LESSON 14

The Notion of “Clinical Term”.The Structure of Clinical Terms

The basis of clinical terminology is the terminology of pathological
anatomy that is of the science which studies the material and structural basis
of any illness, its morphological essence. Clinical terminology includes the
names of pathological processes, clinical manifestations of a disease, ways of
examination and treatment, surgical interventions. In contrast with
anatomical and pharmaceutic terminologies which are based on the
vocabulary fund of the Latin language, clinical terminology is mainly formed
from the ancient Greek word-building elements.
Most clinical terms consist of several word-building elements: prefixes,
suffixes and roots. It is the Greek language which possesses a great flexibility
and constructive ability. It allows describing in one word a notion which is
translated into other languages only with several words, e. g.:
osteodystrophia – difficulty in the nourishment of bone resulting in defective
formation of bone.
Almost every Latin term of the normal anatomy has its Greek
equivalent (duplicate) in pathological anatomy. Greek designations of organs
and tissues occur as Combining forms (CF) and are usually not used as
independent words, but we single them out in the structure of a compound
term. Terms composed of two or more stems put together are called
compound. The name of an organ is included into the term as its first part;
the science, method, diagnostics, pathological changes of organs and tissues,
operative interventions and treatment are included in its second part,
e.g.:gastrenterologia (gaster, gastr-is – stomach; enter-on – intestine; logia -
science) – the branch of internal medicine which studies normal functioning
and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Greek roots in compound terms are
usually combined by the vowel -o- or without it if the second begins with a
vowel, e. g.:
 ot-o-rhin-o-laryng-o-logia – science of ear, nose and throat
diseases
 gastr-ectomia – removal of the stomach.
A lot of combining forms can be met both at the beginning and at the
end of the term, e. g. splenomegalia and megalosplenia both denote the
enlargement of the spleen.
When we translate the Latin term into English we transcribe this term
from one language into another with the only difference in the ending. The
most frequently used ending is the ending –ia in Latin which is changed into
–y in English, e. g.: stomatoscopia (Lat.) – stomatoscopy (Engl.).
 When we explain the meaning of a compound term we start with the
second part of the word asking the question “what?” and then pass to the
first part of the term asking the question “of what?”, e. g.: osteologia (osteo
– bone, logia - science) – osteology (“what?” – science; “of what?” – of
bones).
In clinical terms of Greek origin ending in –ia the last but one
syllableisusually stresses: cardiopathia, cardiographia, splenimegalia.
Although in generally used words the stress is on the third syllable from the
end: sympathia, photographia, symphonia. Exceptions are the terms with the
CF –logia, where the third from the end syllable is stressed, e. g.: biologia,
physiologia, stomatologia.
Greek equivalents of the Latin Nouns
Latin word Greek word and its stem Meaning
auditus, us m acusis, -acus-ia hearing
glandula, ae f aden, aden- gland
sensus, us m aesthesis, aesthes- sense
causa, ae f aetia, aeti- cause
vas, vasis n angion, angi- vessel
homo, inis m annthropos, anthrop- man
articulatio, onis f arthron, arthr- articulation
vita, ae f bios, bio- life
palpebra, ae f blepharon, blephar- palpebra
brevis, e brachys, brachy- short
tardus, a, um bradys, brady- tardy, late, dilatory
cancer, cri m carcinos, carcin- cancer
cor, cordis n cardia, cardio- heart
hernia, ae f cele, -cele- hernia
caput, itis n cephale, cephal- head
manus, us f cheir, chir- hand
viridis, e chloros, chlor- green
fel, fellis n chole, chol- bile
vesica, ae f cholecystis, cholecyst- gallbladder
