Physics HL - WORKED SOLUTIONS by Chris Hamper

WORKED
SOLUTIONS
Worked solutions
Chapter 1
Volume = πr2 × l
Exercises = π × (12.7 × 10–6)2 × 20 × 10–2
= 1.0 × 10–10 m3
1 (a) 48 000, move decimal point 4 places left (b) Radius of the Earth = 6.378 × 106 m
4.8 × 104 (from text)
(b) 0.000 036, move decimal point 5 places Volume of sphere = 4 πr 3
3
right 3.6 × 10–5
= 4 π × (6.378 × 106)3 = 1.09 × 1021 m3
(c) 14 500, move decimal point 4 places left 3
1.45 × 104 7 ρ = m ⇒ m = ρV
V
(d) 0.000 000 48, move decimal point 7 places Density of air, ρ = 1.2 kg m–3
right 4.8 × 10–7 V = 5 × 10 × 3 = 150 m3
m = 1.2 × 150 = 180 kg
2 (a) 5585 km = 5.585 × 106 m
(b) 175 cm = 1.75 m 8 30 cm = 30 × 10–2 m
15 cm = 15 × 10–2 m
(c) 25.4 μm = 2.54 × 10–5 m
(d) 100,000 million, million, million km
= 105 × 106 × 106 × 106 km = 1022 km 10 cm = 10 × 10–2 m
= 1025 m
Volume = 30 × 15 × 10 × 10–6 m3
3 (a) 85 years = 4500 × 10–6 m3
= 85 × 365 (days in a year) = 4.5 × 10–3 m2
× 24 (hours in a day) × 60 (min in an hour)
Density, ρ = m ⇒ m = ρV
× 60 (seconds in a min) V
= 1.93 × 104 × 4.5 × 10–3
= 2.68 × 109 s
= 86.85 kg
(b) 2.5 ms = 2.5 × 10–3 s
(c) 4 days = 4 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 3.46 × 105 s 9 From question 6, volume of Earth
= 1.09 × 1021 m3
(d) 2 hours 52 min 59 s
From text, mass of Earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg
= 2 × 60 × 60 + 52 × 60 + 59 24
= 7200 + 3120 + 59 Density = M = 5.97 × 10 = 5.48 × 103 kg m–3

V 1.09 × 1021
= 10 379 = 1.04 × 104 s 10 The points on the first graph are not far spread
4 (a) 200 g = 0.2 kg from the line so the apples seem to be of almost
equal size. On closer inspection the 4th point
(b) 0.000 01 g = 1 × 10–5 g = 1 × 10–8 kg
seems to be plotted in the wrong position since
(c) 2 tonne = 2000 kg it is indicating the mass of 3 12 apples.
5 Volume = 5 × 10 × 3 = 150 m3 The points on the second graph are more
spread out so the apples appear to be slightly
6 (a) Hair is cylindrical more uneven than the first case. On closer
inspection the difference between 2 apples and
25.4 mm
3 apples is very small. This is either due to an
unusually small apple or a mistake.
20 cm = 20 × 10–2 m
r = 25.4 = 12.7 μm = 12.7 × 10–6 m

2
1
M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 1 22/07/2014 16:38

The apples in the last graph are all of about 13 d = 400 ± 1 m
the same size but according to the graph one total distance is 4 × 400 = 1600 m
apple has no size. This could be because of a total uncertainty is 4 × 1 = 4 m
systematic error in counting the apples (unlikely) distance is 1600 ± 4 m
or because the balance reading was always
14 T = 11.2 ± 0.1 s
about 200 g too low. It is also strange that the
time for one swing is 11.2 = 1.12 s
measurements start at two apples; why didn’t 10
the experimenter measure the mass of one uncertainty for one swing is 0.1 = 0.01 s
10
apple first? Probably some mistake has been
time for one swing = 1.12 ± 0.01 s
made transferring the data.
– Detective work! 15 (a)
11 Taking natural logs of A and B:

x
log A
2.5
55°
3 cm
2.0
cos θ = 3
x
3
x= = 5.2 cm
cos 55
1.5
(b)
50°
1 4 cm
0.5 x
tan 50° = x
4
0
x = 4 tan 50 = 4.8 cm
–1 –0.5 0 0.5
log B
(c)
Equation of line log A = 2 logB + 0.6 6 cm

x
A = 100.6 B2
A = 4B2 30°
12 L = 0.050 ± 0.001 m sin θ = x

6
% uncertainty = 0.001 = 2% x = 6 sin 30 = 3 cm
0.05
m = 1.132 ± 0.002 kg (d)
x
% uncertainty = 0.18% 3 cm
20°
density = m = 1.1323 = 9056 kg m–3
V (0.05)
sin θ = 3
total % uncertainty = 0.18 + 3 × 2 = 6.18% x
6.18 3
× 9056 = 560 kg m–3 x= = 6 cm
100 sin 30°
density = 9056 ± 560 kg m–3

16 (a) 19 Component north = 10 cos 30° N
(because it’s next to angle)
x
3 cm = 8.66 km 10 km
30°
4 cm
W E
x = 42 + 32 = 25
20 Component south = 8 cos 20° N
x = 5 cm (because it’s next to angle) W E
(b) = 7.52 km
8 km
20°
x
4 cm
S
21 Vertical component = 500 sin 60°
4 cm (not next to angle)
m
= 433 m
500
x = 42 + 42 = 32
x = 5.66 cm
60°
(c)
x
2 cm
Practice questions
6 cm
x = 22 + 62 = 40 Note: You don’t need to know about capacitors to

x = 6.32 cm answer this question.
(d) 1 (a) Use a convenient scale.
200
Q (nC)
3 cm x
175
2 cm
150
x = 32 + 22 = 13
x = 3.61 cm 125
175 nC
17 By Pythagoras 100
R = 42 + 82 = 80
8 km R
R = 8.94 km 75
tan θ = 8 ⇒ θ = 63.4° θ
4
4 km 50
18 By Pythagoras 50 km 25
R = 1002 + 502 = 112 km 40 V
tan θ = 50 ⇒ θ = 26.6° 100 km

0
100 R 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
θ V (V)
Note: The error bar on 30 nC is too small to plot

accurately.
3

(b) Uncertainty in Q is 10% so error bar for 6 F = 10.0 ± 0.2 N
30 nC is ± 3 nC (about 12 division) and for % uncertainty = 0.2 × 100% = 2%
10
180 nC ± 18 nC (about 4 divisions)
m = 2.0 ± 0.1 kg
(c) Gradient of steepest line shown = 175
40 % uncertainty = 0.1 × 100% = 5%
= 4.4 nC V–1 2
–1 F
(d) Units of capacitance = C V % uncertainty in = 2 + 5 = 7%
m
ε0 A εA
(e) Q = V ⇒ Q = 0 where Q When two numbers are divided their %
d V d V
is the gradient uncertainties add.
The answer is C.
so gradient × d = ε0
A π × 8.1
7 = 6.38
4.4 × 10–9 × 0.51 × 10–3 15.9
⇒
0.15 To one significant figure, this is 6.
= 1.5 × 10–11 CV–1 m–1 The answer is D.
2 If distance is between 49.8 cm and 50.2 cm 8

then the mean value = 49.8 + 50.2 = 50 cm
2
Vy
The spread of the measurement
= 50.2 – 49.8 = 0.4 cm
So the uncertainty is ± 0.4 = 0.2 cm Vx
2
Measurement is 50 ± 0.2 cm Velocity of x relative to y is found by subtracting
The answer is C. the velocity of y from x.
This is the same as vector x + (– vector y).
3 T = 2π m
k
Squaring, T 2 = 4π2 m
k
⇒ T2 ∝ m
So T 2 plotted against m will be a straight line.
The answer is A.
4 Power = I 2R
uncertainty in I = 2% The answer is B.
so uncertainty in I 2 = 2 × 2% = 4%
uncertainty in R = 10% 9 The mass of an apple is about 100 g
so uncertainty in I 2R = 4 + 10 = 14% So its weight = 0.1 × 10 = 1 N
The answer is C. This would be a small apple.
The answer is C.
5 A zero offset error means that when no current
passes through the ammeter the reading is 10 (a) It isn’t possible to draw a straight line that
not zero. touches all error bars and passes through
If instead of zero the meter reads 0.1 A then all the origin.
measurements will be 0.1 A too big.
The precision of each reading will not be altered
but the readings will not be accurate. Like a
football player hitting the post every time –
precise but not accurate.
The answer is C.

(b) Uncertainty = (max – min) = (0.26 – 0.19)
2 2
1.8
D (cm)
= 0.04 cm2
1.6 So gradient = 0.23 ± 0.04 cm2
1.4 (iv) The unit of the constant is cm2.
1.2
1.0
0.8 Challenge yourself

0.6
0.4
1 v = d = 0.05 = 0.83 ms–1
t 0.06
2
0.2 Rearrange the equation: g = 7v
10h
0 v2 × 7 0.832 × 7
g= = = 8.10 m s–2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 10 × h 10 × 0.06
n
Percentage uncertainty in d = 0.5 × 100 = 4%
( )
5
p
(c) D = Cn
Percentage uncertainty in t = ( 0.01 ) × 100 = 17%
log10 D = log10C + plog10n 0.06
Plotting log10 D vs log10 n will give a straight Percentage uncertainty in v = 4 + 17 = 21%

line with gradient p (y = mx + c) Percentage uncertainty in h = 0.2 × 100 = 3%
(6)
(d) (i) From the error bars, the uncertainty in 2
D for n = 7 is ± 0.08 Percentage uncertainty in g = v × 7

10 × h
( )
% uncertainty = 0.08 × 100% = 6.3%
1.26
= 2 × 21 + 3 = 45%
uncertainty in D2 = 2 × 6.3 = 13% Absolute uncertainty = 45 × 8.10 = 3.62 m s–2

( 100 )
(ii) The straight line passes through all the Final value = 8 ± 4 m s–2
error bars shown and the origin. The biggest uncertainty is in the measurement
(iii) of time; this could be improved by repeating
the measurement several times and taking
3.5
D2 (cm2)
the average.
3.0
2.5
2.0
2.3
1.5
1.0
10
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
n
From graph, gradient of best fit line

= 2.3 = 0.23 cm2
10
gradient of steepest line = (3.1 – 0.2)
11
= 0.26 cm2
gradient of least steep line = (2.4 – 0.3)
11
= 0.19 cm2
5

Worked solutions
Chapter 2
4 N
Exercises
1 (a) 100 km → 100 000 = 27.8 m s–1

1 hour 60 × 60 θ
20 km
(b) → 20 000 = 5.6 m s–1
1 hour 60 × 60 4 m s–1
400
2 (a) speed = distance = = 4.2 m s–1 W E
time 96
(b) total displacement = 0 m
1 m s–1
average velocity = 0 m s–1
(c) After 48 s runner will be half way around,
S
travelling south. The speed is constant,
relative velocity = 42 + 1 = 4.1 ms–1
so the magnitude of the velocity will be
tan θ = 14
4.2 m s–1.
θ = 14°
instantaneous velocity = 4.2 m s–1 (minus
sign indicates travelling south) 5 5 m s–2
1
(d) After 24 s the runner will be 4 way round v?
6.35 m
100 m
s = 100 m
u = 0 m s–1
v=?
a = 5 m s–2
6.35 m
t=–
displacement = 63.52 + 63.52 Use v2 = u2 + 2 as
= 90 m v2 = 2 as = 2 × 5 × 100 = 1000
3 bird v = 1000 = 31.6 m s–1
10 6 5 m s–2
20 m s v?
20
200 m
10 m s–1 θ
s = 200 m
20 m s–1
u = 20 m s–1
v =?
In this case we must subtract the velocity of
a = 5 m s–2
the car
t=–
velocity = 202 + 102 = 22.4 m s–1
Use v2 = u2 + 2as
tan θ = 10
20 v2 = 202 + 2 × 5 × 200 = 2400
θ = tan–1 0.5 v = 2400 = 49 m s–1
θ = 26.6°

7 u? 10 m s–2 20 m s–1 v = –20 m s–1
a = –10 m s–2
t = 5s t=?
s=– Use a = v – u
t
u=?
t= v–u
v = 20 m s–1 a
a = 10 m s–2 –20 – 20
= = 4 s
–10
t = 5 s
11 a
Use a = v – u ⇒ u = v – at = 20 – 10 × 5
t 25 m s–1
u = –30 m s–1
t = 10 s
8 t = 2s
v 25
10 m s–2
20
30 m s –1
15

10
s=?
u = 30 m s–1 5
v=–
0
a = –10 m s–2 (acceleration is negative) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t
t = 2 s
1
Use s = ut + 12 at2 = 30 × 2 – 12 10 × 22 distance travelled = area = 2 × 10 × 25 = 125 m
= 60 – 20 = 40 m acceleration = gradient = 25 = 2.5 m s–2
10
9 12 velocity/m s–1
areas cancel
10
10 m s–2 6.5 cm 9
3 6 time/s
–10
v
positive acceleration of 10 m s–2 for 3 s
3
s = 0.65 m
followed by negative acceleration of 10 m s–2
u = 0 m s–1 3
for 6 s
v=?
displacement = area under graph = 10 × 3
a = –10 m s–2 2
= 15 m
t=–
Use v2 = u2 + 2as 13 constant acceleration constant acceleration
but lower than 1st part
v2 = 0 – 2 × 10 × 0.65 = 13
constant velocity
v = 13 = 3.6 m s–1
s, v, a
10
10 m s–2 20 m s–1
s
v
s = 0 m
u = 20 m s–1
a
2 t

14 16 displacement
negative
acceleration
no vertical motion
time
s, v, a
time
still moving
downwards
a but positive
acceleration
velocity
t The gradient of the displacement–time graph
starts from zero and gets more negative until it
v reaches a constant value.
17
s 30 m s–1
15 displacement 60°
A
From vertical components
C
s=0
u = 30 × sin 60° = 26 m s–1
v = –26 m s–1
B D time
a = –10 m s–2
velocity t=?
Using a = v – u , t = v – u
t a
A B C D = –26 – 26 = 5.2 s
time –10
From horizontal components
s = vt = 30 × cos 60° × 5.2 = 78 m
A The gradient starts from zero and becomes 18 20 m s–1
more negative as the ball falls. 5m
B The ball bounces and the velocity suddenly θ
changes to a positive value with slightly Vertical motion
less magnitude. s = 5 m
As the ball rises it slows down until it stops at C. u = 20 × sin θ
The velocity then becomes negative as it falls. v=0
Note the gradient of all the diagonal parts is the a = –10 m s–2
same; this is because g is constant. t=–
The velocity just after the ball leaves the ground
(a) v 2 = u2 + 2as
is the same as the velocity just before it hits
0 = u2 – 2 × 10 × 5
the ground.
⇒ u = 100 = 10 m s–1
∴ 20 × sin θ = 10, sin θ = 12 , θ = 30°

(b) a = v – u ⇒ time to reach wall t = v – u Vertical components cancel, so resultant
t a
= 10 N to the right
0 – 10
t= = 1 s
–10 (b)
In this time, horizontal displacement = vht
3N 3
= 20 × cos 30° × 1 = 17.3 m
θ
19 200 m 5N 5
Resultant = 52 + 32 = 5.8 N
y Angle θ = tan–1 3 = 31°
200 m s–1 5
22 (a) 30° 30°
Using horizontal components
40 N 40 N
v = d ⇒ t = d = 200 = 1 s
40 N
t v 200 60 N 60 N
Using vertical components
F
s=y F
u=0

v=–
Horizontal forces cancel
Convenient to take down as positive in this
F = 40 N
example.
(b)
a = 10 m s–1 30° 30°
t = 1 s 40 N 40 N 40 N
s = ut + 12 at2 ⇒ y = 0 × 1 + 12 × 1060×N12 60 N
y = 5 m F
F
20 20 m s–1

Horizontal forces cancel
Vertical components of upward force
θ = 2 × 40 × cos 30° = 69 N
maximum distance is when θ = 45° 23 (a)
50 N 40 N F
Using vertical components
s=0 20° 40 N 60 N
θ
u = 20 × sin 45° = 14.14 m s–1 20 N
20°
v = –20 × sin 45° = –14.14 m s–1 50 N
a = –10 m s–2
t=? Vertical components cancel:
a= v–u ⇒t= v–u 50 × sin 20° – 50 × sin 20° = 0
a t
Horizontal components:
–14.14 – 14.14
= = 2.8 s 20 – 2 × 50 × cos 20° = –74 N
–10
Using horizontal components (b)
40 N F
Range = v × t = 14.14 × 2.8 = 39.6 m 50 N
20° 40 N 60 N
θ
21 (a) 10 N
20 N
20°
50 N Horizontal components: 60 – 40 = 20 N
10 N Resultant = 402 + 202 = 45 N
Angle θ = tan–1 40 = 63.4°
20
4
10 N

