ⎛ MW ⎞⎤
Equation 10-39: B = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 10-35
⎣ ⎝ 7,850 ⎠⎦
Pb15,000 − Pb 0
Gg = Equation 10-36
Depth
Equation 10-40: σ b = ± (60 )(DLS )(OD ) Equation 10-37
SP
Equation 10-41: Gg = Equation 10-38
29.3zT
Equation 10-43: (
Wf = 0.00615 D p 2 − Di 2 ) Equation 10-39
W (DF )
Equation 10-44: Lc = Equation 10-40
Wf B

Drilling Practices
0.5
⎛ 1.1536 × 10 −6 J ⎞ ⎡ 2 (9,800T ) 2 ⎤
Equation 10-48: QT = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢Y p − ⎥ Equation 10-41
⎜ D ⎟⎢ 2
⎝ pw ⎠⎣ As ⎦⎥
NOMENCLATURE FOR SI UNITS
As = Cross sectional area of the steel, mm2
B = buoyancy factor
Depth = Depth, m
DF = Design factor (decimal)
DLS = Dogleg severity, degrees per 30 m

Di = Inside diameter, mm
Dp = Outside diameter of pipe, mm
D pw = Worn outside diameter, mm
Gg = Gas gradient, kPa/m
J = Polar moment of inertia, mm4
= π
32
(D pw
4
− Di
4
)
Lc = Length of bottomhole assembly component, meters
MW = mud weight in kg/m3
OD = Pipe outside diameter, mm
P = Pressure, kPa
Pb = Burst Pressure, kPa

QT = Maximum torque under tension, N-m
S = Specific gravity of gas, air = 1
T = Temperature, °K
T = In Equation 10-58, Tension, kg
W = Bit weight, kg
Wf = Weight per meter, kg/m

Drilling Practices
Chapter 10
Yp = Minimum yield strength, kPa
z = Gas compressibility factor
σb = Bending stress

Drilling Practices
APPENDIX

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References
1
"Bulletin on Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Drill pipe," API Bulletin 5C2,
American Petroleum Institute.
2
“Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe and Line Pipe
Properties,” API Bulletin 5C3, American Petroleum Institure
3
Lubinski, A.: "Maximum Permissible Doglegs in Rotary Boreholes," Trans., AIME (1961) 175.
4
Bradley, W.B. and Fontenot, J.E.: "The Prediction and Control of Casing Wear," JPT, Feb.,
1975, pp 233-42.
5
Altunbay, M.: "Method Determines Best Way to Control Downhole Corrosion," World Oil, Nov.,
1985, pp 63-66.
6
Kane, R.D. and Greer, J.B.: “Sulfide Stress Cracking of High Strength Steels in Laboratory and
Oilfield Environments,” Trans., AIME (1977) 1483.
7
"Recommended Practices for Care and Use of Casing and Tubing," API RP 5C1, American
Petroleum Institute.
8
Drill Stem Design and Inspection, Second Edition, March 1998, T H Hill and Associates.
9
Shepard, J.S.; “Drill Pipe Management Extends Drill String Life,” Oil and Gas Journal, 28
October 1991.
10
Hill, T.H., Seshadri, P.V., and Durham, K.S.; “A Unified Approach to Drillstem-Failure
Prevention,” SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992, 254-260.
11
Summers, M.A. and Crabtree, S.R.; “Drill String Management to Reduce Drilling Risks,” paper
IADC/SPE 39325 presented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, TX, 3-6 March
1998.
12
API Recommended Practice 7G; “Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and
Operating Limits,” 15th Edition, January 1, 1995, API, Washington, D.C.
13
Horbeek, J. et al.; “Successful Reduction of North Sea Drillstring Failures,” paper SPE 30348
presented at Offshore Europe, Aberdeen, 5-8 September 1995.
14
Standard DS-1: Drill Stem Design and Inspection, 2nd Edition, March 1998, T H Hill
Associates, Inc. Houston.
15
Burgess, T.M. and Martin, C.A.; “Wellsite Action on Drilling Mechanics Information Improves
Economics,” paper SPE/IADC 29431 presented at the 1995 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, 28 February-2 March 1995.
16
Clark, J., Reynolds, N., Ellis, S., and Stuart, J.; “Advances in Fatigue Design: Curvature Index
Theory and Case Study,” World Oil, 20 October 2003, 29-34.
17
Hill, T., Ellis, S., Lee, K., Reynolds, N., and Zheng, N.; “An Innovative Design Approach to
Reduce Drill String Fatigue,” paper IADC/SPE 87188 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, TX, 2-4 March 2004.
18
Hill, T.H.; “Author’s Reply to Discussion of a Unified Approach to Drillstem Failure Prevention,”
SPE Drilling & Completions, June 1993, 143-144.

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Chapter 10 Equipment and Casing Design

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Chapter 10 E QUIPMENT A ND

TYPES OF CASING STRINGS

STRUCTURAL CASING OR DRIVE PIPE

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-1

INTERMEDIATE OR PROTECTIVE CASING

10-2 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

CASING SPECIFICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES

5. Dimensions, weights and lengths

6. Threading and couplings

CASING MANUFACTURING PROCESS

CASING CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-3

J-55 0.030 0.030

N-80 0.030 0.030

C-75 2 0.43 1.50 0.030 0.030 0.45

C-90 1 0.35 1.00 0.75 1.20 0.99 0.020 0.010

C-90 2 0.50 1.90 NL NL 0.99 0.030 0.010

T-95 2 0.50 1.90 0.99 0.030 0.010

P-105 0.030 0.030

Q-125 1 0.35 1.00 0.75 1.20 0.99 0.020 0.010

Q-125 2 0.35 1.00 NL NL 0.99 0.020 0.020

Q-125 4 0.50 1.90 NL NL 0.99 0.030 0.020

CASING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

10-4 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

H-40 40,000 276 80,000 552 60,000 414

C-75 1,2,3 75,000 517 90,000 620 95,000 655

P-105 105,000 724 135,000 931 120,000 827

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-5

Table 10-3. Total Extension under Load of Gauge Length

Figure 10-2. Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for a Ductive Steel

10-6 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Table 10-4. Non-API Casing Grades

Yield strength, psi

DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS AND LENGTHS

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-7

Length: Casing comes in three lengths

Range 1 16 to 25 feet in length

Range 2 25 to 34 feet in length

Range 3 34 to 48 feet in length

CASING THREADS AND COUPLINGS

1. Short 8 round thread

2. Long 8 round thread

3. Buttress thread and

4. Extreme line thread

10-8 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 10-9

1. Multiple metal-to-metal seals for improved pressure resistance.

2. Flush connections for small annular clearances.

3. Threads for large diameter casings to minimize cross threading problems.

4. Threads with seal rings to improve pressure resistance.

10-10 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

6. Threads with corrosion barriers to minimize corrosion problems.

7. Threads with multiple shoulders to increase torsional strength.

ABC Spec 5CT 7 38 Q-1 S 0001 LCSG

ABC is the manufacturer.

Spec 5CT is required on all pipe made to API specs.

7 is the outside diameter of the casing.

38 is the weight per foot.

Q-1 is the grade and type.

S is the process of manufacture. (S) Seamless (E) Electric Welded.

0001 is the serial number of joint.

LCSG signifies API long, round thread.

Grade H-40 No color marking, or black at the manufacturer's option

Grade J-55 One bright green band