biliaris
cartilago, inis f chondros, chondr- cartilage
color, oris m chroma,chrom-, colour
chromat-
tempus, oris n chronos, chron- time
succus, i m chylos, chyl- juice
vagina, ae f colpos, colp- vagina
gelu, us n cryos, cry- cold, ice
latens, ntis cryptos, crypt- latent, not manifested,
hidden
vesica, ae f cystis, cyst- bladder
cellula, ae f cytos, cyt- cell
lacrima, ae f dacryon, dacry- tear
digǐtus, i m dactylos, dactyl- finger, toe
popŭlus, i m demos, dem-, -demia people
cutis, is f derma, dermat- skin
ligamentum, i n desmos, desm- ligament
longus, a, um dolichos, dolich- long
species, ei f eidos, id- species, tea
fetus, us m embryon, embry- f(o)etus
cerĕbrum, i n encephalon, encephal- cerebrum
intestīnum, i n enteron, enter- intestine, bowel, gut
ruber, bra, brum erythros, erythr- red
lac, lactis n gala, galact- milk
senex, senis geron, ger- old
gerontos, geront-
gustus, us m geusis, geus- taste
lingua, ae f glossa, gloss- tongue
dulcis, is glykys, glyk-; glyc- sweet
maxilla, ae f gnathos, gnath- maxilla (upper jaw)
genu, us n gony, gon- knee
femina, ae f gyne, gynaec- woman
sanguis, inis m haema, haem-, haemat- blood
sol, solis n (m) helios, heli- sun
dies, ei f hemera, hemer- day
jecur, oris n hepar, hepat- liver
sudor, oris m hidor, hidr- sweat, perspiration
textus, us m histos, hist- texture
aequalis, e homoios, homoeo- like, resembling
homos, homo-
aqua, ae f hydor, hydr- water
somnus, i m hypnos, hypn- sleep
utĕrus, i m hystera, hyster-, metra, uterus, womb
metr-
medǐcus, i m iater, iatr- physician, doctor
par, paris isos, iso- pair
cornea, ae f keras, kerat- cornea
cornu, us n keras, kerat- horn
motus, us m kinesis, kines- movement
abdomen, inis n lapara, lapar- abdomen, belly
venter, tris m lapara, lapar- belly, venter, abdomen
pius, a, um leptos, lept- pia, tender, soft
albus, a, um leucos, leuc-, leuk- white
adeps, ipis m lipos, lip-; stear, steat- lard, fat
calcŭlus, i m lithus, -lith- calculus, concrement
magnus, a, um macros, macr- great, large
megas, meg-
megale, megal-
mollis, e malakos, malac- soft
mamma, ae f mastos, mast- mamma
mater, tris f meninx, mening- mother; meninges
medius, a, um mesos, mes- middle, medium
parvus, a, um micros, micr- small, little
oligos, olig-
medulla, ae f myelos, myel- medulla
muscŭlus, i m mys, my- muscle
mortuus, a, um necros, necr- dead
novus,a, um neos, neo- new
ren, renis m nephros, nephr- kidney
nervus, i m neuron, neur- nerve
morbus, i m nosos, nos-, pathos, disease, malady,illness
path-
dens, ntis m odus, odont- tooth
dolor, oris m odyne, -odynia, -algia pain, ache
unguis, inis m onyx, onych- nail; claw
ocŭlus, i m ophtalmos, ophtalm- eye
visus, us m opsis, -ops-ia vision
appetitus, us m orexis, -orex-ia appetite
rectus, a, um orthos, orth- straight
olfactus, us m osme, -osm-ia smell
os, ossis n osteon, oste- bone
omnis, e pas, pantos, pan-; pant- every, any
medicamentum,i pharmacon, pharmac- drug, medication,
n remedy
natura, ae f phisis, physi- nature
vena, ae f phlebs, phleb- vein
mens, ntis f phren, phren- diaphragm; mind as the
seat of the intellect
planta, ae f phyton, phyt- plant
pulmo, onis m pneumon, pneum- lung
griseus, a, um polios, polio- grey
rectum, i n proctos, proct- rectum
facies, ei f prosopon, prosop- face, surface
anǐmus, i m psyche, psych- soul
pelvis renalis f pyelos, pyel- pelvis of the kidney
pus, puris n pyon, py(o)- pus
nasus, i m rhis, rhin- nose
tuba, ae f uterina, salpinx, salping- uterine tube
ae f
saliva, ae f sialon, sial- saliva
ptyalon, ptyal-
corpus, oris n soma, somat- body
semen, inis n sperma, spermat- seed; seminal fluid,
sperm
pulsus, us m sphygmos, sphygm- pulse
viscus, eris n splanchnon, splanchn- inner organ, viscera
lien, lienis m splen, splen- spleen
vertebra, ae f spondylos, spondyl- vertebra
angustus, a, um stenos, sten- narrow
pectus, oris n stethos, steth- breast
os, oris n stoma, stomat- mouth; small opening
celer, is, e tachys, tachy- swift, rapid
tendo, inis m tenon, ten- tendon