24 (a) 8.66 N (b) F3 20 N
1N
30°
F2
30°
60 N
10 N
Horizontally
Parallel to slope:
F2 = 20 × cos 30°
Resultant = 10 × sin 30° – 1
F2 = 17.3 N
= 5 – 1 = 4 N down slope.
Vertically
Perpendicular to slope:
F3 + 20 × sin 30° = 60
Resultant = 8.66 – 10 × cos 30° = 0
F3 = 60 – 10 = 50 N
Resultant force = 4 N down the slope.
(b) 4 N 26
6N
30°
30°
60° T
30°
4N 10 N
Vertical R = 4 × cos 30° + 6 × cos 60° – 4
= 3.46 + 3 – 4 = 2.46 N (up)
(a) Since forces are balanced
Horizontal R = 6 × sin 60 – 4 × sin 30°
horizontal resultant = 0
= 5.20 – 2 = 3.2 N (right)
⇒ F = T sin 30°
(b) Vertical resultant = 0
2.46 ⇒ 10 = T cos 30°
θ 10
(c) T = = 11.5 N
3.2 cos 30°

(d) F = 11.5 × sin 30° = 5.8 N
Resultant = 3.22 + 2.462 = 4 N
Angle θ = tan–1 2.46 = 37.6° 27 N
3.2 F
25 (a) 6N
90°
30°
45° 30°
45° 50 N
6N
(a) Parallel to ramp

F = 50 × sin 30°
F1
(b) Perpendicular to ramp
Taking components along the line of F1
N = 50 × cos 30°
2 × 6 × cos 45° = F1
(c) F = 25 N
F1 = 8.49 N
N = 43.3 N
5

28 Resultant F: 1000 – F = 2.5 ⇒ F = 997.5 N
80° 80° Friction = 997.5 N
T T
knot 33 a T = ma = 10 × a
10 kg
600 N
T
(a) Vertical components
2T × cos 80° = 600 N T
(b) Horizontal components a 50 – T = ma = 5a
5 kg T = 50 – 5a
T × sin 80° = T × sin 80°
600 50 N
(c) T = = 1728 N
2 × cos 80°
0.2 kg (a) Equating the equations for T:
29
before 10 m s–1 10a = 50 – 5a
15a = 50
after 5 m s–1 a = 3.3 m s–2
momentum before = 0.2 × 10 = 2 N s (b) Using the equation at the top of the
momentum after = 0.2 × –5 = –1 N s diagram
impulse = change in momentum T = 10a = 10 × 3.3 = 33 N
= final – initial
34
= –1 – 2 = –3 Ns
30 0.067 kg
10 m s–1
12 kN
50 m s–1
1000 kg
momentum before = 0.067 × 10 = 0.67 N s
momentum after = 0.067 × –50 = –3.35 N s
10 kN
impulse = change in momentum
= –3.35 – 0.67 Resultant force = 2 kN
= –4.02 N s ⇒ a = F = 2000 = 2 m s–2
m 1000
31 0.1 N 35
N
0.5 m s–2
W = mg = 65 kg
0.006 × 10 = 0.06 N
Upward force = 0.1 – 0.06 650 N

= 0.04 N
F = ma = 65 × 0.5 = 32.5 N
F = ma ⇒ a = F
m Resultant force = 32.5 N
= 0.04 = 6.7 m s–2 ⇒ N – 650 = 32.5
0.006
N = 682.5 N
32 Acceleration = v – u = 0.1 – 0 = 0.05 m s–2
t 2
50 kg 1000 N
F
Resultant F = ma = 50 × 0.05 = 2.5 N

36 (b) 5 m s–1 5 m s–1
U m m
v 1 m s–1
m m
4000 cm 3
Before collision momentum = –5 m + 5 m = 0

W = 2.5 N After collision momentum = –mv + m
Conservation of momentum ⇒ 0 = –mv + m
(a) U = weight of fluid displaced m = mv
volume displaced = 4000 × 10–6 m3 v = 1 m s–1 (Could be + or – depending on
mass displaced = ρU = 1000 × 0.004 which ball you take.)
= 4 kg (c)
Upthrust = 40 N 100 kg
Resultant F = 40 – 2.5 = 37.5 N up.
(b) a = F = 37.5 = 150 m s–2
m 0.25 2 kg
Friction will act against the motion of
the ball
37 Must throw the hammer away from

the ship.
(a) Newton 1: Since the velocity of the gas

changes there must be an unbalanced vm vn
force on the gas.
Newton 3: If the rocket exerts a force on
the gas the gas must exert a force on the
rocket. This force is unbalanced so the
rocket accelerates. Must travel 2 m in 2 min
(b) Same as 37(a) but replace gas with water ⇒ vm = 2 = 0.017 m s–1
and rocket with boat. 120
momentum before = momentum after
(c) Skateboard replaces rocket, person 0 = –100 × 0.017 + 2 × vh
replaces gas.
vh = 1.7 = 0.85 m s–1 Sounds possible.
(d) The ball accelerates up due to upthrust. 2
If the water pushes ball up then ball pushes 39 F
water down so the reading on balance
5N
will increase.
38 (a) 10 m s–1
m m
v 1 m s–1
t
m
0.35 s
Before collision momentum = m × 10 + m × 0 (a) Impulse = area
After collision momentum = mv + m × 1 = 12 × 5 × 0.35
Conservation of momentum ⇒ 10 m = mv + m = 0.875 N s
⇒ 9 m = mv
v = 9 m s–1
7

(b) Impulse = change of momentum = mΔv (c) F
mΔv = 0.875 Ns 8N
so if m = 0.02 kg
0.02 × Δv = 0.875
4N
Δv = 0.875 = 44 m s–1
0.02
40 Impulse = area = 0.5 × 0.35 × 5 = 0.875 N s
Change in velocity = Δmv = 0.875 = 43.75 m s–1 2 cm 4 cm x
m 0.02
1
= final velocity since initial was zero (d) Work done = area under graph = 2 ×4×2
From conservation of energy 12 mv2 = mgh = 4 J

1
(e) Red area = 2 × (4 + 8) = 12 J
so h = v = 43.75 = 7.7 m
2 2
2
2g 2 × 9.8
45 F
41 150 N
Ben
150°
30°
10 m
x
Use 150° since this is the angle between 5 8 10
direction of F and displacement. Area = 12 × 300 × 5 + 300 × 3 + 1
× 300 × 2
2
(a) Work done = 150 cos 150° × 10 m = 750 + 900 + 300
= –1300 J = 1950 J
(b) Dog is doing the work. 46 5 m s–1
m
42 Since displacement = 0, no work is done.
43
150 N
180°
50 m
2m
m
Work done = 150 cos 180° × 2 v2
= –300 J
44 At top of cliff the stone has

PE + KE = 12 mv12 + mgh
1
6 cm At the bottom the stone has only KE = 2 mv22
Conservation of energy
8 cm ⇒ 12 m × 52 + m × 10 × 50
= 12 mv22
2 cm
v22 = 2 × ( 12 × 52 + 10 × 50) = 1025
v2 = 32 m s–1
(a) Spring is stretched 2 cm.

(b) F = kx
F = 2 × 2 = 4 N
8

47 49
0.25 kg 2 m s–1
0.2 kg h
5m
(a) Original KE = final PE
1
2 mv = mgh
2
22
h= v =
2
= 0.2 m
2g 2 × 10
h= 4
2
Δx (b) If v = 4 m s–1, = 0.8 m
2 × 10
50 (a) Work done = mgh = 2 × 9.8 × 100
(a) When ball hits spring = 1.96 kJ
KE = original PE (b) Efficiency = (useful work/work in) × 100%
= mgh
= 0.25 × 10 × 5 45 = 1.96 × 103 × 100
E
= 12.5 J E = 4.36 kJ
(b) Ball loses all its energy so work done =
51 (a) Useful work = gain in KE
loss of energy.
Convert velocity to ms–1 = 100 × 1000
Work done = 12.5 J (60 × 60)
= 27.7 ms–1
(c) Energy given to spring = 12 kx2 KE = 12 mv2 = 12 × 100 × 27.72
12.5 = 12 × 250 000 × x2 = 3.86 × 105 J
x2 = 0.0001
(b) 60 = 3.86 × 105 × 100
x = 0.01 m = 1 cm E
(Note: We have ignored the loss of PE by E = 6.43 × 10 J = 0.643 MJ
5
the ball as it squashes the spring; this is (c) 36 MJ per litre so 0.643 = 1.8 × 10–2 l
36
very small.)
52 0.01 kg 0.01 kg
48
15 N
0.1 kg
m m
0.05 m
(a) Work done to compress spring = elastic PE

(a) Work done = F × d of spring = 12 kx2
= 15 × 0.05 = 12 × 0.1 × 0.052
= 0.75 J = 1.25 × 10–4 J
(b) Work done will increase the PE of the ball (b) KE gained by balls = 1.25 × 10–4 J
Increase in PE = 0.75 J = mgh Since balls are the same must get
1
2 × 1.25 × 10 J each
–4
0.75 = 0.1 × 10 × h
h = 0.75 m = 6.25 × 10–5 J
1
(c) KE = 2 mv2 = 6.25 × 10–5 J
v2 = 2 × 6.25 × 10
–5

0.01
v = 0.1 m s–1

53 10 m s–1 15 m s–1 57 1000 N 20 m s–1
1000 N
2 kg 10 kg
If velocity constant, forces are balanced so
forward force = 1000 N
In 1 s the car moves 20 m so work done
v = 1000 × 20 = 20 000 J
12 kg
Power = work done per second = 20 kW
58
(a) Momentum before = 2 × 10 – 10 × 15
= 20 – 150 = –130 N s
Momentum after = 12 × v Power in = 100 W 2m
Conservation of momentum: –130 = 12v
v = –10.83 m s–1
(b) KE before = 1
× 2 × 102 + 1
× 10 × 152 10 kg
2 2
= 100 + 1125 = 122 J
Useful work = mgh = 10 × 10 × 2 = 200 J
KE after = 12 × 12 × 10.832 = 703.7 J
Energy loss = 521.3 J power = work = 200 = 50 W
time 4
power out
54 10 m s–1
15 m s
–1
efficiency = × 100% = 50 × 100%
power in 100
= 50%
15 m s–1 10 m s–1
59 efficiency = energy out = E = 70
energy in 60 100
If collision is elastic the velocities swap. E = 60 × 70 = 42 kJ

100
55 60
300 N 300 N
2000 N
2m
(a) Constant velocity ⇒ forces balanced
⇒ forward force = 300 N
power = force × velocity = 300 × 80 000
3600
= 6.67 kW
Work done lifting weight = 2000 × 2 = 4000 J
(b) efficiency = power out = 6.67
= 60
power = work done = 4000 = 800 W power in power in 100
time 5
power in = 11.1 kW
56 50 kg
50 m
PE loss = mgh = 50 × 10 × 50 = 25 000 J

power = energy = 25 0000 = 1000 W
time 25
10

(b) (i) from the gradient a = 0.8 = 1.6 m s–2
Practice questions (ii) distance = area
0.5
= 12 × 0.5 × 0.8 + 0.8 × 11

1 18 m s–1 18 m s–1 18 m s–1
+ 12 × 0.5 × 0.8 = 9.2 m
S x
s
uP uP 0.5 s 0.5 s
P P
11.0 s
4.5 m s–2 time, 6.0 s time, t 0.80
velocity (m s–1)
(a) (i) Car S travels at constant velocity so 0.70
sS = 18 × t 0.60
(ii) Police car has constant acceleration so 0.50
s = ut + 12 at2 0.40 0.8 m s–1
sP = 0 × 6.0 + 12 × 4.5 × 6.02 0.30
= 81 m 0.20
(iii) Using a = v – u ⇒ v = at + u 0.10
t
= 4.5 × 6.0 + 0 = 27 m s –1
0.00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
Could use v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ time (s)
v = 2 × 4.5 × 81 = 27 m s–1 but not
good practice to use s since if you (iii) Minimum work = gain in PE = mgh
calculated it wrong in part (ii) then this = 250 × 10 × 9.2
would be wrong. = 23 000 J
However, since errors are not carried (iv) power = work done = 23 000 = 1916 W
forward you would not lose marks if you time 12
≈ 1.9 kW
did this.
(v) efficiency = power out × 100%
(iv) Police car travels at constant velocity power in
from 6.0 s until the cars meet at time t. = 1.9 × 100% = 38%
5
So time at constant velocity = (t – 6.0) (c) On the original graph, velocity changed
⇒ x = 27 (t – 6.0) instantly
(b) The police car catches up (draws level) with ⇒ a = ΔV = ∞
0
car S when they have travelled the same This cannot happen; the changes happen
distance. over time.
Distance travelled by S in time t = 18t
Distance travelled by P = 81 + 27 (t – 6.0) 0.80
velocity (m s–1)
So when they meet 18t = 81 + 27 (t – 6.0)

0.70
18t = 81 + 27t – 162
0.60
18t – 27t = 81 – 162
0.50
t = 9.0 s
0.40
2 (a) Mass can be defined in two ways: 0.30
1) In terms of the force experienced by a 0.20
mass in a gravitational field
0.10
F = mg so m = F gravitational mass
G 0.00
2) In terms of the acceleration 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
experienced when a constant force is time (s)
exerted on the mass.
F = ma so m = F inertial mass
a
11

(d) (i) Since velocity is constant the force On the way down PE is converted first to
must be balanced. KE then to heat.
T 3 velocity = 0 m s–1 at top
h
T=W
8 m s–1
10 m s–1
W

(ii) Since elevator is going up and slowing
down acceleration is down so W > T.
(a) (i) Using v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ s = v – u

2 2
W>T 2a
u = 8 m s–1
v = 0 m s–1
W
a = –10 m s–2
d=h
h = 0 – 8 = 3.2 m
2 2
W should be the same in each diagram, it
–2 × 10
is T that changes. Good idea to write which
(ii) Using a = v – u ⇒ t = v – u
force is bigger in case diagram isn’t clear. t a
–8
t= = 0.8 s
(e) The reading on the scales is the upward –10
force on the person; this is bigger than W (b) (alternative method)
when accelerating up but equal to W when Time to reach sea = 3.0 s
velocity is constant. using s = ut + 12 at2
u = 8.0 m s–1
reading on scales
t = 3.0 s
a = –10 m s–2
s = 8 × 3 – 12 × 10 × 32
W
= 24 – 45
= –21 m
i.e. 21 m below start.
So the cliff = 21 m high
4 (a) Newton’s third law: If body A exerts a force

on body B then body B must exert an equal
0.00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 and opposite force on body A.
time (s)
(b) Law of conservation of momentum: for a
(f) 0 → 0.5 s system of isolated bodies (i.e. no external
Electrical energy changes to PE + KE forces acting) the total momentum is
0.5 → 11.5 s constant.
Electrical energy changes to PE
11.5 → 12.0 s
KE + electrical energy changes to PE
12

(c) FBA A B FAB (i) Applying conservation of momentum
momentum before = momentum after
800 × 5.0 = (800 + 1200) v
4000 = 2000 v
Should be the same length acting through
v = 2.0 m s–1
the centre of the spheres.
(ii) Initial KE = 12 × 800 × 52 = 10 000 J
(change in mv)B mvB – 0
(d) (i) FAB = = Final KE = 12 × 2000 × 22 = 4000 J
time t
mvB Loss of KE = 10 000 – 4000 = 6000 J
FAB =
t
v (c) When the trucks collide heat and sound are
produced.
Before A B
6 (a) (i) PE = mgh
vA vB mg = weight of man = 700 N
height from A to B = 30 × sin 40°
After A B
= 19.3 m
B
(ii) FBA = rate of change of momentum
(change in mv)A mvA – mv
= = 30 m
time t
30 × sin40°
m(vA – v)
FBA =
t
40°
(e) According to Newton’s third law
A
FAB = –FBA
mvB –m(vA – v) gain in PE = 700 × 19.3 = 13 500 J
= =
t t (ii) If 48 people go up per minute the total
mvB = –mvA + mv
increase in PE = 48 × 13 500
mvB + mvA = mv
= 6.48 × 105 J
(f) If KE conserved then initial KE = final KE (iii) Assume that people stand still on the
1 1 1
2 mv = 2 mvA + 2 mvB
2 2 2
escalator and that they all weigh 700 N.
v2 = vA2 + vB2
(b) (i) power = work done = gain in PE
From conservation of momentum we know time time
that v = vA + vB = 6.2 × 105
= 1 × 104 W
If vA is at rest then vA = 0 and B travels at v 60
then vB = v Pout
efficiency = ⇒ Pin = 15 kW
Pin
So v2 = 02 + v2 and v = 0 + v
which means that this is a possible (ii) The escalator is a continuous band; it
outcome goes up on the outside and down on
In fact it is the only solution. the inside.
5 (a) Linear momentum = mass × velocity (c) Since the efficiency will be less than 100%
due to friction etc. the power in will be
(b) 5 m s–1 1200 kg
800 kg greater than useful work done.
B
A Unless they are small children running up
immediately before collision the escalator.
v
B
A
immediately after collision 13

