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Electron gun Deflection system Fluorescent screen
Cathode
Electron beam
Heater
X - plates
Control
grid Accelerating Y-plates Vacuum
and focusing
electrodes
Increasing the heater current will increase the number of electrons per second emitted from the cathode or
electron beam current. The number of electrons per second striking the screen will then increase and so
will the brightness of the spot. (The brightness will also increase if the voltage of the accelerating anode is
increased) as the energy of the electrons reaching the screen will then increase.
When the potential changes quickly from positive to negative, the spot flies back quickly to the left of the
screen. Usually the frequency is so high that a continuous line, rather than a moving spot is seen. The time
taken for the spot to move across the screen once is called the sweep time or period which is equal to the
reciprocal of frequency 1 .
f
Using the CRO
1
The electron beam passes between the Y and X plates on its way to the screen. Since the electron beam is
deflected by an electric P field a potential difference across the Y plates will deflect the beam vertically.
Similarly a potential difference across the x-plates will move the beam horizontally.
Y1 Y-plates Y2
CRO Screen
(1)
Y1 No input Y2
(2)
Y1 IV Y2
(4) Y1 3V Y2
15v
Y1 Y2
(5)
Vertical gain = 5V/ division
15v
Y1 Y2
6
(6) Vertical gain = 2V/ division
Vpeak = 6V –v
6
Vrms = 4.2 V 2
2
6v a.c
Time-base
Ans: The time-base supplies a saw-tooth potential across the X plates. When the potential at X1 is at the
minimum (–ve) the electron beam is repelled to the left of a person viewing the screen. As the potential of
X1 increase at a
P.d
ve
Time
– ve Bright line where
CRO screen electrons into the
screen
Since a.c voltage varies sinusoidally the effective voltage is less than the peak voltage. This effective
voltage is called the root mean square voltage Vrms, which is equivalent to the d.c. voltage that would
produce the same power dissipation. The relation between Vpeak and Vrms is given by
Vpeak = Vrms 2.
To display waveforms:
A waveform on a CRO shows how a varying potential changes with respect to time with the help of the
time-base. The CRO can be used to study waveform of variable electrical signals. Fig. shows the wave
forms on a CRO screen when different voltages are applied across the y plates.
The voltage of an a.c source varies sinusoidally when applied across the Y plates the electron beam would
be alternately attracted and repelled by the plates. If the frequency of the a.c source is high the spot moves
so fast that a vertical line is seen on the screen. The maximum or peak voltage of the a.c source is
proportional to half the length of the line.
(1)
Y1 Y-plates Y2 X-plates
Time base
3
(2)
Y1 Y2
Time base 5v
5V
Y0.5v/divisio
1 Y2
n
Time base 5 v
5V
Y-plate X-plates
Y1 Y2
(4)
IV a.c. Time base
.5V / division 50 Hz
50 Hz
(5)
Y1 Y2
100 Hz
(6) Y1 Y2
50 Hz
4
Y-plates
(7) Y1 Y2
Time base
IV a.c 50 Hz
5V/ division
100 Hz
– +
Half-wave
(8) Y1 rectifier Y2
Time base
IV a.c 50 Hz
5V/ division
100 Hz
– +
Thermistors
A thermistor is a heat sensitive device. It can be made of a semiconductor which has a negative
temperature coefficient. Unlike a metal wire such as a tungsten filament, the resistance of the device
decreases as it warms up. This is because a rise in temperature releases more electrons and positive holes
thus reducing the resistance of the material.
High
Resistance
Low
Cool Hot
Temperature
Thermistors are used to control currents in circuits, as a part of a potentiometers to detect changes in
temperature or to operate thermostats and fire alarms.
Their resistance change can be used to switch, electronic circuit when the temperature changes.
5
Light dependent resistors:
The light dependent resistor (LDR) is a component which is sensitive to light. In the dark its
resistance is very high, several million ohms, but the value greatly decreases to some hundreds of
ohms when light shines on it. This is because light energy falling on the LDR is absorbed by the
semiconductor, producing an increase in the number of change carries (electrons & +ve holes) again
reducing its resistance. Fig shows the variation of resistance with illumination.
The LDR can also be used as part of potentiometer which can detect changes in light intensity.
High
Resistance
Low
Dark Bright
Illumination