mors, rtis f thanatos, thanat- death
calor, oris m therma, therm- heat
partus, us m tocos, toc- delivery
venenum, i n toxicon, toxic-, tox- poison; venom
cibus, i m trophe, troph- food
caecus, a, um typhlos, typhl- blind, cecum
urina, ae f uron, ur- urine
auris, is f us, otos, ot- ear
flavus, a, um xanthos, xanth- yellow
siccus, a, um xeros, xer- dry
animal, alis n zoon, zo- animal

Word Terminations
-acusia hearing
-aemia blood, condition of blood
-aesthesia perception, feeling or sensation
-algesia pain sense; excessive sensitivity to pain
-algesia pain sense; excessive sensetivity to pain
-algia painful condition
-chylia pertaining to gastric juice
-ectasia dilatation, expansion or distension of organ
-ectomia excision
-ergia activity; reactivity of the organism
-ergia, -urgia activity, reactivity of the organism
-genes, is=-genus, denotes production, formation or development of
a, um the object
-genesis the process of originating
-genesis the process of originating
-geusia taste
-gnosis perciving and recognizing
-gnosis perceiving and recognizing
-gramma that what is drawn, written or recorded
-graphia an instrument for writing and recording; the
record made by such an instrument
-iatria pertaining to the physician’s activity
-kinesia movement
-lithus calculus
-logia science
-logus a specialist in one field of science
-lysis dissolution, destruction
-lysis destruction
-malacia softening of a part or tissue
-mania excessive preoccupation with something
-megalia enlarged or of abnormally large size
-melia extremity, part of the body
-metria measuring
-mycosis any disease caused by a fungus
-necrosis the sum of morphological changes indicative of
cell death
-odynia pain, painful condition
-opsia a condition or a defect of vision
-orexia hunger
-osmia smell
-paedia correction of drawbacks, development of correct
skills
-pathia disease
-penia abnormal reduction
-pepsia pertaining to the digestion
-pexia fixation
-phagia swallowing, eating
-philia 1) an abnormal craving or attraction; 2) an
affinity
-phobia a persistent, irrational, intense fear of a specific
object, activity, or situation
-plegia paralysis, stroke
-pnoё respiration
-poёsis formation
-ptosis prolapse of an organ or part
-rrhagia abnormal or excessive flow of blood
-rrhaphia suture
-rrhexis rupture
-rrhoea flow
-sclerosis hardening; especially hardening of a part from
inflammation
-scopia the act of examining
-spasmus a sudden, violent, involuntary contraction of a
muscle or a group of muscles, attended by pain
and interference with function producing
involuntary movement and distortion.
-sphygmia pulse
-stasis stagnation of the blood or other fluids
-stenosis narrowing of the duct or canal
-sthenia strenth
-stomia the surgical creation of an artificial opening into
a hollow organ, or a new opening between two
such structures
-tensio (-tonia) the act of stretching; the condition of being
strained
-therapia therapy
-tomia the operation of cutting or incision
-trophia food or nutrition
EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Form clinical terms:
a)using the following stems:
cyst- (-plegia, -scopia, -algia);
hist- (-scopia, -logia, -therapia);
gloss- (-algia, -tomia, -plegia);
aden- (-ectomia, -scopia, -pathia, -fibroma);
colp- (-rrhaphia, -scopia, -tomia, -ptosis, -ectasia);
hyster- (-ectomia, -graphia, -pexia, -tomia, -rrhaphia);
my- (-algia, -logia, -asthenia, -tonia, -tomia);
encephal- (-malacia, -pathia, -lithus);
path- (-logia, -phobia);
nephr- (-ptosis, -rrhaphia, -sclerosis, -cele, -pexia).
a) using the following word-terminations:
-graphia (myel-, sial-, phleb-, cholecyst-, salping-);
-therapia (phyt-, hydr-);
-ectomia (aden-, cholecyst-);
-logia (aden-, cyt-, bi-);
-rrhaphia (blephar-, cyst-, phleb-);
-pexia (cholecyst-, enter-);
-rrhoea (rhin-, sial-, gastr-, hydr-, bronch-);
-ectasia (typhl-, bronch-, gastr-, phleb-);
-stomia (enter-, gastr-, cysr-);
-logus (ophthalm-, neur-, pharmac-);
-spasmus (dactyl-, my-, gastr-, bronch-, proct-).