7 (a) The total momentum of a system of isolated
bodies is always constant. Challenge yourself
(b) (i) 58 g
2g 56 g 1 First draw a diagram
140 m s–1 v
Conserving momentum
–10 m s–2
56 × 0 + 2 × 140 = 58 × v
280 20 m s–2
= v = 4.8 m s–1
58
(ii) 58 g 58 g
4.8 m s–1
y
F 30°
2.8 m
x
As block slows work done against
friction = average F × distance moved Taking components of the motion
in direction of force Horizontal
Work done against friction will equal the x = 20 × sin 30° × t
KE lost = 12 mv2 = 12 × 0.058 × 4.82 Vertical
= 0.7 J y = 20 × cos 30° × t – 12 × 10 × t2
So average F × 2.8 = 0.7 We also know that y = –tan θ (negative because
x
average force = 0.24 N the value of y is negative)
Dividing
(c) (i) Assuming vertical component of y
= 20 ×× cos 30° ×× t – 0.5 × 10 × t2
= –tan 30°
velocity is uniform we can use x 20 sin 30° t 20 sin 30° × t
×
s = ut + 12 at2 t = 4.62 s
so x = 46.2 m
u = 0 so 2s = 2 × 0.85 = 0.41 s
a 10 y = –26.7 m
Horizontal velocity is constant Distance down slope = 46.22 + –26.72 = 53 m
= 4.3 m s–1
2
Horizontal distance = vt = 4.3 × 0.41 4 m s–1
= 1.8 m 6 m s–1
45°
(ii)
θ
table clay block 0.2 kg
0.5 kg
v
path
Taking components of the momentum
Horizontal:
0.2 × 6 = 0.2 × 4 × cos 45° + 0.5 × v cos θ
0.85 m
So v cos θ = 1.27
Vertical:
0.2 × 4 × sin 45° = 0.5 × v sin θ
ground
So v sin θ = 1.13
v sin θ
= 1.13 = tan θ
v cos θ 1.27
θ = –41.7°
1.27
v= = 1.7 m s–1
cos(–41.7°)
14

Worked solutions
Chapter 3
6
Exercises
4 kg
A
1 (a) 1 mole of copper has mass = 63.54 g
= 0.06354 kg
Density, ρ = mass so V = M B
volume ρ
V = 0.063 54 = 7.123 × 10–6 m3
8920
(b) 1 mole contains 6.022 × 1023 atoms (from 5 m s–1
A 5m
definition)
3m
(c) If the volume of 6.022 × 1023 atoms is 4 kg
7.123 × 10–6 m3 then the volume of 1 atom B
= 7.123 × 1023 m3 = 1.183 × 10–29 m3
–6
6.022 × 10 Loss of PE = gain in KE + WD against friction

2 Density, ρ = mass 4 × 9.8 × 3 = 12 × 4 × 52 + W
volume
W = 117.7 – 50 = 67.7 J
Volume = 10 cm3
work = force × distance in direction of force
= 10 × 10–6 m3 distance travelled = 5 m
Density = 2700 kg m–3 67.7 = F × 5
F = 13.5 N
mass = V × ρ = 10 × 10–6 × 2700
mass = 2.7 × 10–2 kg = 27 g 7
3 (a) Block has PE = mgh = 10 × 9.8 × 40

= 3.92 × 103 J
30 cm
(b) This PE will all be converted to heat so
heat to floor + block = 3.92 × 103 J
10 cm 12 cm
4 Mass of car in example 1 = 1000 kg so if
v = 60 m s–1
KE = 12 mv2 = 12 × 1000 × 602
= 1.8 × 106 J
5 If the speed is constant then rate of change of melting ice boiling water unknown temperature
PE = gain in energy of surroundings A change in height of 20 cm is equivalent to a
mgΔh
= mgv change in temperature of 100°C
Δt
= 75 × 9.8 × 50 100
= 5°C cm–1
20
= 3.7 × 104 J The unknown temperature is 2 cm above zero;
this is equivalent to 2 cm × 5°C cm–1 = 10°C
LT – L0
Alternatively using × 100
L100 – L0
T = 12 – 10 × 100 = 10°C
30 – 10

8 (a) Average KE of air molecules = 32 kT (b) Energy added = 3 × 105 J = mcΔθ
so Δθ = 3 × 10 = 667°C
5
(This assumes air is an ideal gas which it
0.5 × 900
isn’t, but it gives an approximate answer)
so if initial temperature = 20°C
temperature in K = 273 + 20 = 293 K
final temperature = 687°C
Average KE = 32 × 1.38 × 10–23 × 293
= 6 × 10–21 J 14 (a) Initial KE = 12 mv2 = 12 × 1500 × 202
(b) molar mass of air = 29 g mol−1 = 3 × 105 J
mass of 1 molecule = 29 Final KE = 0 J so KE lost = 3 × 105 J
6 × 10
23
= 4.8 × 10 g = 4.8 × 10 kg

–23 –26
(b) 75% of 3 × 105 J
(c) KE = 12 mv2 = 75 × 3 × 105 = 2.25 × 105 J
100
v = 2KE = 2 × 6 × 10–26 = 500 m s–1 (c) Q = mcΔθ ⇒ Δθ = Q
–21

m 4.8 × 10 mc
= 2.25 × 10 = 51°C
5
9 From definition Q = CΔθ
10 × 440
Heat lost = 210 × 103 × 2
15 (a) 8 litre/min = 8 kg/min since 1 litre has a
Q = 420 kJ
mass of 1 kg.
10 (a) A 1 kW heater will deliver 103 J per second So in 10 minutes 80 kg of water is used.
so if it’s on for 1 hour: (b) Using Q = mcΔθ
heat delivered = 60 × 60 × 103 = 3.6 × 106 J Q = 80 × 4200 × (50 – 10)
(b) From definition C = Q = 1.34 × 107 J
Δθ
the room is heated from 10°C to 20°C
16 From definition Q = ml
so Δθ = 10°C (fusion since water is turning into ice)
So for the room, C = 3.6 × 10
6
Heat released, Q = 1 × 106 × 3.35 × 105 J
10
= 3.35 × 1011 J
= 3.6 × 105 J/°C
(c) Some heat will be lost to the outside. 17 To change 400 g of water at 100°C into steam
requires 0.4 × 2.27 × 106 = 9.08 × 105 J
11 From table, Ccopper = 380 J/kg°C
If power of heater = 800 W
So Q = 0.25 × 380 × (160 – 20)
then since P = energy , t = E = 9.08 × 10
5
= 1.33 × 104 J time P 800
12 (a) Density, ρ = M , M = ρ × V t = 1.135 × 103 s = 19 min.
V
1 litre = 1000 cm3 = 1000 × 10–6 m3 18
2 cm 1000 m2
= 10–3 m3
M = 1000 × 10–3 = 1 kg
(a) Volume = 1000 × 2 × 10–2 = 20 m3
(b) Q = mc∆θ = 1 × 4200 × (100 – 20)
Density, ρ = M ⇒ M = Vρ = 20 × 920
= 3.36 × 105 J V
(c) 1 kW ⇒ 1000 J per second = 1.84 × 104 kg
So time taken = 3.36 × 10 = 336 s
5
(b) Q = ml = 1.84 × 104 × 3.35 × 105
1000
= 6.16 × 109 J
or power = energy
(c) P = Q = 6.16 × 10 = 3.42 × 105 W
9
time
energy 5 × 60 × 60
t
13 (a) power = so energy = power × time
(d) Power per m2 = 3.42 × 10
5
time
1000
energy = 500 × 10 × 60 (time in seconds) = 3.42 × 102 Wm–2
= 3 × 105 J

19
Practice questions
V1 = 500 cm 3
V2 = 500 cm 3
P2 = 250 kPa P2 = ?
1 θ (°C)
T1 = 300 K I2 = 350 K
17
P1 V1 P V
= 2 2
T1 T2
250 × 500
= P2 × 500
300 350
P2 = 250 × 350 = 292 k Pa

150 s
300 0 X
20
V1 = 2 m3
n = 5 mol
T = 293 K –15
t (s)
(a) PV = nRT 15 165 200
P = nRT = 5 × 8.31 × 293 (a) Ice melts when temperature is constant

V 2
P = 6 kPa 0°C. All melted at 165 s.
(b) If half of gas leaks, n = 2.5 mol (b) Heat goes to increase PE not KE so
P = 3 kPa temperature remains constant.
(c) (i) For last part of graph, water is heated
21
from 0 to 15°C in 30 s
Q = mcΔθ ⇒ heat supplied
= 0.25 × 4200 × 15 = 1.79 × 104 J
V2 = ?
Power = Q = 1.79 × 10
4
T2 = 250 K
V1 = 250 m3
T1 = 300 K
P2 = 100 kPa t 30
P1 = 150 kPa = 525 W ≈ 530 W
P1 V1 P V 100 × V2 (ii) Time to heat ice from –15 to 0°C = 15 s

= 2 2 ⇒ 150 × 250 = Q = power × t = 530 × 15 = 7950 J
T1 T2 300 250
Q = mcΔθ
V2 = 150 × 250 × 250
300 × 100 7950
C= = 2.1 × 103 J kg–1
V2 = 312.5 cm3 0.25 × 15
(iii) Takes 150 s to melt 0.25 kg of ice
22 Heat given Q = 530 × 150 = 79 500 J
= mL
V1 = V
L = 79 500 = 3.2 × 105 J kg–1
0.25
T1 = T
P1 = 100 kPa
V1 =V2250
= ½mV3 2 (a) When a liquid evaporates the molecules
T1 =T2300
= 2KT
P1 =P2150
= ? KPcm
with most energy escape from the surface,
resulting in a reduction in the average KE
P1 V1 P V P × ½V and hence temperature. If heat is added
= 2 2 ⇒ 100 × V = 2
T1 T2 T 2T temperature will remain constant.
P2 = 2 × 100 = 400 kPa

½
3

(b) Blowing across the surface reduces (ii) Total energy generated = 2.2 × 106 J
humidity of surrounding air; increased 50% lost in evaporation = 1.1 × 106 J
temperature of liquid; increased surface This energy goes to latent heat of
area of liquid vaporization Q = mL
m = Q = 1.1 × 10 6 = 487 g
6
(c) Heat lost when water turns into ice
L 2.26 × 10
water ice (iii) Wind
Skin temperature
350 g Humidity
–5°C
25°C Air temperature
Area of skin
Clothing
86 J s–1
4 (a) (i) Constant speed so resistive force =
= mcΔθ + mL + mcΔθ
component of mg acting down the
water water–ice ice
slope
0.35 × 4200 × 25 + 0.35 × 3.3 × 105
+ 0.35 × 2.1 × 103
= 156 000 J
15°
Power = Q
t mg
15°
t = Q = 156 000 = 1800 s mg sin 15° = 960 × 9.8 × 0.259

P 86
= 2.4 kN
3 (a) In this context thermal energy is the internal
energy of the molecules of the runner. (ii) KE = 12 mv2 = 1
2 × 960 × 92 = 39 kJ
This can be KE and PE. Increased thermal (b) Work done = average force × distance
energy will increase the average KE of the Work done against braking force
molecules which increases the temperature, = loss of KE = 39 kJ = average force × 15 m
in other words the runner becomes hot.
average force = 39 000 = 2.6 kN
15
(b) (i) Energy generated = power × time
(c) Energy given to brakes = 39 kJ
= 1200 × 3600 = 2.2 × 106 J
This causes the brakes to get hot so KE
(ii) Q = mcΔθ
lost = thermal energy gained = mcΔT
Δθ = Q = 2.2 × 10 = 7.5 K
6
Two brakes so total mass = 10.4 kg
mc 70 × 4200
39000 = 10.4 × 900 × ΔT
ΔT = 4.2 K
This assumes no heat lost and all KE
70 kg
converted to heat not sound.
5 (a) (i) The molecules of an ideal gas are

1200 J s–1 × 1800 considered to be small perfectly elastic
spheres moving in random motion with
(c) Convection no forces between them. Small and
Conduction elastic is mentioned in the question so
Radiation This is no longer on the syllabus. 1. Motion is random
(d) (i) The molecules with greatest KE leave 2. No forces between molecules
the surface resulting in a decrease in except when colliding
average KE and hence temperature.

(ii) The molecules of an ideal gas have no
forces between them so changing their Challenge yourself
position does not require work to be
done; gas molecules therefore have no 1
PE; this implies that the internal energy 100 kPa n 100 kPa
of a gas is related to the average KE 300 k 300 k
V V
of the molecules. If energy is added to
the gas, temperature increases so we
P P
see that temperature is related to the 400 k 300 k
average KE. V V
n1 n2
(b) (i) Using PV = nRT
T = 290 K When first filled and joined we can treat the two
P = 4.8 × 105 Pa flasks as one container. Applying the ideal gas
V = 9.2 × 10–4 m3 equation, PV = nRT, we get 100 × 2V = nR × 300
After one flask is heated we have to treat them
n = PV = 4.8 × 10 × 9.2 × 10
5 –4

RT 8.3 × 290 separately but since they are connected the
= 0.18 mol pressure is the same.
(ii) If temperature constant P1V1 = P2V2 PV = n1R × 400
4.8 × 105 × 9.2 × 10–4 = P2 × 2.3 × 10–4 PV = n2R × 300
( 2.3 )
P2 = 9.2 × 4.8 × 105 = 19 × 105 Pa
P P
The total number of moles n is the same before
and after so
(iii) If volume is constant 1 = 2
T1 T2 n = n1 + n2
P1 = 19 × 105 Pa
substituting gives 200V = PV + PV
T1 = 290 K 300R 400R 300R
P2 = ?
T2 = 420 K
2
3 (
= 1 + 1 P
400 300 )
P2 = 19 × 105 × 420 = 2.8 × 106 Pa P = 114.3 kPa
290
(c) P
(b)(iii)
(c)
(b)(ii)
A
0
0 V


Worked solutions
Chapter 4
Gain in PE = mgh = 0.2 × 9.8 × 2 × 0.5
Exercises = 1.96 J
KE at bottom = 12 mv2 = 12 × 0.2 × 102
1 (a) distance = 2πr = 2π × 5 = 31.4 m = 10 J
(b) displacement = 0 m KE at top = 10 – 1.96 = 8.04 J
(c) speed = 2 m s–1 v = 2KE = 2 × 8.04 = 9 m s–1
m 0.2
d
t= = 31.4 = 15.7 s
speed 2 (b)
1 1
(d) f = = = 6.4 × 10–2 Hz
T 15.7 mg
T
(e) ω = 2πf = 0.4 rad s–1
At the top T + mg = mv
2

(f) a = v = ω2r = 0.8 m s–2
2
r
r
2 Centripetal force = mv =
r
2 1000 × ( 30 000
50
3600 )
2
T = mv – mg =
r
2
( 0.2 × 92
0.5 ) – 0.2 × 9.8
= 1389 N = 30 N
3 6
1m
0.2 kg 50 N
M m
Maximum centripetal force = 50 N = mv
2
r
v2 = 50 × 1 ⇒ v = 15.8 m s–1
0.2
r
4
From Newton’s universal law F = GMm
r2
mg But the weight of an object = mg
mg = GMm
2
r
acceleration due to gravity, g = GM
2
r
g = 6.67 × 10 × 7.32 × 1022

–11
for the Moon
(1.74 × 106)2
Minimum speed when 12 mv2 = mgh, g = 1.61 m s–2
so 12 mv2 = mg(2r), v2 = 4gr
v = 4gr = 4 × 9.8 × 5 = 14 m s–1 7
5 1.89 × 1017 kg
200 g
50 cm 71 492 km
Using the equation for gravitational field strength

of a spherical object g = GM
r
2
g = 6.67 × 10 × 1.897 2× 10
–11 17
10 m s–1
(7.1492 × 10 )
(a) At the top some of the KE has turned to PE
= 24.7 N kg–1

8 14 A and E are at the same height so no potential
1000 km difference.
5.97 × 10 kg
24
15 No work is done since there is no change in
potential.
16
3.8 × 108 m
6367 km
3.7 × 108 m 0.1 × 108 m
7367 km ME = 6.0 × 1024 kg Mm = 7.4 × 1022 kg
rE A rm
Using the formula for the gravitational field due Earth Moon
to a spherical mass g = GM where r = 7367 km GME GMm
r2 (a) Potential at A = +
as shown rE rm
g = 6.67 × 10 × 5.97 × 1024
( 6 × 1024
+ 7.4 × 10 8 )
–11 22
= 6.67 × 10–11
(7.367 × 10 )
6 2 3.7 × 10 8
0.1 × 10
g = 7.34 N kg –1
= 6.67 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 + 7.4 × 1015)
–11 16
9 = 1.6 MJ kg–1
B
1000 kg 100 kg (b) PE of 2000 kg rocket = v × m
= 1.6 × 106 × 2000 = 3.1 × 109 J
1m (c) V
(d) Field strength
6m zero when
x
gradient = 0
Since both masses are on the same side of B
then the two fields are in the same direction. Note: V is not
zero here
The field vectors will therefore simply add.
Using the equation for the field due to a sphere (d) Field strength zero when gradient = 0
g = GM Note: V is not zero here.
2
r
Field due to 1000 kg = 6.67 × 10 2 × 1000
–11
1
17
= 6.67 × 10–8 N kg–1 1738 × 103 m
Field due to 100 kg = 6.67 × 102 × 100

