CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

1 2 3
Electron gun Deflection system Fluorescent screen

Cathode
Electron beam

Heater
X - plates
Control
grid Accelerating Y-plates Vacuum
and focusing
electrodes

The CRO has

(a) a hot cathode C which emits electrons.
(b) a plate G at a – Ve potential relative to C to control the number of electrons per second reaching
the fluorescent screen or to control brightness of the glow seen.
(c) two metal plates Y1, Y2 called Y plates to which the voltage examined is connected.
(d) two metal plates X1, X2 called X plates to which a time-base voltage can be connected.
(e) a fluorescent screen on which a bright spot will be seen at the point where the electrons strike the
screen.

Increasing the heater current will increase the number of electrons per second emitted from the cathode or
electron beam current. The number of electrons per second striking the screen will then increase and so
will the brightness of the spot. (The brightness will also increase if the voltage of the accelerating anode is
increased) as the energy of the electrons reaching the screen will then increase.
When the potential changes quickly from positive to negative, the spot flies back quickly to the left of the
screen. Usually the frequency is so high that a continuous line, rather than a moving spot is seen. The time
taken for the spot to move across the screen once is called the sweep time or period which is equal to the
reciprocal of frequency 1 .
f
Using the CRO

To measure potential difference:

The CRO can be used to measure p.d because the displacement of the spot is proportional to the voltage
applied. Usually the p.d to be measured is applied across the Y-plates with the time-base switched off.
Fig. shows the position of the spot on the CRO screen for different p.d’s across the plates Y1 and Y2.

1
The electron beam passes between the Y and X plates on its way to the screen. Since the electron beam is
deflected by an electric P field a potential difference across the Y plates will deflect the beam vertically.
Similarly a potential difference across the x-plates will move the beam horizontally.
Y1 Y-plates Y2
CRO Screen
(1)

Y1 No input Y2
(2)

Vertical gain = IV/ division

Y1 IV Y2

(3) Vertical gain = 1V/ division

(4) Y1 3V Y2

Vertical gain = 5V/ division

15v

Y1 Y2
(5)
Vertical gain = 5V/ division

15v
Y1 Y2
6
(6) Vertical gain = 2V/ division

Vpeak = 6V –v
6
Vrms = 4.2 V 2
2
6v a.c
 Time-base

Ans: The time-base supplies a saw-tooth potential across the X plates. When the potential at X1 is at the
minimum (–ve) the electron beam is repelled to the left of a person viewing the screen. As the potential of
X1 increase at a
P.d
ve

Time
– ve Bright line where
CRO screen electrons into the
screen

Fig. Saw-tooth potential of time base

constant rate, the spot moves to the right at a steady speed. when the potential at X 1 reaches the maximum
(+ve) value it immediately reverts to the –ve value and the cycle is repeated.

Effective voltage of a.c.

Since a.c voltage varies sinusoidally the effective voltage is less than the peak voltage. This effective
voltage is called the root mean square voltage Vrms, which is equivalent to the d.c. voltage that would
produce the same power dissipation. The relation between Vpeak and Vrms is given by

Vpeak = Vrms 2.

To display waveforms:
A waveform on a CRO shows how a varying potential changes with respect to time with the help of the
time-base. The CRO can be used to study waveform of variable electrical signals. Fig. shows the wave
forms on a CRO screen when different voltages are applied across the y plates.
The voltage of an a.c source varies sinusoidally when applied across the Y plates the electron beam would
be alternately attracted and repelled by the plates. If the frequency of the a.c source is high the spot moves
so fast that a vertical line is seen on the screen. The maximum or peak voltage of the a.c source is
proportional to half the length of the line.

(1)
Y1 Y-plates Y2 X-plates
Time base

3
(2)
Y1 Y2

Time base 5v

5V

Y0.5v/divisio
1 Y2
n
Time base 5 v

5V
Y-plate X-plates
Y1 Y2
(4)
IV a.c. Time base
.5V / division 50 Hz

50 Hz
(5)
Y1 Y2

IV a.c. Time base

.5V / division 50 Hz

100 Hz

(6) Y1 Y2

IV a.c. Time base

.5V / division 50 Hz

50 Hz
4
 Y-plates
(7) Y1 Y2

Time base
IV a.c 50 Hz
5V/ division
100 Hz

– +
Half-wave
(8) Y1 rectifier Y2

Time base
IV a.c 50 Hz
5V/ division
100 Hz

– +
Thermistors

A thermistor is a heat sensitive device. It can be made of a semiconductor which has a negative
temperature coefficient. Unlike a metal wire such as a tungsten filament, the resistance of the device
decreases as it warms up. This is because a rise in temperature releases more electrons and positive holes
thus reducing the resistance of the material.

High
Resistance

Low
Cool Hot
Temperature

Fig. shows the variation of a thermistor’s resistance with temperature.

Thermistors are used to control currents in circuits, as a part of a potentiometers to detect changes in
temperature or to operate thermostats and fire alarms.

Their resistance change can be used to switch, electronic circuit when the temperature changes.

5
Light dependent resistors:

The light dependent resistor (LDR) is a component which is sensitive to light. In the dark its
resistance is very high, several million ohms, but the value greatly decreases to some hundreds of
ohms when light shines on it. This is because light energy falling on the LDR is absorbed by the
semiconductor, producing an increase in the number of change carries (electrons & +ve holes) again
reducing its resistance. Fig shows the variation of resistance with illumination.

The LDR can also be used as part of potentiometer which can detect changes in light intensity.

High

Resistance
Low
Dark Bright
Illumination

Fig. LDR – Light dependent resistor & graph.