Ex. 2. Translate the word-terminations into Latin and form the
clinical terms:
Mamma+disease; vertebra+ disease; gallbladder+ disease; heart+
disease; nose+ disease; articulation+ disease; kidney+ disease; liver+
disease.
Cell+science; life+science; tissue+science; gland+science; skin+science;
eye+science; cancer+science.
Muscle+incision; nerve+incision; finger+incision; stomach+incision;
bladder+incision; belly+incision.
Ex. 3. Translate the terms into English:
Phytotherapia, histologia, cystoplegia, cholecystotomia, myelopathia,
glossalgia, hydraemia, gynaecologia, dacryadenalgia, hyperergia, dysergia,
spondylotomia, hypalgesia, dacryorrhoea, phlebectasia, adenectomia,
anaemia, keratotomia, blepharoplegia, uraemia, cystoscopia, cytologia,
biologia, hydrotherapia, aetiologia, myelocele, mastopathia, dysopsia,
physiologia, biopsia, salpingotomia, physiotherapia, ophtalmorrhagia,
myotomia, dysphagia, myodynia, neuropathia, rhinoscopia, nosologia,
gastralgia, neurotonia, dactylalgia, dysopsia, oesophagorrhagia, trombopenia,
gastropexia, encephalomalacia, blepharorrhaphia, symblepharon, histologus,
lithotomia, enterolithus, pharmacologus, acheilia, proctoscopia, syndactylia,
rhinorrhagia, leukaemia, oligotrophia, macroglossia, melanuria, megacolon,
erythrophobia, microorganismus, uraemia, polyuria, erythrocytus,
leukopenia, macrodactylia, erythrodermia, bradykinesia, melanodermia,
typhlotomia, proctorragia, xanthodermia, xanthopsia, polydactylia,
gastrospasmus, pododynia, pneumolithus, onycholithus,
hyperthermaesthesia, hidrorrhoea, stomatologus, gastrorrhaphia,
thermotherapia, oncologia, haematuria, chromatopsia, polyhidrosis,
onychophagia, cardiorrhexis, haematopoësis, osteonecrosis, cardiosclerosis,
stomatorrhagia, anthropologia, pneumotomia, oncographia, oncologia,
otorhinolaryngologia,tenotomia, otorrhoea, tenorrhaphia, osteopathia,
osteochondropathia, cephalalgia, splenohepatomegalia, galactopoёsis,
nephrectomia, splanchnodynia, laparorrhaphia, pyorrhoea, laparotomia,
heliotherapia, galactorrhoea, somatometria, proctostenosis, splanchnologia,
hysterectomia, cardiolysis, neurogenes, cholestasis, rhinorrhoea,
homeopathia, brachycephalia, tachypnoё, cryptomnesia, chloranaemia,
gerontologia, dysosmia, tocologia, prosopalgia, hemiprosopoplegia,
sphygmographia, cryotherapia, histologia, hyperacusia, xanthopsia,
achromatopsia, histotherapia, anonychia, mastoptosis, adiponecrosis,
nephromegalia, odontonecrosis.
Ex. 4.Construct new terms:
1. instrumental examination of the eye; 2. fear of water; 3. defficiency of
nutrition of organs and tissues; 4. stomach bleeding; stagnation of the
blood; 6. disease of gallbladder; 7. bleeding from the nose; 8. chole in
the blood; 9. urine in the blood; 10. presence of pus in the blood.
Self-assessment test:
1.What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “vertebra”?
a)phleb-; b)dactyl-; c)spondyl-; d)salping-
2. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “vesica”?
a)cyt-; b)cyst-; c)cholecyst-; d)hist-
3. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “os”?
a)osteo-; b)odont-; c)chondr-; d)arthr-
4. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “ren”?
a)cyst-; b)nephr-; c)cyst-; d)rhin-
5. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “cor”?
a)phleb-; b)rhin-; c)card-; d)ot-
6. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “oculus”?
a)ot-; b)ophtalm-; c)cyst-; d)salping-
7. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “auris”?
a)ophtalm-; b)rhin-; c)ot-; d)stomat-
8. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “articulatio”?
a)osteo-; b)odont-; c)chondr-; d)arthr-
9. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “cartilago”?
a)osteo-; b)odont-; c)chondr-; d)arthr-
10. What is Greek equivalent for the Latin word “caput”?
a)cephal-; b)rhin-; c)ot-; d)stomat-