–11
6
= 0.018 × 10–8 N kg–1
mass = 7.4 × 1022 kg
Total field = 6.67 + 0.018 = 6.69 × 10–8 N kg–1
Vescape = 2GM
10 A R
100 kg 100 kg 2 × 6.67 × 10–11 × 7.4 × 1022
=
1738 × 103
If masses are equal the fields will be equal and = 2.38 × 103 m s–1
opposite as shown.
18 Hydrogen is a small atom so its mean velocity
Resultant field = 0 N kg–1
would be much higher than air molecules; some
11 VC = ghC = 10 × 14 = 140 J kg–1 hydrogen atoms would be travelling faster than
VD = ghD = 10 × 11 = 110 J kg–1 the escape velocity.
Potential difference between C and D
19 To be black hole Vescape = 3 × 108 m s–1
= 140 – 110 = 30 J kg–1
= 2GM
12 Work done from D to C = ΔV × m = 30 × 3 R
2GM
= 90 J R=
(3 × 108)2
= 2 × 6.67 × 10 8×2 2 × 10 = 3 km

–11 30
13 PE = mgh = 3 × 10 × 8 = 240 J
(3 × 10 )
2

20 Vescape = 2GM where R = distance from rocket 24 (a) KE = GMm = 5.9 × 1010 J
R 2r
to centre of Earth = (6400 + 100 000) km –GMm
(b) PE = = –1.2 × 1011 J
r
Vescape = 2 × 6.67 × 10 × 86 × 10 = 2.74 km s–1 (c) Total = KE + PE = –6.1 × 1010 J
–11 24
1.064 × 10
21
radius/ period radius3/ period2
1010km days (1010km)3 days2 Practice questions
5.79 88 194.104539 7744
1 (a) Velocity is a vector so as the direction of
10.8 224.7 1259.712 50490.09 the car changes, velocity must change.
15 365.3 3375 133444.09 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
so if velocity changes the car must accelerate.
22.8 687 11852.352 471969
(b) (ii) Weight and the normal force both act
77.8 4330 470910.952 18748900
downwards. Not centripetal force; this
143 10700 2924207 114490000 is the resultant.
288 30600 23887872 936360000
450 59800 91125000 3576040000
0.45 m
4 000 000 000
period2 (days2)
3 500 000 000

0.8 m
3 000 000 000
2 500 000 000
F
2 000 000 000
1 500 000 000
1 000 000 000 0.45 m
(iii) If no energy loss then loss of PE = gain
500 000 000
in KE.
0 0.8 m
0 20 000 000 60 000 000 100 000 000 mgΔh = 12 mv2
–500 000 000 40 000 000 80 000 000
radius3 (1010km3) ⇒ 10 × (0.8 – 0.35) = 12 v2
⇒ v = 9 = 3 m s–1 F
This is plotted from the data in Chapter 12. W
The scale is very big so the smaller numbers are (iv) We know that if moving in a circle
N
F = mv
2
not visible.
r
0.05 × 32
22 For a TV satellite T = 1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 ⇒F=
0.35/2
= 86 400 s Now this force is caused by normal
From Kepler’s law T 3 = 4π ⇒ r 3 = T GM
2 2 2
r 2
GM 4π force and weight
86 4002 × 6.67 × 10–11 × 6 × 1024
= = 7.6 × 1022
4π2 ⇒ 2.6 = N + W W
Use logs to find √
3
r = 4.2 × 10 m ~ 7RE
7
where W = 0.5 N N
23 Orbit radius = 6400 + 400 km = 6.8 × 106 m so 2.6 = N + 0.5

N = 2.6 – 0.5 = 2.1 N
T 2 = r 4π = (6.8 × 106)3 × 4π2
3 2
= 3.1 × 107
GM 6.67 × 10–11 × 6 × 1024
2 (a) Coefficient of friction is defined by the
T = 5.57 × 103 s = 1.5 hours equation F = μR so μ is the ratio of
friction force
.
normal reaction force
3

(b) (i) S
ince the person is not moving relative To reach the moon it must have enough
to the wall, the friction would be static KE so that it reaches the position of
friction. zero field, a distance r = 0.8 from the
(i) friction planet. From here to the moon it will be
attracted by the moon’s field
Loss of KE = gain in PE
If final KE = 0 then loss = 12 mv2
Gain in PE = change from planet to 0.8
(normal) reaction from planet from the graph
ΔV = 4.4 × 107
so ΔPE = 4.4 × 107 × 1500
= 6.6 × 1010 J
Original KE = 6.6 × 1010 J
weight 4
42
(c) (i) T
he minimum speed is such that friction R (106 m)
= weight 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
mg = μR
–1
So R = mg = 80 × 10 = 2000 N
μ 0.4 –2
(ii) The body is moving in a circle so the
–3
unbalanced force = centripetal force
V (107 J kg–1)
R = mv
2
–4
r
–5
v= Rr = 2000 × 6 = 12 m s–1
m 80
–6
3 (a) Gravitational potential is the amount of work
done per unit mass in taking a small test –7
mass from infinity (a place of zero potential) –8

to the point in question.
(a) (i) V at surface = –6.3 × 107 J kg–1
(b) (i) If field strength = 0 then field strength
(ii) Height 3.6 × 107 m = 36 × 106 m
of planet is equal and opposite to field
So R = (36 + 6) × 106 m
strength of moon.
R = 42 × 106 m
planet moon
0.8 0.2 So from graph V = –1.0 × 107 J kg–1
r (b) As satellite leaves the Earth, KE → PE so if
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
final KE = 0 then original KE = gain in PE
–1
From the graph ΔV = (6.3 – 1) × 107 J kg–1
–2
V (×107 J kg–1) ΔV = 4.4 = 5.3 × 107 J kg–1
–3 so ΔPE = 1 × 104 × 5.3 × 107 = 5.3 × 1011 J
–4 So minimum KE = 5.3 × 1011 J
–5
Note: field strength = 0 when gradient = 0 (c) The rocket doesn’t stop when it reaches the
orbit; it must have enough velocity to stay in
GMp GMm M r
⇒ p = p = 0.82 = 16
2
=
2
orbit
rp
2
rm Mm rm
2
0.2 2
(ii) As satellite travels from planet its mv2

= GM m
r r2
KE → PE During the early stages, whilst the rocket is
in the atmosphere, energy is lost due to air
4 resistance.

5 (a) The force is directed towards the centre so (b) Mass is travelling in a circle so centripetal
is perpendicular to the direction of motion. force = horizontal component of tension
Work done is the force x distance moved mv2
= Tsinθ
r
in the direction of the motion which is zero
Since no vertical acceleration weight =
since there is no motion towards the centre.
vertical component of tension
Alternatively one could argue that since the
mg = Tcosθ
speed and distance to centre are constant
Dividing gives tanθ = v
2
there is no change in either KE or PE therefore gr

no exchange of energy so no work done.
v = gr × tanθ = 9.8 × 0.33 × tan30°
(b) (i) The centripetal force is provided by
= 1.4 ms–1
gravitational attraction between the
masses so
mv2 GMm
= 2
r r Challenge yourself
v= Gm
r
(ii) Total energy = KE + PE 1 On the flat track
50 m
KE = 12 mv2 = 12 m GM GMm R
r 2r
PE = –GMm
r
μR
Total energy = GMm – –GMm = –GMm mg
2r
r 2r
–GMm
(c) The total energy is so if r is increased R = mg so R = 10 000 N
2r
total energy becomes less negative i.e. μR = 0.8 × 10 000 = 8000 N
Circular motion so mv = μR
2
bigger. If the energy has increased then
r
work has been done. To do this the engines
v2 = μRr = 8000 × 50 = 400
must be fired in the direction of motion so m 1000
rocket moves in the direction of the force. v = 20 m s–1 = 72 km h–1
On a banked track
6 (a) (i) 50 m
30° R
vertical
μR
mg
tension
45°
resultant Notice the friction is acting down the slope

weight r = 0.33m since the force on the car is acting upwards.
Vertical components:
R cos 45° = mg + μR sin 45°
(ii) The ball is not in equilibrium since mg
R=
(cos 45° – μ 30°
sin 45°)
it is not at rest or travelling at
10 000
constant velocity. The = = 7.1 × 104 N
vertical
(cos 45° – 0.8 sin 45°)
forces are therefore not Horizontal components:
balanced as can be shown mv2 tension
= R sin 45° + μR cos 45°
by adding together the r
v2 = R(sin 45° + 0.8 cos 45°) × r
forces on the diagram. resultant m
weight
v = 67ms–1 r =h–1
= 241 km 0.33m
5

Worked solutions
Chapter 5
4
Exercises
acceleration is constant here so not
simple harmonic motion 3 cm
A A A
1 (a) acceleration is constant here so not
simple harmonic motion
O 5s time
B B
B
5 If time period = 10 s

(b) U
then f = 1 = 0.1 Hz
U 10
So ω = 2πf = 0.1 × 2π = 0.2π
Using the equation for simple harmonic motion
x = x0 cos ω t
W
We want to know what the time is when x = 1 m
U is proportional
W to weight of fluid 1 = 2 cos(0.2πt)
displaced; this is proportional to the 0.5 = cos(0.2πt)
distance the rod is pushed under the water So cos–1 (0.5) = 0.2πt = 1.047
so this is simple harmonic motion.
t = 1.047 = 1.67 s
0.2π
(c) The tennis ball does not have an
acceleration and displacement so this is 6
not simple harmonic motion.
v
(d) A bouncing ball has constant acceleration
(g) except when bouncing so this is not f = 1Hz
+0.5 m s–1
simple harmonic motion.
0.5 m s–1
0.5 s 1s 1.5 s t
2 (a) Frequency, f = number of swings per second
–0.5 m s –1
20 swings in 12 s (assuming complete

swings)
20
= 1.67 Hz From the equation for simple harmonic motion
12 v = –v0 sin ω t
(b) Angular frequency, ω = 2πf = 10.49 rads/s
v0 = the maximum velocity
3 We can see from the graph that 0.5 s after
travelling upwards at 0.5 m s–1, the mass will
have a velocity of 0.5 m s–1 downwards.
x0
3.0 cm
time (s)
If released from the top then x = x0cosω t

After 1.55 s
x = 3.0 × cos(2π × 0.2 × 1.55) = –1.1 cm

7 (b) maximum KE = 12 mω 2x02
= 12 × 0.1 × (3π)2 × 0.042
= 7.1 × 10–3 J
(c) maximum PE = maximum KE = 7.1 × 10–3 J
t = 5s (d) KE = 12 mω2 (x02 – x2)
= 12 × 0.1 × (3π)2 (0.042 – 0.022)
= 5.3 × 10–3 J
(e) At any given instant, PE + KE = 7.1 × 10–3 J
so PE = 7.1 × 10–3 – 5.3 × 10–3 J
2m
= 1.8 × 10–3 J
(a) Maximum velocity = ω x0
11 f = 1 = 1
= 5.6 × 10–4 Hz
= 2πf x0 T (30 × 60)
= 2π × 1 × 2 v = f λ = 5.6 × 10–4 × 500 × 103 = 280 m s–1
5
= 2.5 m s–1 12 (a) v
v/2
(b) Maximum acceleration = ω 2x0 0.4 m
(5 )
= 2π × 2
2
= 3.16 m s–2
8
0.2 m

f = 2 Hz v = f λ so λ is proportional to v
λ1 v λ
= 1 = 2 so λ2 = 1 = 0.4 = 0.2 m
λ2 v2 2 2
(b) Inverted since after knot medium is more
5 cm
dense
(c) Because some of the energy is in the
reflected wave
Using the equation
v = ω x02 – x2 13 v = f λ
= 2π × 2 0.05 – 0.01 2 2 f = 1 = 2 Hz
0.5
= 4π 0.0024 λ = 0.6 m
= 0.62 m s–1 v = 2 × 0.6 = 1.2 m s–1
9 As it passes through the equilibrium position its 14 (a) M = 1.2 × 10–3 kg m–1 T = 40 N
velocity is maximum so use V = T = 40 = 182.6 m s–1
M 1.2 × 10–3
vmax = ω x0
(b) L = 63.5 cm
1
= 2π × × x0 = 1 m s–1
2 λ = 2L = 127 cm = 1.27 m
x0 = 2 = 1 = 0.32 m V = f λ ⇒ f = v = 182.6 = 143.8 Hz
2π π λ 1.27
10 m = 0.1 kg
15 v = f T = 1 T
x0 = 0.04 m μ 2l μ
f = 1.5 Hz λ = 2l
μ = 1.2 × 10 = 0.6 × 10–3 kg m–1
–3
(a) ω = 2πf = 3π rad s–1 2

T = f 2 × 4l 2 × μ = 5002 × 4 × 0.32 × 0.6 × 10–3
= 54 N
2

sin i1 v
16 I1 = 1 m = 1 = 0.3
sin i2 v2 0.5
sin i2 = sin 20° × 0.5
f1 = 650 Hz 0.3
i2 = 35°
C
19 6 cm
A
f2
6.2 cm
I2 = 80 cm
B
v = T
μ
(a) λ = 2 cm
T and μ are constant so f is proportional to l
f1 l v path difference = 6.2 – 6 = 0.2 cm
= 1 650 = 80
f2 l2 f2 100 phase angle = path difference × 2π = 0.2
λ 2.0
f2 = 812.5 Hz 1 π
= × 2π =
10 5
17 path difference 8–7
(b) × 2π = = 1 × 2π = π
λ 2 2
wave slows so path difference 11.5 – 10
(c) × 2π =
refracts towards λ 2
0.5 m s –1
30°
normal = 1.5 × 2π = 3 π
2 2
These answers are incorrect in some editions.
i2 20
0.4 m s–1
λ = 4 × 50 = 200 cm 50 cm
(a) f = v = 0.5 = 1.7 Hz

λ 0.3
(b) λ = = 0.4 = 0.24 m
v
f 1.7
sin i1 v1 v = f λ
(c) =
sin i2 v2 f = v = 340 = 170 Hz
λ 2
sin 30°
= 0.5 21
sin i1 0.4
sin i1 = sin 30° × 0.4 = 0.4 I1
0.5
i1 = 24°
18
shallow
20°
0.3 m s–1
i2
wave speeds up so 0.5 m s–1
refracts away from
(a) First harmonic when l1 = 14 λ
normal
deep λ = v = 340 = 1.328 m
f 256
l1 = 33.2 cm
3

(b) Second harmonic when l2 = 34 λ = 99.6 cm 25
Third harmonic when l3 = 54 λ = 166.0 cm
The third harmonic won’t be heard.
22 40°
air
30 m s–1 water
r
Using Snell’s law sin i = refractive index

eeek (1000 Hz)
sin r
sin 40°
= 1.33 (from table)
sin r
40 m s–1 sin r = sin 40° = 0.48
1.33
r = 29°
(a) Would hear lower note on the way down
Remember to change your calculator to
and higher note on the way up.
degrees.
(b) Maximum on the way up
cf0 26
f1 = = 340 × 1000 = 1097 Hz
c–v 340 – 30
(c) Minimum on the way down
cf0
f2 = = 330 × 1000 = 895 Hz
c+v 330 + 40
40°
(d) Would hear higher note on the way down air
and lower note on the way up.
diamond
v r
23
500 Hz
Using Snell’s law sin i = refractive index

sin r
sin 40°
= 2.42
sin r
Frequency increases when plane approaches
c × f0 sin r = sin 40° = 0.266
f1 = 2.42
c–v r = 15°
If frequency received = 20 000 Hz = 340 × 500
340 – v 27
340 – v = 340 × 500 = 8.5; v = 340 – 8.5 3 × 108 m/s
20 000 air
v = 331.5 m s–1
glass cg
24 f0 = 300 Hz
c 20 m s–1
Refractive index when light travels from
medium 1 → medium 2
= velocity in medium 1
velocity in medium 2
If moving towards source .50 = 3 × 10
1
8
cg
f1 = c + v × f0 = 340 + 20 × 300
c 340
cg = 3 × 10 = 2 × 108 m s–1
8
f1 = 317.6 Hz 1.5
4

28 30
θ2
50 µm
30° θ1
water n1 70°
D
i2
(a) sin 70° = 1.5; sin θ1 = sin 70° ; θ1 = 38.8°
sin θ1 1.5
air n2 (b) θ2 + θ1 = 90°; θ2 = 90 – 38.8 = 51.2°
(c) sin c = 1 ⇒ c = sin–1 1 = 41.8°
n (n)
sin i1 n (d) Ray will be totally internally reflected
= 2
sin i2 n1 (e) tan 38.8 = 50 ; D = 62.2 μm
D
sin 30°
= 1 D
sin i2 1.33
sin i2 = sin 30° × 1.33 38.8°
I2 = 42°
50 µm
29
air plastic
20° 31
30°
θ
0.05 mm y
θ
n1 = 1 n2
5m
λ = 550 nm
θ = λ = 550 × 10 –3 = 0.011 rad
–9
sin i1 n
= 2 b 0.05 × 10
sin i2 n1 y
2θ = = 0.022 ⇒ y = 0.022 × 5 = 0.11 m
n2 = 1 × sin 30° = 1.46 5
sin 20°
Now surrounded by water: 32
θ
5 cm
water plastic θ
I2 4m
30° 2θ = 0.05 = 0.0125
4
θ = 0.006 25
θ = λ ⇒ b λ = 550 × 10
–9
n1 = 1.33 n2
b θ 0.006 25
b = 8.8 × 10–5 m = 88 μm
33 4 × 1012
sin i1 n
= 2 θ θ x
sin i2 n1
sin i2 = sin 30° × 1.33 = 27° 4 cm
λ = 570 mm
1.46
i2 = 27°
5

The angle θ between the two diffraction 39 Δλ = 589.6 – 589 = 0.6 nm
patterns can be found using R = λ = mN; m = 1 (the order)
Δλ
θ = 1.22λ = 1.22 × 570 –2× 10 = 1.74 × 10–5 rad
–9
b 4 × 10 N = 589 = 982 lines

x 0.6
The angle subtended by the stars θ =
4 × 1012 40 Constructive when 2t = (m + 12 )λ
x = 1.74 × 10–5 × 4 × 1012 = 7 × 107 m
minimum when m = 0 ⇒ 2t = 12 λ
34 t = 14 λ = 14 × 600 × 10–9 m = 150 nm
λ = 600 mm
θ 1 cm 41 Destructive interference t = λ
θ 4
t = 380 × 10 = 95 nm
–9
d 4
200 km 42 (a) Water has lower refractive index so no
Angle subtended at camera phase change.
θ = 1 × 10 3
–2
Oil n = 1.5
200 × 10
= 5 × 10 rad
–8 Water n = 1.3
Diffracting angle θ = 1.22λ λair
b (b) λoil = = 580 = 387 nm
b= λ n 1.5
θ (c) 2t = (m + 12 )λ for constructive interference
1.22 × 600 × 10–9
= = 14.6 m minimum when m = 0; 2t = 12 λ ⇒ t = 14 λ
5 × 10–8
35 t = 14 × 387 = 97 nm
1m
43 Since the change at both boundaries is from
θ θ 0.01 cm less dense → more dense
⇒ no phase change on reflection
5 mm λ = 600 nm
⇒ t = λ for destructive interference.
4
Diffracting angle θ = 1.22λ = 1.22 × 600 –3× 10
–9
b 5 × 10 λcoating = 580 = 414 nm; t = 414 = 104 nm

1.4 4
= 1.5 × 10–4 rad
44
Angle subtended at eye by pixels,
λ1 = 690 nm
θ = 0.01 = 1 × 10–4 rad
1
The angle subtended is less than 1.5 × 10–4 so 3 × 108 m s–1
λ0 = 650 nm
you will not be able to resolve them. f0 = c/λ
= 4.615 × 1014 Hz
36 d = 0.01 × 10–3 m c
F1 = = 4.348 × 1014 Hz
λ = 600 × 10–9 m λ1
D = 1.5 m Δf = (4.615 – 4.348) × 1014 = 2.67 × 1013 Hz
b = λD = 600 × 10 ×–31.5 = 9 cm
–9
= v F1 ⇒ v = c × 2.67 × 10
13
d 0.01 × 10 = 0.06 c
c 4.348 × 10
14
37 d = 0.01 × 10–3 m
45 0
λ = 400 × 10–9 m
D = 1.5 m
b = λD = 400 × 10 ×–31.5 = 6 cm
–9
d 0.01 × 10 2 × 106 m s–1
38 (a) 300 lines/mm 658 nm

separation of lines = 1 = 3.3 × 10–3 mm
300
= 3.3 μm
(b) d sin θ = nλ, n = 1
sin θ = λ = 700 × 10–6 = 0.212
–9
d 3.3 × 10 Δλ = v λ0
θ = 12.24° c
6 Δλ = 2 × 10 × 658 = 4.38 nm
6
3 × 108

46 60°
(b) (i) The line should be parallel to D.
(ii) We can see that the wavelength gets
shorter ⇒ velocity is less in medium R.
I0
A C E
F
medium I
medium R
At first polarizer intensity transmitted
I0
= 50% of I0 = F
2
At second polarizer intensity transmitted
= I0 cos2θ
B
but light incident on the second polarizer
D
I0
= so light transmitted = 1 × cos2 60°
2 2
1 1 I0
= × = Could also tell from the way the wave
2 4 8
bends.
V
Ratio = I = 3.0 = 2.0
VR 1.5
Practice questions (c) (i) The sign of velocity changes ⇒
direction changes ⇒ body is oscillating.
1 v (m s–1)
wavelength 6
M
amplitude
displacement (mm)
t (m s)
3
(ii) Time period = 3 m s

F= 1 = 1
= 330 Hz
T 0.003
distance / m
(iii) Maximum displacement is when
Note: the graph in some editions of the book
velocity is zero – think of a pendulum; it
is not the same as the original, which was
stops at the top.
much easier.
(iv) To find area either count squares or
(a) Sound is a longitudinal wave. You may be
make a triangle that is a bit higher than
confused by the graph which looks transverse
the top.
but remember this is a graph not the wave.
Squares are rather small so I prefer to
(b) (i) Wavelength = 0.5 mm calculate 12 × 7 × 0.0015 = 5.25 mm
(ii) Amplitude = 0.5 mm
(iii) Speed = 330 ms–1
7ms
2 (a) A ray shows the direction of a wave and
a wavefront is a line joining points that
are in phase. A ray is perpendicular to 1.5 m s
a wavefront. (v) Area under v–t graph is displacement.

7

In this case it is displacement between (c) (i) From gradient vp = 1200 = 9.6 km s–1
125
two times when velocity = zero 1200
(ii) vs = = 5.8 km s–1
i.e. 2 × amplitude. 206
(d) (i) P S
L1

P wave is fastest so gets to the
detector first.
(ii) L3 is closest because the signal arrives
first.
(iii) 1. First pulse arrives first.
3 (a) (i) The speed of a wave is the distance
2. Separation of pulses is shorter.
travelled by the wave profile per
3. Amplitude of pulses is bigger.
unit time.
(iv) Measure on the graph where the
d
horizontal distance between the lines is
68 s, 42 s and 27 s (approximately)
So if wave progressed distance d in

time t, v = d
t
displacement (v)
(ii) Velocity = time where
displacement is the distance moved 1 2
in a certain direction. However light 3
earthquake
spreads out in all directions.
(b) (i) D
isplacement is how far a point on a
~ 1060 km, 650 km, 420 km
wave is moved from its original position.
L1 L2 L3
For example on a water wave how far
Closest to L3 furthest from L1
up or down a point is relative to the
(e) (i) antinode
original flat surface of the water.
(ii)
node
In a longitudinal wave, e.g. a wave in antinode

a slinky spring, the displacement is in
the same direction as the wave but
in a transverse wave, e.g. water, the (ii) If the standing wave is as shown then
displacement is perpendicular to the wavelength = 2 × height of building
direction. λ = 2 × 280 = 560 m
displacement
displacement v= fλ so f = v = 3400
λ 560
= 6.1 Hz (about 6 Hz)
direction direction
longitudinal transverse

So if the earthquake has a frequency of Since angle θ is
6 Hz, the building will be forced to vibrate θ = λ = 0.25 ⇒ λ = 3 × 0.25 = 5 × 10–4 mm
3 1500 1500
at its own natural frequency so will have a
= 500 μm
large amplitude vibration (resonance).
Note: You probably don’t need to do part e
4 (a) Superposition is what happens when in the core; this is now only part of the EM
two waves coincide: the displacements option.
of waves add vectorially to produce a
5 (a) (i) (ii)
resultant wave.
direction of wave
(b) longitudinal
wave X
direction of wave
transverse
(b) In T the wave progresses 1

4 cycle is 14 λ
4
wave Y λ
A
M
If X and Y are added they give the resultant.
(c) (i) T
wo sources are said to be coherent if
they have the same frequency, similar
amplitude and a constant phase N

difference.
Wave moves left so trough is about to
(ii) To get interference the light from S1 and reach M.
S2 must overlap; this only happens if
(c) (i) λ = 5.0 cm; v = 10 m s–1
the light is diffracted which means the
v = fλ ⇒ f = v = 10 = 2.0 Hz
slits must be narrow. λ 5
(d) (i) F
or maximum intensity the path (ii) In 14 T wave moves 14 λ = 1
4 × 5.0
difference = nλ where n is a whole = 1.25 cm
number. (d) When two waves coincide the resultant
(ii) displacement at any point is equal to the
I vector sum of the individual displacements.
maximum at P and 0;
question states no
other maximum between A1 A2
P and 0
A1 + A2

O P distance
If waves that have the same frequency
(e)
and a constant phase overlap then, due
to superposition, they will add or cancel
0.25 mm out. This is called interference.
θ (e) (i) If the path difference = nλ then there
3 mm θ will be constructive interference. n is an
integer.
S2X
λ (ii) Since angles are small θ =
d
1.5 m 9

yn 7 (a) (i) (ii)
(iii) Again small angles so ϕ =
D A A
(f) (i) θ = 2.7 × 10–3 rad
d = 1.4 mm
S2X
θ= where S2X = 8λ
d
so λ = dθ = 1.4 × 10 × 2.7 × 10
–3 –3
8 8 N
= 473 nm
(ii) From geometry:
ϕ = θ = 2.7 × 10–3 rad
D = 1.5 m
yn A N
ϕ= ⇒ yn = ϕ × D = 4 mm
D
(b) (i) Frequency of 1st pipe = 512 Hz
spacing = 4 = 0.5 mm
8
Wavelength of wave = v = 325
f 512
6 (a) = 63.5 cm
pipe is 12 λ so length = 63.5 = 31.7 cm
2
v V (ii) The length of a closed pipe is shorter
than an open one of the same
frequency so if the organ pipes are
closed they take up less space.
Vt
vt 8 (a) (i) When light passes through the aperture
of the lens it will be diffracted (spread
(b) In time t distance moved by source = vt
out).
distance moved by sound = Vt
So all waves produced in time t are (ii)
squashed into a distance Vt – vt ahead of
the source, so number of complete cycles
produced = f0t
so λ = Vt – vt but f = V A circular opening leads to a circular
f0t λ
V × f0 diffraction pattern, as shown.
so apparent frequency f1 = V =
λ V–v (b) 17 mm
A bit confusing using V and v.
(c) Using the formula Δλ = V λ λ = 550 nm
c
V α 4 μm
0.004 = × 600
3 × 108
V
(i) angle is small so

α = 4 × 10 –5 = 2.4 × 10–4 rad
–6
17 × 10
(ii) If α = 1.22λ then resolved.
V = 0.004 × 3 × 108 = 2 × 103 m s–1 d
600 1.22 × 550 × 10–9
So d = = 2.8 mm
= 2 km s–1 2.4 × 10–4
10

Challenge yourself
2 Equation of a wave = A sin ω t – 2πx( λ )
This wave travels from left to right, since points
to the right of the origin lag behind the origin.
1 F1
Equation of a wave travelling from right to left
F2
2 cm (
= A sin ω t + 2πx
λ )
If these waves superpose the resultant
X
displacement is given by
( ) (
A sin ω t – 2πx + A sin ω t + 2πx
λ λ )
10 cm (h) But sin a + sin b = 2 sin a+b
2( ) (
cos a – b
2 )
displacement = 2A sin
2((
ω t 2πx
–
2λ
+
2) (
ω t
+ 2πx
2λ ))
cos
2((
ω t 2πx
–
2λ
– ) (
ω t
2
+ 2πx
2λ ))
y = 2A sin (ωt) cos 2πx
λ ( )
, since cos(–a) = cos(a)
W
This displacement is zero when cos 2πx = 0
λ ( )
W which is when 2πx = π , 3π etc.
λ 2 2
When floating the forces are balanced λ 3λ
so when x = , etc.
4 4
F1 = W
These points are separated by λ .
F1 = buoyant force = weight of fluid displaced = 2
hAρw g
W = mg = hAρw g
When pushed down there is extra buoyant force
= xAρw g
Resultant upward force = –xAρw g (if x taken to
be in the positive direction this is –)
g
acceleration = –xAρw
m
but m = hAρw (from the condition of equilibrium)
–xAρw g
a=
hAρw
a=– g x (h)
This implies simple harmonic motion so
a = –ω 2x, so ω 2 = g
h
ω = 2π = g
T h
T = 2π h = 0.6 s
g
11

Worked solutions
Chapter 6
5
Exercises 0.2 μC
+
1 E = 40 NC–1 m = 0.01 kg 0.5 N/C
q = 5 × 10–6 C
F = Eq = 40 × 5 × 10–6 = 2 × 10–4 N (a) From definition of E, E = F ⇒ F = Eq
q
2 F = 3 × 10 N –5 so F = 0.5 × 0.2 μC = 0.1 μN
q = –1.5 × 10–6 C (b) From Newton’s second law F = ma
–5
E = F = 3 × 10 –6 = 20 N C–1
–6
q –1.5 × 10 a = F = 0.1 × 10 = 1 × 10–5 ms–2 in the

m 0.01
(direction is south, opposite to force since direction of the field.
charge is negative)
6 0.2 m
3 a = 100 ms–2 +
q = –1.6 × 10–19 C + +
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg + 50 μC +
+
F = ma = 9.1 × 10–29 N
E = F = 9.1 × 10–29 + +
q 1.6 × 10–19
= 5.7 × 10–10 NC–1 +
9 –6
4 v = kQ = 9 × 10 × 50 × 10 = 2.25 × 106 v
10 cm r 0.2
9 –6
7 0.4 m from the sphere V = 9 × 10 × 50 × 10
0.4
= 1.13 × 106 V
potential difference = (2.25 – 1.13) × 106
2 μC = 1.13 × 106 V
(a) Using the equation for electrical field 8
strength of a sphere
B
E = kQ
2
r
9 × 109 × 2 × 10–6
E= = 1.8 × 106 NC–1
(10 × 10–2)2
F Q A D
(b) 10 cm from the sphere r = 20 cm 1 Q2
9
× 10–6
so E = 9 × 10 × 2 –2 2
20 V
10 V –40 V
(20 × 10 )
E = 4.5 × 10 NC 5 –1 0V –30 V
–20 V C
(c) Using the equation E = F ⇒ F = Eq
q –10 V
So F = 0.1 × 10–6 × 4.5 × 105 1m
= 4.5 × 10–2 N E
(d) Relative permittivity = ε = 4.5 so ε = 4.5ε0
ε0
F is proportional to 1 (a) Q2 is negative since the potential near it is
ε
negative.
If sphere is surrounded by concrete
Fair (b) A positive charge would move to a position
F= = 0.045 = 0.01 N
4.5 4.5 of lower potential, i.e. towards Q2
1

9 Field strength is greatest where the potential 16 VB = 5 V
gradient is greatest (equipotential closest) so VD = 0 V
position F potential difference = 5 V
10 (a) A – C → | 0 – –20| = 20 V 17 PE = V0q = 5 × 3 = 15 J

(b) C – E → |–20 – –10| = 10 V 18 Change in potential from C → B = 5 – 3 = 2V
(c) B – E → |–10 – –10| = 0 V Work done = ΔV × q = 2 × 2 = 4 J
11 (a) C → A; ΔV = 20 V; work = ΔVq = 20 × 2 19 VAB = 5 – 1 = 4 V
= 40 J Work done = ΔV × q = 4 × –2 = –8 J
(b) E → C; ΔV = –10 V; work = ΔVq = –10 × 2
20 (a) It would accelerate downwards.
= –20 J
(b) gain in KE = loss in PE = ΔV × q
(c) B → E; ΔV = 0 V; work = 0 J
=4×3
12 = 12 J
0.5 m B 21 VAB = 5 – 1 = 4 V gain in KE = 4 eV
22 VCD = 3 – 0 = 3 V WD moving electron = 3 eV
23 (a) ρ = M so V = M
F Q A D V ρ
1 Q2
0.0635
20 V = 7.1 × 10–6 m3
10 V –40 V 8960
0V
(b) 1 mole contains 6 × 1023 molecules
–30 V 23
–20 V C atoms per unit volume = 6 × 10 –6
7.1 × 10
–10 V = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
1m
one electron per atom so electrons per unit
E volume, n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
each small square = 0.1 m
(c) I = nAve ⇒ v = I
nAe
Field strength = ΔV A = πr2
Δx 1
v=
The potential difference across D = 10 V (using (8.5 × 10 × π × (0.5 × 10–3)2 × 1.6 × 10–19)
28
the two nearest lines) = 9.4 × 10–5 ms–1
R = ρL
Distance between lines = 0.2 m
24
A
E = 10 = 50 Vm–1 ρL
0.2 A= = 1.1 × 10–6 × 2 = 4 × 10–7 m2
Only an estimate since field not uniform R 5
A = πr2 r = A = 3.7 × 10–4 m
13 At point A potential = 0 V = V1 + V2 π
kQ1 kQ2 Q2 So diameter = 3.7 × 10–4 m
0=
r1
+
r2
= 9 × 109 1 × 10
0.5
–9
( +
1.5 ) 25 R = ρL = 1.7 × 10–8 × 2000
= 10.8 Ω
A π × (0.1 × 10–2)2
Q2 = –1.5 × 1 × 10–9 = –3nC
0.5 26 9V
14 (a) E → A; ΔV = 10 V; work done = –10 eV
3 mA R
(b) C → F; ΔV = 50 V; work done = –50 eV
(c) A → C; ΔV = –20 V; work done = 20 eV Using Ohm’s law
V = IR
15 VA = 1 V
VC = 3 V R= V = 9
I 3 × 10–3
potential difference = 2 V = 3 × 103 = 3 kΩ
2

27 V 31 23 Ω
1 μA 300 kΩ
I
Using Ohm’s law 1Ω
V = IR
V = 1 × 10–6 × 300 × 103 12 V
= 300 × 10–3 Total resistance in the circuit = 24 Ω
= 0.3 V Using Ohm’s law V = IR
28 12 V I = V = 12 = 0.5 A
R 24
Using Ohm’s law again the pd across the 23 Ω
I 600 Ω resistor = IR = 0.5 × 23 = 11.5 V
Using Ohm’s law
32 20 Ω
V = IR
I = V = 12 5A
R 600
I = 0.02 = 20 mA (a) Energy per second is power. Using the
equation P = I2R
29 Using Ohm’s law P = 52 × 20 = 25 × 20
V = IR P = 500 W
R= V Therefore 500 J is converted in 1 second.
I
(b) In 1 minute, 500 × 60 = 3 × 104 J will be
V (V) I (mA) V/I kΩ
released.
1.0 0.01 100
10.0 0.10 100 33
25.0 1.00 25
0.25 A
30 11 Ω
0.5 Ω
0.5 A
Using P = I2R
The power dissipated in the internal resistance
R = 0.252 × 0.5 = 0.031 W
6V
34 4W
Using Ohm’s law V = IR
pd across 11 Ω resistor = 0.5 × 11 = 5.5 V
This means pd across R = 0.5 V 0.5 A
0.5 V
R 0.5 A 9V
Power delivered by battery = IV

Using Ohm’s law again R = V = 1 Ω
I = 9 × 0.5 = 4.5 W
If 4 W are dissipated in the external resistance
0.5 W must be dissipated in the internal
resistance.

35 30 m/s 40 8Ω 8Ω
1000 kg
(a) KE = 12 mv2 14 Ω 2Ω
= 12 × 1000 × 302 The top two and the bottom two are in series so
= 450 kJ they simply add.
(b) Ignoring friction etc. the power of the car This circuit can then be simplified:
16 Ω
= energy gained = 450 000 = 37.5 kW
energy taken 12
(c) Using P = IV
37 500 = I × 300 16 Ω
I = 125 A
Two equal resistors in parallel have a combined
36 No energy is lost, no heat produced, motor is resistance of 12 of one of them so:
100% efficient, no friction Rtotal = 8 Ω
37 100 W 41 4Ω 8Ω 16 Ω
220 V These are in series so the resistances simply

add
(a) Using P = IV
RT = 4 + 8 + 16 = 28 Ω
I = P = 100 = 0.45 A
V 220 42 16 Ω
(b) If 20% of 100 W is converted to light,
20 8Ω
× 100 = 20 W are converted.
100
That’s 20 J per second. 4Ω
38 (a) Using P = IV
These 3 are in parallel so I = I + I + I
RT R1 R2 R3
I = P = 1000 = 4.5 A
V 220 = 1 + 1 + 1
16 8 4
(b) If the power is 1 kW then the heater 1 2
= + + 4 = 7
releases 1000 J per second. In 5 hours, 16 16 16 16
5 × 60 × 60 × 1000 = 1.8 × 107 J are RT = 16 Ω
7
released.
43 6V
39 16 Ω
A
8Ω
10 Ω 2Ω
These resistors are in parallel so: I = I + I
RT R1 R2
= 1 + 1 = 1 + 2
16 8 16 16
V
1 3
=
RT 16 Total resistance = 12 Ω
16
RT = Ω so using Ohm’s law I = V = 6 = 0.5 A
3 R 12
0.5 A flows through the 10 Ω resistor so
V = IR = 0.5 × 10 = 5 V
4

44 6V 47 6V
A 1 kΩ 1 kΩ
4Ω
2 kΩ
2Ω 2Ω
V
Without meter pd = 3 V
V Resistance of 1 kΩ plus meter
I
The two 2 Ω resistors are in series so add up to = 1 + 1 = 3 ⇒ R = 2 = 0.67 kΩ
R 1 2 2 3
give 4 Ω. This combination is in parallel with the Total resistance = 1.67 kΩ
4 Ω resistor so the total resistance = 2 Ω. Current in whole circuit
Using Ohm’s law for the whole circuit
I= V = V
= 6 × 103 = 3.6 mA
Rtotal (R1 + R2) 1.67
I = V = 6 = 3A
R 2
pd across meter = IR = 3.6 × 10–3 × 0.67 × 103
The pd across the two 2 Ω resistors = 6 V. This
= 2.4 V
will be dropped equally across them so pd
Difference = 3 – 2.4 = 0.6 V
across each = 3 V
45 6V (3)
% difference = 0.6 × 100% = 20%
48 6V
V
4Ω A 0.5 Ω
2Ω 1Ω
2Ω 2Ω
A
Without meter R = 3 Ω
The pd across the 4 Ω resistor is the same as
I = V = 6 = 2A
the battery, 6 V. R 3
The pd across the two 2 Ω resistors is also 6 V. With meter R = 3.5 Ω
They are in series so total resistance = 4 Ω I = 6 = 1.7 A
3.5
Using Ohm’s law I = V = 6 = 1.5 A
R 4 Difference = 0.3 A
46 6V
(2)
% difference = 0.3 × 100% = 15%
49 2Ω 12 V
V A
I1
4Ω
I A B
4Ω
I2 1Ω 6V
The voltmeter reads the pd across the battery

1Ω
= 6V
The resistors are in parallel so total resistance
Kirchhoff’s first law
= 2 Ω
I1 + I2 = I (1)
Using Ohm’s law I = V = 6 = 3 A
R 2 Kirchhoff’s second law to outer loop
12 = 2I1 + I (2)

Inner loop Fill out the rest to make sure consistent:
6 = I2 + I (3) 6V 12 V 3V 6V
2Ω 1Ω
Need to find I so substitute for I2 in (3) 3A
6 = (I – I1) + I = 2I – I1 A
V
multiply by 2; 12 = 4I – 2I1
add this to (2) (12 = I + 2I1); 1.5 V 1.5 V
1Ω 1Ω
24 = 5I
I = 4.8 A 3V 1.5 A 6V
1.5 A
2Ω 2Ω
so VAB = 1 × 4.8 = 4.8 V
Check:
51
I1 = (12 – I) = 3.6 A 2 kΩ
2
I2 = 4.8 – 3.6 = 1.2 A
Fill in all the unknowns to see if consistent: 1 kΩ
7.2 V 12 V
2Ω 1V
3.6 A
A B
Total of parallel combination 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.5,
R 2 0.5
1.2 A so R = 0.4 kΩ
1.2 V 6V
1Ω Rtotal = 0.9 kΩ
4.8 V Current = V = 1 = 1.11 mA

4.8 A R 900
1Ω
pd across 0.4 kΩ = 1.11 × 10–3 × 0.4 × 103
50 = 0.44 V
2Ω 12 V 1Ω 6V
Or
R2
Vo = × Vi = 0.4 × 1 = 0.44 V
A R1 + R2 0.9
Resistance of nichrome = ρL
V
52
A
1Ω 1Ω
= 1.5 × 10–6 × 1 × (0.05 × 10–3)2 = 191 Ω
π
2Ω 2Ω
Length divided by 3 gives:
4
1 MΩ
Assume meters are all ideal.
First find total resistance. 100 Ω 143 Ω 48 Ω
Total for parallel combination at the bottom left

1V
I
= 1 + 1 = 1, so R = 1Ω
R 2 2
Add the series resistors R Ignore the 1 MΩ as it will draw hardly any
Rtotal = 2 + 1 + 2 + 1 = 6 Ω current.
Total emf = 18 V Total resistance = 291 Ω
Current = 18 = 3 A current I = V = 1 = 3.44 mA
6 R 291
Ammeter reading = 3 A V143 = IR = 3.44 × 10–3 × 143 = 0.49 V
pd across parallel combination = 1 × 3 = 3 V
Current through top branch = 3 A
2
pd across 1 Ω resistor = 3 × 1 = 1.5 V
2
Voltmeter reading = 1.5 V
6

53 field into page 56 F = Bqv = 5 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 500
(vertically down) = 4 × 10–19 N
N 0.5 m 2A 57
B
500 V
20 μT
(a) Using the formula F = BIL

F = 20 × 10–6 × 2 × 0.5 r = 10 cm
F = 2 × 10–5 N
(b) thuMb
(a) KE = Vq = 500 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 8 × 10–17 J
(b) KE = 1 mv2
2
–17
v = 2KE = 2 × 8 × 10–31 = 1.3 × 107 ms–1
m 9.1 × 10
seCond (north–south) First (vertically downwards) (c) Moving in a circle so
2
Bqv = mv
r
Using Fleming’s left hand rule, force is to
the east B = mv
qr
–31 7
54 wire with current = 9.1 × 10 ×–191.3 × 10
out of page (up) 1.6 × 10 × 0.1
–4
= 7.4 × 10 T
58
100 ms–1
B = 10 μT v 30° B
I = 0.5 A
L = 1m q + 5 mT
(a) Using formula F = BIL

F = 10 × 10–6 × 0.5 × 1 m
F = Bqv sin θ
F = 5 × 10–6 N
= 5 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 100 × sin 30°
(b) First (directed north)
= 4 × 10–20 N
59 B = 50 μT
thuMb
seCond (upwards)
20 cm
20 m s–1
(a) emf = BLv

Using Fleming’s left hand rule (probably best = 50 × 10–6 × 0.2 × 20
using your own ), force is west = 2 × 10–4 V
55 Use Fleming’s left hand rule: (b) Using Ohm’s law 2 × 10–4 V
–4
(a) (b) (c) I = V = 2 × 10
I R 2
B = 1 × 10–4 A
I
2Ω
7

(c) Power dissipated = I 2R = (1 × 10–4)2 × 2 (b) Component of field perpendicular to plane
= 2 × 10–8 W (J/s) of coil = B cos 30°
(d) Work done = energy dissipated = 2 × 10–8 J Flux enclosed = BAN cos 30°
= 1.3 × 10–5 Tm2
(e) Velocity of wire = 20 m s–1 so moves 20 m in
1 s. (c) emf = rate of change of flux = ΔB
Δt
–5
(f) Work done = F × d = (1.5 – 1.3) × 10 = 0.67 μV
3
–8 I0
F = work = 2 × 10 = 1 × 10–9 N 62 Irms = 2 ⇒ I0 = Irms × 2
distance 20
(Since velocity is constant the forces are I0 = 110 × 2 = 156 V
balanced.)
63 Vrms = 220 V; P = Vrms Irms = 4000 W
60
Irms = 4000 = 18 A
–4 2
Area = 2 × 10 m 50 turns
220
64 A = 5 × 10–4 m2
B = 100 μT B = 50 mT
(a) Flux enclosed by each coil = A × B

500 turns
= 2 × 10–4 × 100 × 10–6 = 2 × 10–8 T m2
Since there are 50 turns, total flux (a) (i) 50 rev s–1 = 50 × 2π rad s–1
= 50 × 2 × 10–8 = 1 × 10–6 T m2 = 100π rad s–1
(b) If flux density changed to 50 μT then flux (ii) εmax = BANω = 3.9 V
enclosed = 0.5 × 10–6 μT m2 3.9
(iii) εrms = 2 = 2.8 V
Rate of change of flux = ΔB = 1.0 – 0.5
Δt 2 (b) 12 the angular velocity so 1
the εrms = 1.4 V
= 0.25 μT m s
–2 –1 2
2 2
V V 2
(c) Induced emf = rate of change of flux 65 P= rms
⇒R= rms
= 200 = 48.4 Ω
R P 1000
= 0.25 μV
66 Vp = 220 V
61 0.02 m 50 turns Vs = 4.5 V
Np Vp
(a) If Np = 500, =
Ns Vs
500
0.03 m 500 μT = 220
Ns 4.5
500 × 4.5
Ns = = 10.3 turns (10)
220
(b) P = IV = 0.45 × 4.5 = 2 W
30° B (c) If 100% efficient
power in = power out
30° Ip Vp = Is Vs
Ip × 220 = 0.45 × 4.5
Ip = 9.2 mA
(a) Flux enclosed = BAN (d) If charger not charging then no power
= 500 × 10–6 × 0.02 × 0.03 × 50 out, which implies no power in, so no
= 1.5 × 10–5 T m2 current flows.
This is for a 100% ideal transformer.

67 Power 72 (a) In series 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 3
C C1 C2 4 8 8
station
8
C = = 2.67 μF
3
500 MW
50 kV (b) In parallel C = C1 + C2 = 12 μF
73 2 μF
Transformer
4 μF
100 kV 6 μF
8Ω
Transformer 6V
220 V
Capacitance of the capacitors in parallel is
Town
2 + 6 = 8 μF
1
(a) 500 MW at 100 kV; P = VI = 1 + 1 =1+1=3
C C1 C2 4 8 8
6
I = P = 500 × 103 = 5 × 103 A
V 100 × 10 C = 8 μF
3
Total charge = CV = 8 × 6 = 16 μC
2 3 2
(b) Power loss = I R = (5 × 10 ) × R = 200 MW
3
(c) 200 × 100% = 40%
500 Charge on the 4 μF capacitor is equal to total
(d) Power delivered = 500 – 200 = 300 MW charge so V = Q = 16 = 4 V
C 4
(e) Available to town = 300 MW
6
74 4 μF 12 μF
(f) P = VI; I = 300 × 10 = 1.36 MA
220
68 0.1 m 2 μF
0.005 m
12 V
ε0 A 8.85 × 10 × π × 0.05
–12 2
C= = = 1.39 × 10–11 F
d 0.005
0.1 m
Total of the capacitors in series is 1 = 1 + 1
69 C C1 C2
=1+ 1 = 4
4 12 12
0.001 m
C = 3 μF
Charge on the capacitors in series is
εrε0 A
= 4 × 8.85 × 10 × π × 0.05
–12 2
C= CV = 3 × 12 = 36 μC
d 0.001
= 2.78 × 10–10 F Charge on the 4 μF capacitor is the same as the
total charge on the capacitors in series = 36 μC
70
pd across the 4 μF capacitor = Q = 36 = 9 V
C 4
0.01 m 1 2 1
75 E= 2 CV = 2 × 5 × 10 × 9 = 2.03 × 10–4 J
–6 2
0.0001 m
ε0 A 2
0.2 m 76 (a) C = = 8.85 × 10–12 × π × 0.1
d 0.002
εrε0 A –12
C= = 5 × 8.85 × 10 × 2 × 0.01 = 1.39 × 10–10 F
d 0.0001
= 8.85 × 10–9 F (b) Q = CV = 1.39 × 10–10 × 6 = 8.34 × 10–10 C
(c) E = 12 QV = 12 × 8.34 × 10–10 × 6
71 Q = CV = 2 × 10–6 × 6 = 1.2 × 10–5 C
= 2.5 × 10–9 J

(d) If isolated, charge will remain the same but
new capacitance is 12 previous Practice questions
C = 6.95 × 10–11 F
Q = 8.34 × 10–10 C 1 E = 8.1 × 103 J
2
E = Q = 5 × 10–9 J Q = 5.8 × 103 C
2C
r
Extra energy stored is gained from work
done pulling plates apart. ε
0.2 V
1.4 V
77 50 electrons so Q = 50 × 1.6 × 10–19 C R = 6Ω
= 8 × 10–18 C
–18
V = Q = 8 × 10 –9 = 8 × 10–11 V 1.2 V
C 100 × 10 3
78 (a) τ = CR = 5 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 50 s
–3 3 (i) emf = energy per coulomb = 8.1 × 103
5.8 × 10
= 1.4 V
(b) Q = CV = 5 × 10–3 × 10 = 50 mC
–t (ii) If ε = 1.4 V and pd across R = 1.2 V
(c) When discharging V = V0e RC
–20 then pd across r = 0.2 V
V = 10 × e 50 = 6.7 V
so 1.4 = 0.2 + 1.2, as shown
(d) When starting to discharge pd across If you go up 1.4 V you must come down
R = 10 V 1.4 V.
I= V = 10
= 1 mA Applying Ohm’s law to R
R 10 × 103
(e) When discharging I = I0e RC
–t
I = V = 1.2 = 0.2 A
R 6
()
ln I = –t
I0 RC
Applying Ohm’s law to r
r = V = 0.2 V = 1.0 Ω
I0 I 0.2 A
If I = (iii) Charge flowing = 5.8 × 103 C
2
ln ()
1
2
= –t
RC
Potential difference across R = energy
converted to heat per unit charge
t = RC × ln 2 = 35 s So energy converted in R = pd × Q
79 (a) time constant = RC = 1 × 10 × 10–6 = 1.2 × 5.8 × 103 = 6.9 × 103 J
= 1 × 10–5 s, so the capacitor will be fully (iv) Current is made up of electron flow, as
charged after 1 s electrons flow through the metal they
(b) Initially pd across C = pd across R interact (collide) with the metal atoms,
Vc = 5 V giving them energy. This is rather like
5 = IR the way a rubber ball gives energy to
5 the steps as it falls down the stairs.
I=
0.5 × 106 Increased vibration of the atomic lattice
I = 1 × 10–5 A results in an increase in temperature.
(c) RC = 0.5 × 106 × 10 × 10–6 = 5 s
–t –2 2 (a) V
V = Voe RC = 5 × e 5 = 3.35 V
0
0 I
10

(b) (i) Resistance = V ; this can be found by If we look at circuit 2 we see that
I
dividing V by I. the pd across the internal resistance
(ii) Non-ohmic since the graph is not is 0.4 V.
linear. An ohmic resistor should have a Now I = 0.2 A
constant value for R. So R = V = 0.4 = 2.0 Ω
I 0.2
(c) I = 120 mA V = 6.0 V (c) (i) Apply Ohm’s law: I = 0.18 A, V = 0.6 V
(i) R= V = 6.9
= 50 Ω
I 120 × 10–3 R = V = 0.4 = 3.3 Ω
I 0.2
(ii) 24 V
(ii) Ohm’s law again: I = 0.2 A, V = 2.6 V
R = V = 2.6 = 13 Ω
120 mA I 0.2
(d) Resistance is different because temperature
of bulb is greater in c (ii)
18 V 6V (e) V
If a resistor R is connected in series then
the total pd across R and bulb = 24 V.
pd across bulb = 6 V
so pd across R = 18 V
pd across R = 18 V
R= V
I
18
= = 150 Ω
120 × 10–3
0
0 I
3 (a) (i) This means that if the bulb is
connected to 3 V then 0.6 W of power (f) The circuit is the same as this:
is dissipated.
I
(ii) P = IV ⇒ I = P = 0.6 = 0.2 A
V 3
(b) (i) Minimum value is when R is maximum; 12 Ω
this can only be zero if maximum value
of R is infinite. 3V
Maximum value of current is when R

is zero. Ideally the pd across the bulb 12 Ω 4Ω
would then be 3 V but it isn’t because
the circuit and battery have resistance.
(ii) 0.18 A First calculate resistance of the 12 Ω and
A
4 Ω resistors in parallel:
3.0 V 0.6 V
V
1
R 12 4
maximum value
0.20 A
A
3.0 V 2.6 V 1
2 V = 1 + 1 = 1+3 = 4
RT 12 4 12 12
12
0.4 V RT = = 3Ω
4
R
minimum value 11

Now add the other 12 Ω V(V)
V when I = 0
R = 12 + 3 = 15 Ω 1.5
12 Ω
3Ω
Total R = 15 Ω; apply Ohm’s law to the

whole combination → I = V = 3 = 0.2 A 0.42
R 15
Applying Ohm’s law to the 12 Ω resistor
→ V = IR = 0.2 × 12 = 2.4 V
so the pd across the bulb must be
3 – 2.4 = 0.6 V 0.90 I(A)
4 (a) (i) Power from cell = emf × current = EI (d) (i) When I is zero there will be no pd
E r across r, so V = E ⇒ E = 1.5 V
(ii) If the resistance R is very small then
I V V = 0
so current can be found from the
intercept on the I axis ≈ 1.3 A
R
(iii) When R = 0 pd across r = 1.5 V
emf is energy converted
charge so r = V = 1.5 = 1.2 Ω
I 1.3
so emf × current = energy × charge
charge time (e) If R = r then R must equal 1.2 Ω
energy 1.5 V
= = power
time
(ii) Power dissipated in cell = power 1.2 Ω
dissipated in r = I 2r
(iii) Power dissipated in external circuit
= I 2R = IV 1.2 Ω
(b) From the law of conservation of energy: So total R = 2.4 Ω
power from cell = power dissipated in circuit Ohm’s law → I = V = 1.5 A
R 2.4
EI = I2r + VI ⇒ E = V + Ir
(c) r
2
Power = I R = 1.5
2.4 ( ) × 1.2 = 0.48 W
2
5 (a) Gravitational field strength is the force

experienced per unit mass by a small test
V mass placed in the field.
A
R (b) Should be GM = g0R2
From Newton’s law the force on a mass m
variable resistor on the surface of the Earth F = GMm
2
R
Field strength g0 = F = GMm ⇒ g0 = GM
m R2m R2
⇒ GM = g0R2
12

(c) Use Fleming’s right hand rule Error carried forward: In IB questions you
(d) F = B cos θ × V × e generally don’t get penalized for carrying
an error forward so if you got part (e) wrong
B cosθ and used your answer in part (g), then you
θ Component of B
perpendicular should get the marks for (g).
to wire
6 (a) (i) The emf induced in a conductor placed
in a magnetic field is directly proportional
F
direction of current to the rate of change of the flux it
encloses.
velocity out of page (ii) The loop encloses B field as shown. If
the current changes then the enclosed
(e) E = energy converted from mechanical
flux field will change so, according to
work to electrical PE per unit charge.
Faraday, emf will be induced.
Work done on an electron in pushing it along
the wire = force × distance current-carrying wire
= B cos θ × ev × L
Work done per unit charge = WD
e
= B cos θ × vL
This is the correct answer since question
says deduce from (d). However a more
obvious solution uses Faraday’s law.
E = rate of flux cut
= B cos θ × area swept out per second (b) When gradient of B versus t is maximum
= B cos θ × vL since wire moves a distance then ε is maximum.
v in 1 second. I B ∝ I so flux varies as current
(f) For an orbiting body the gravitational force

ε = dBϕ
= centripetal force dt
2
so GMm
2
= mv (iii) When coil is further from the wire, the B
R R
(where R is the orbit radius) field will be less so flux enclosed will be
so v = GM smaller.
R As a result dNϕ is less so ε is less.
From the question we know that for the dt
Earth’s surface GM = g0R02 (c) Advantage – does not need to be in contact
(where R0 is the Earth’s radius) with the wire.
= 10 × (6.4 × 106)2 Disadvantage – distance from the wire
So GM = 4.1 × 1014 N m2 kg–1 should be known.
Height = 3 × 105 m 7 V0
so R = 3 × 105 + 6.4 × 106 = 6.7 × 106 m
14
so V = 4.1 × 10 6 = 6.1 × 107 I0
6.7 × 10
= 7.8 × 103 m s–1
(g) From answer to (e), E = B cos θ × vL R
so E = 6.3 × 10–6 cos 20° × 7.8 × 103 × L Power = Vrms Irms
= 1000 V v0 I
1000 where Vrms = and Irms = 0
L= –6 3 2 2
6.3 × 10 cos 20° × 7.8 × 10
= 2.2 × 104 m
13

v0I0 2
Power = rearranging, we find r3 = kQ × 2L
2 mg
The answer is A. 9 –10 2
= (9 × 10 × (5.5 × 10
–6
) × 2 × 0.5)
(10 × 10 × 10)
8 For an ideal transformer no power is lost.
= 2.7 × 10–5
power in = power out
and r = 3 cm
VpIp = VsIs
The answer is C. 2 A vacuum cleaner has an electric motor, which
This is always true only if the transformer is consists of a coil rotating in a magnetic field.
ideal; however, none of the other answers When a coil rotates in a magnetic field an emf
makes any sense. will be induced in it that opposes the change
producing it. This means that the induced emf
will oppose the current flowing through the coil.
If there were no resistance this emf would equal
Challenge yourself the applied emf and no current would flow.
When the motor starts there is no induced emf
1 The situation looks like this: (back emf) opposing the current so the current
is much larger than when running. This can
cause the circuit breaker in the house to switch
off. To prevent this a variable resistor could be
θ placed in series with the motor; this is reduced
as the motor starts to rotate.
3 12 V 4 μF
L
T
θ 2 μF 2 μF
When connected to the battery

F
Q = CV = 24 μC
r Energy stored = 12 CV 2 = 0.5 × 2 × 10–6 × 122
= 144 μJ
W
When connected to the other capacitor the total
Taking components: charge is conserved and the pd across each is
vertical T cos θ = mg the same.
horizontal T sin θ = F (the electric force) Q = Q1 + Q2
Dividing gives tan θ = F V = V1 = V2
mg
but the angle is small so we can approximate: So Q = C1V1 + C2V2 = C1V + C2V
24 = 4V + 2V
tan θ ≈ (r/2) = r
L 2L V = 4V
kQ1Q2 kQ2
We also know that F = = 2 , Energy stored = 12 C1V 2 + 12 C2V 2
r2 r
with each sphere taking half of the total charge = 0.5 × 4 × 10–6 × 42 + 0.5 × 2 × 10–6 × 42
(5.5 × 10–10 C) = 48 μJ
2 2 Change = 96 μJ
so r = (kQ /r )
2L mg
14

Worked solutions
Chapter 7
5 –0∙54 eV
Exercises
–0∙85 eV
1 (a) KEmax = Vse = 0.6 × 1.6 × 10–19

–1∙51 eV
= 9.6 × 10–20 J
(b) λ = 422 nm ➞ f = c = 7.1 × 1014 Hz
λ –3∙39 eV
(c) KEmax = hf – ϕ ⇒ ϕ = hf – KEmax
= 6.63 × 10–34 × 7.1 × 1014 – 9.6 × 10–20
= 3.7 × 10–19 J
(d) ϕ = hf0 ⇒ f0 = ϕ = 3.7 × 10 –34
–19
h 6.67 × 10 –13∙6 eV
= 5.6 × 1014 Hz
10 possible transitions as shown.
2 (a) f = c = 2.1 × 1015 Hz
λ
λ = 144 nm, ϕ = 4.3 eV 6 –0∙54 eV
E = hf = 6.63 × 10–34 × 2.1 × 1015 –0∙85 eV

= 1.38 × 10–18 J
–1∙51 eV
1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
–18
E(eV) = 1.38 × 10–34 = 8.6 eV
6.63 × 10 –3∙39 eV
(b) KEmax = hf – hf0 = 8.6 – 4.3 = 4.3 eV
(c) KEmax = Vse = 4.3 eV
Vs = 4.3 V
(d) hf0 = 4.3 × 1.6 × 10–19 –13∙6 eV
–19
f0 = 4.3 × 1.6 × 10
–34 The maximum energy is released from the
6.63 × 10
f0 = 1.0 × 10 Hz 15 biggest transition.
3 No electrons emitted since i.e. from –0.54 ➞ –13.6 eV

7.1 × 1014 < 1.0 × 1015
Energy released = 13.6 – 0.54 V = 13.06 eV
4 KEmax = hf – ϕ, KEmax = 1.4 eV, ϕ = 5.0 eV
This is equivalent to 13.06 × 1.6 × 10-19 J
hf = KEmax + ϕ = 2.09 × 10–18 J
= 1.4 + 5.0 = 6.4 eV Using the equation E = hf

–18
f = E = 2.09 × 10–34
–19
hf0 = 6.4 × 1.6 × 10–19 J ⇒ f0 = 6.4 × 1.6 × 10 h 6.63 × 10
h
= 1.5 × 1015 Hz f = 3.15 × 1015 Hz

7 –0∙54 eV This is 13.6 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 2.18 × 10–18 J
–0∙85 eV Using E = hf
–18
f = E = 2.18 × 10–34 = 3.28 × 1015 Hz
–1∙51 eV h 6.63 × 10
ε0n2h2
9 r=
πme2
–3∙39 eV
Use n =1 to find radius of atom when in lowest
energy state
–12 –34 2
r = 8.85 × 10 ×–311 × (6.63 × 10 )
π × 9.1 × 10 –19 2
× (1.6 × 10 )
–13∙6 eV = 5.3 × 10–11m
The minimum energy is given by the smallest 10 E = –13.6/n2 eV
transition.
ΔE = –13.6 12 – 12(n )
n1
–0.54 ➞ –0.85 2
= –13.6 12 – 1 = –10.2 eV
(2 )
E = 0.85 – 0.54 = 0.31 eV 1
ΔE = hf, so f = ΔE = (10.2 × 1.6 × –34
10–19)
This is equivalent to 0.31 × 1.6 × 10 – 19
J h 6.63 × 10
= 2.5 × 1015 Hz
= 4.96 × 10–20J
11 (a) KE = 100 eV, V = 100 V
Using E = hf
(b) 1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
–20
f = E = 4.96 × 10–34 = 7.44 × 1013 Hz 100 eV = 100 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
h 6.63 × 10
KE = 1.6 × 10–17 J
8 –0∙54 eV
(c) KE = 1 mv2 ➞ v = 2 × KE
–0∙85 eV 2 m
= 2 × 1.6 × 10–17 = 5.9 × 106 m s–1
9.1 × 10–31
–1∙51 eV
Momentum p = mv = 9.1 × 10–31 × 5.9 × 106
= 5.4 × 10–24 kg m s–1
–3∙39 eV –34
λ = h = 6.63 × 10–24 = 1.2 × 10–10 m
p 5.4 × 10
12 Momentum of car = 1000 × 15 = 1.5 × 104 N s
λ = h = 4.4 × 10–38 m
p
–13∙6 eV
Can’t pass a car through such a small opening.
To remove an electron from the lowest energy
level it must be given 13.6 eV 13 Size of nucleus is about 10–15 m
Δx ≈ 10–15 m
O eV
ΔxΔp > h/4π
Δp > h ÷ 10–15
4π
Δp ≈ 5 × 10–20 N s
–13∙6 eV
2
(5 × 10–20)2
KE = 1 mv2 = p =
2 2m 2 × 9.1 × 10–31
= 1.4 × 10–9 J
= 8.6 GeV (far too much)

14 KE = 1 mv2 = 1 × 1000 × 202 = 2 × 105 J (a) KE of alpha particle = 7.7 MeV
2 2
= 7.7 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
mass equivalent from E = mc2
5
= 1.23 × 10–12 J
m = 2 × 108 2 = 2.2 × 10–12 kg
(3 × 10 ) KE = 1 mv2 ⇒ v = 2KE
2 m
15 (a) E = Vq = 500 eV 2 × 1.23 × 10–12
=
(b) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J 6.7 × 10–27
v = 1.9 × 107 m s–1
500 eV = 500 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 8 × 10–17 J
–17 (b) When alpha particle is closest to nucleus,
(c) mass equivalent = 8 × 10 8 2
(3 × 10 ) KE = electrical PE
= 8.9 × 10–34 kg ⇒ 1.23 × 10–12 = kQq
8 2 r
(d) mass equivalent = 8.9 × 10–34 × (3 × 10 –19
)
9 × 109 × 2.1 × 10–18 × 3.2 × 10–19
1.6 × 10 r=
= 500 eVc–2 1.23 × 10–12
r = 4.9 × 10–15 m
16 (a) 35 protons + neutrons
21
17 protons Z Symbol A Mass (u)
number of neutrons = 35 – 17 = 18 92 U 233 233.0396
(b) 58 protons + neutrons (a) Z is the number of protons = 92 p
28 protons A – Z is the number of neutrons = 233 – 92
number of neutrons = 58 – 28 = 30 = 141 n
(c) 204 protons + neutrons (b) Total mass (u)
82 protons = 92 × 1.007 82 + 141 × 1.008 66
number of neutrons = 204 – 82 = 122 = 234.9405 u
17 54
Fe has 26 protons. Each proton has charge (c) Mass defect = mass (parts) – mass
26
+ 1.6 × 10–19 C (nucleus)
⇒ Charge of nucleus = 26 × 1.6 × 10–19 C = 234.9405 – 233.0396 = 1.9009 u
= 4.16 × 10–18 C (d) Total binding energy = 1.9009 × 931.5
Total number of protons + neutrons = 54 = 1770.6 MeV
A proton and a neutron have a mass
(e) There are 233 nucleons so
≈ 1.67 × 10–27 kg each 1770.6
BE/nucleon = = 7.6 MeV/nucleon
Approximate mass of nucleus 233
= 54 × 1.67 × 10–17 = 9.0 × 10–26 kg
binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
22 10
18 92 protons + 143 neutrons ⇒ atomic mass

= 235 8
So nuclear symbol is 235

92
U
6
238
19 92
U has 92 protons and 238 – 92 = 146
neutrons
4
A different isotope would have 92 protons but a
different number of neutrons, e.g. 145.
2
20 Charge of alpha particle = 2e = 2 × 1.6 ×
10–19 C = 3.2 × 10–19 C
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
A
3

23 212
92
Po ➞ 208
92
Pb + 24 He t = 12 min
E released = [mass (Po) – (mass (Pb) + mass At = 40 × e–0.14 × 12 = 7.45 Bq

(He)] × 931.5 MeV
31 At = A0e–λt; A0 = 20 Bq
24
= 8.95 MeV
The proposed decay equation is

ln ( )
At
A0
= –λt; At = 15.7 Bq
213
84
Po ➞ At + β + ν̄
213
85
+
λ = ln ( ) A0
At ( )
× 1 = ln 2.0 × 1
t 15.7 10
Energy released = 2.4 × 10–2 year–1
= [mass (Po) – mass (At)] × 931.5 MeV
t 12 = In 2 = 28.6 years
= –73 keV λ
32 (a) 5.27 years = 5.27 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
This is negative (meaning energy would need
= 1.66 × 108 s
to be supplied to make it happen) so won’t
happen naturally. (b) λ = In 2 = 4.17 × 10–9 s–1
t 12
25 139
56
Ba ➞ 139
57
La + β + ν̄ (c) 60
Co has mass no 60
⇒ 60 g contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms
Energy released
= [mass (Ba) – mass (La)] × 931.5 MeV ⇒ 1 g contains
1
60 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.0 × 1022 atoms
= 2.32 MeV
dt = – λN
(d) Activity = dN
26 ΔE = γ energy = 4.17 × 10–9 × 1.0 × 1022 = 4.17 × 1013 s–1
5.485 – 5.443 = 0.042 MeV (e) If activity = 50 Bq then sample contains
50
E = hf; f = ΔE = 0.042 × 10 × 1.6 = 1.2 × 10–12 g
6
× 10–19
–34 4.17 × 103
h 6.63 × 10
19
33 (a) 2
1
H + 12 H ➞ 23 He + 01 n
= 1.0 × 10 Hz
Change in mass
27 Half-life is 4 s, so 16 s is 4 half-lives, so sample
= [2.014 101 + 2.014 101]
will halve 4 times.
– [3.016 029 + 1.008 664]
Original sample contained 200 g so after 4 half- = 0.003 509 u
lives will contain
Energy released = 0.003 509 × 931.5
1 1 1 1
200 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 12.5 g = 3.268 MeV
28 Rate of decay halves each half-life. (b) 2

1
H + 12 H ➞ 13 H + 11 p (11 H is a proton)
Half-life is 15 s so 42 s is 3 half-lives. Change in mass
If activity was 100 decay/s then after 42 s it = [2 × 2.014 101] – [3.016 049 + 1.007 825]
will be = 0.004 328 u
100 × 12 × 12 × 12 = 12.5 decay/s
Energy released = 0.004328 × 931.5
1
29 16 is 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 so if the amount of 14C has = 4.032 MeV
1
reduced to 16 the wood is 4 half-lives of 14C old (c) 2
H + 23 He ➞ 24 He + 11 p
1
= 4 × 6000 = 24 000 years.
Change in mass
30 A0 = 40 Bq; t 12 = 5 mins = [2.014 101 + 3.016 029]
λ = ln 2 = 0.14 min–1 – [4.002 603 + 1.007 825]
5
= 0.019 702 u
At = A0e–λt
Energy released = 0.019 702 × 931.5
4 = 18.35 MeV

34 236
92
U ➞ 100
42
Mo + 126
50
Sn + x01 n 39 p+p ➞ p+p+p
¯¯¯
To balance nucleon number No ➝ Baryon 1 + 1 ➞ 1 + 1 + –1

236 = 100 + 126 + x × 1
Lepton 0+0 ➞ 0+0+0
x = 10
No ➝ Charge 1+1 ➞ 1+1–1
To calculate energy released, first find change in
Not ok
mass:
40 p + p ➞ p + p + π°
236.045 563 –
[99.907 476 + 125.907 653 + 10 × 1.008 664] Baryon 1+1 ➞ 1+1+0
= 0.1438 u
Lepton 0+0 ➞ 0+0+0
Energy released = 0.1438 × 931.5 = 133.9 MeV
Charge 1+1 ➞ 1+1+0
35 233
92
U➞ 138
56
86
Ba + Kr + 9n0
36
Seems ok
Change in mass
41 ¯¯¯ ➞ π° + π°
p+p
= 233.039 628 – [137.905 233 + 85.910 615
+ 9 × 1.008 664] = 0.1458 u Baryon 1 + –1 ➞ 0 + 0
Energy released = 0.1458 × 931.5 MeV Lepton 0+0 ➞ 0+0

= 135.8 MeV
Charge 1 + –1 ➞ 0 + 0
+
36 –
e e
e– e+ Seems ok
42 e – + e+ ➞ γ + γ
electron absorbs positron emits
photon and is photon and is Baryon 0+0 ➞ 0+0
deflected deflected
Lepton 1 –1 ➞ 0+0
37 e+
e+
A e+ e–
B Charge –1 –1 ➞ 0 + 0
γ
Seems ok
γ
43 e – + e+ ➞ n + γ
+
e– e
e+ e+ No ➝ Baryon 0+0 ➞ 1+0
electron and positron
positron emits photon No ➝ Lepton 1 –1 ➞ 0+0
annihilate to form photon
that is absorbed by which forms an electron
another positron Charge –1 + 1 ➞ 0 + 0
positron pair.
e– and e+ can be swapped in all cases to give Not ok

an equally valid answer
44 ¯¯¯ ➞ n +
p+p
38 p + e– ➞ n +
No ➝ Baryon 1 + –1 ➞ 1 + 0
Baryon 1+0 ➞ 1+0
No ➝ Lepton 0 + 0 ➞ 0 + –1
Lepton 0+1 ➞ 0+1
Charge +1 –1 ➞ 0 + 0
Charge +1 – 1 ➞ 0 + 0
Not ok
Seems ok

45 (a) π–: charge –1, strangeness = 0 50 e
e–
Mesons are quark–antiquark combinations
ū¯ d X
– 2 – 1 ➞ total change = –1
3 3
(b) Ω–: charge –1, strangeness –3 ➞ s s s
ve ve
(c) Ξ–: charge –1, strangeness –2 ➞ s s d
1 1 1 Weak interaction but no exchange of charge so
charge – – –
3 3 3
(d) Ξ°: charge 0, strangeness –2 X is a Z0
s s u
1 1 1
charge – – –
3 3 3
Practice questions
46 neutron proton
d d
d u 1 (a) (i) When white light passes through a gas
u u photons can excite atomic electrons
Down changes to up into higher energy levels. When this
happens the photon is absorbed
47 (a) (b) resulting in a dark line in the spectrum.
d d red u After absorption the electron will go
blue red u
green back to its original level, re-emitting the
photon in a random direction.
blue antired red
antigreen gas absorbs red
spectrum with
48 c
s absorption line
white light
in red
X e+
Y
(ii) To produce a spectrum the light can
If one arrow points into vertex the other must be passed through a diffraction grating;
point out so Y arrow points out, this is forwards this will produce interference maxima
in time so Y is a neutrino. for each colour at a different angle.
Charge exchange is positive so X is a W+.
49 c̄ s̄
X e–
Y arrow must point in so is antineutrino.
Charge exchange is negative so X is a W–.

(b) (i) E = hf where f = c (d) The temperature of the core of the Sun is
λ
so high that all atoms would be ionized;
hc 6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
so E = = this means that chemical reactions such
λ 588 × 10–9
= 3.38 × 10–19 J as burning could not take place. Spectral
analysis of the Sun shows that it is mostly
(ii) According to the previous calculation
H and He so the reaction taking place is
absorption of a 588 nm photon will
fusion not fission. The amount of energy
give an atomic electron 3.38 × 10–19 J
produced is also of the right order of
of energy. This would correspond to a
magnitude.
change from the –5.8 to the –2.42 level.
(e) (i) Balancing the nucleon numbers (atomic
5.8 – 2.42 = 3.38
mass number) 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
energy/10–19 J
Balancing proton number (atomic
0
number) 2 + 2 + 2 = 6
(ii) The energy released is due to loss in
–1.59
mass
–2.42
–3.00 Mass defect = 3 × mass of He – mass
of C
3 × 6.648 325 × 10–27
– 1.993 200 0 × 10–26
–5.80 = 1.2975 × 10–29 kg
This is equivalent to mc2 energy
–7.64 = 1.2975 × 10–29 × (3 × 108)2
= 1.17 × 10–12 J
(To answer this simply try subtracting
(f) (i) The other particle emitted in beta decay
3.38 from each level.)
is an antineutrino.
(c) (i) The Bohr model assumes that electrons
(ii) During beta decay the energy released
orbit the nucleus, like planets orbiting
(change in binding energy) is shared
the Sun. To explain the line spectrum of
between the daughter, beta particle
hydrogen, the electrons can only exist
and neutrino. The daughter has a much
in certain stable orbits defined by their
bigger mass than the other two so
angular momentum. Absorption of a
doesn’t receive much energy, resulting
photon of light causes the electrons to
in most energy being shared between
change to a larger orbit.
the beta particle and neutrino.
(ii) The Schrödinger model considers
(iii) Using the decay equation N = Noe–λt
the atomic electrons to behave as
In 2
waves trapped in the potential well of where the decay constant λ =
half-life
the nucleus. Like standing waves in = In 2 = 0.845 s–1
0.82
a string, the ‘electron wave’ can only
So fraction remaining after 10 s = N
have certain discrete wavelengths and N0
therefore discrete energies. = e–0.845 ×10 = 0.000 213, which is 0.02%
(iv) During beta decay a neutron decays
into a proton + electron
The quark content of a neutron is ddu
and a proton is uud
so a down quark has changed into an
up quark
7

2 (a) Rate of decay is a nuclear process so is not (d) The alpha decay could leave the nucleus in
affected by temperature or pressure of the an excited state, leading to the emission of
sample. However the rate of decay does a γ photon.
depend on how many nuclei are present. (e) (i) Fusion is when two small nuclei join
to form a larger nucleus with higher
Property Increase Decrease Stays the
binding energy. This results in the
same
release of energy.
Temperature ✓
binding energy per nucleon

Pressure ✓
Amount ✓
(b) (i) 226

89
Ra ➞ 24 α + 222
86
Rn
From text given it is α decay so we
know A – 4, Z – 2
(ii) (loss of mass)c2 = energy released
⇒ mass (Ra) > mass (α + Rn)
E = [mass(Ra) – mass (α + Rn)]c2
Δm = 226.0254 – (222.0176 + 4.0026)
= 0.0052 u
A
1 u ⇒ 931.5 MeV
(ii) Nuclear force is very short range, so to
So E = 0.0052 × 931.5 = 4.84 MeV
fuse, nuclei must get very close. But
c. (i) VRn Vα
M m M m nuclei are positive, so repel each other.
before after + +
The momentum of the particles before To get them close they must move
the decay = 0 since the bodies are very fast. This can be achieved if the
isolated momentum is conserved so temperature is high.
momentum after decay = 0
To increase the number of collisions,
This means that the momentum of the the density of nuclei should be high.
nucleus is equal and opposite to the This is achieved by increasing pressure.
momentum of the alpha particle. In
other words they move in opposite 3 (a) (i) Fission is when a large nucleus splits
directions. into two smaller ones of roughly
equal size.
(ii) 222 × vRn = –4 × vα
vα
⇒ = – 222 = –55.5
vRn 4
(iii) KEα =1 2 Radioactive decay is when the nucleus
2 mvα
emits a small particle (α, β, γ)
KERn = 12 mvRn2 but mRn = 222 × mα and
4
v
vR = α
55.5
( 222
4 )
m ×(
55.5 )
v 2
1 α
substituting KERn = 2 α (ii) 235
U + 01n ➞ 38
90
Sr + 142 Xe + 401n
92 54
= 0.018 × 12 mvα2
Calculate how many neutrons form the
so KERn < KEα change in A:
235 + 1 = 90 + 142 + 4
8

(iii) During beta decay a neutron ➞ proton So mass required
so the number of nucleons is unchanged = 1.1 × 1016 × 3.9 × 10–25
but the number of protons increases = 4.1 × 10–9 kg
by 1.
4 (a) (i) A nucleon is a proton or neutron; these
A is unchanged, Z ➞ Z + 1 are the particles that make up the
(b) 102 MeV 65 MeV nucleus.
90 142 (ii) Nuclear binding energy is the energy

required to pull a nucleus apart or the
Sr Xe
energy released when it is formed form
(i) Sr has KE = 102 MeV. This is its constituent nucleons.
102 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
(b) and (c)
= 1.63 × 10–11 J
E (MeV)
mass of Sr = 90 × mass of nucleon 9
F
= 90 × 1.7 × 10–17 kg (approximately) 8
= 1.53 × 10–25 kg U
7
KE = 12 mv2 so v = 2KE
m 6
= 1.46 × 107 m s–1
5
momentum = mass × velocity
4
= 2.2 × 10–18 Ns
(ii) Momentum of two parts is not the 3
same because the four neutrons will 2

also have momentum. H
1
(iii) Sr 0
4 neutrons 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
A
Xe
(d) BE = (mass of parts – mass of nucleus)c2
Since we don’t know which way the
neutrons go it is difficult to say which of If mass is in u then can convert to MeV by
the arrows should be biggest or their multiplying by 931.5 MeV
3
exact direction. 2
He has 2 protons and 1 neutron
The way shown is with the neutrons on BE = [(Mass neutron + 2 × Mass proton) –
the side of the Xe. Mass He] × 931.5 MeV
(c) (i) Energy released = 198 MeV = [(1.00867 + 2 × 1.00728) – 3.01603]
= 198 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 931.5 MeV
= 3.17 × 10–11 J = 0.0072 × 931.5 = 6.7 MeV
25% of this = 7.9 × 10–12 J BE/nucleon = 6.7 = 2.2 MeV

3
(ii) Q = mcΔT = 0.25 × 4200 × 80 (e) 12H + 12H ➞ 23He + 01n
= 8.4 × 104 J (i) This is a fusion reaction.
(iii) The number of fissions to heat the (ii) When two small nuclei fuse the binding
4
water = 8.4 × 10–12 = 1.1 × 1016 fissions energy increases. This means energy
7.9 × 10
must be released.
Each nucleus has mass 3.9 × 10–25 kg

5 (b) (i) Photon energy = hf = hc
binding energy per nucleon
λ
6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
= = 3.02 × 10–19 J
658 × 10–9
19
= 3.02 × 10–19 = 1.89 eV
1.6 × 10
(ii) A transition from n = 2 ➞ n = 3 is equal
to 1.89 eV so light of this wavelength
He will excite electrons from n = 2 ➞ n = 3
and therefore be absorbed.
(iii) The Bohr model has the electrons
H orbiting the nucleus in circular orbits.
The Schrödinger model has the position
of the electrons defined by a wave
A
function resulting in electron probability
(a) The de Broglie hypothesis states that all distributions that are not circular.
particles have a wave associated with them. The Schrödinger model predicts that
This wave gives the probability of finding different energy changes have different
the particle: its wavelength is related to the probabilities; the Bohr model does not.
momentum of the particle by the formula
7 (a) According to the wave model the energy
λ = h where h = Planck constant.
p in the wave is related to the amplitude, not
(b) (i) Gain is KE = eV = 850 eV the frequency. This means that the KE of
or in joules photoelectrons should be dependent on the
850 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.4 × 10–16 J intensity.
(ii) KE = 12 mv 2 so v = 2KE × momentum, However KE is dependent on frequency,
m
not intensity.
p = mv = m 2KE = 2m × KE
m This can be explained if we consider light to
= (2 × 9.1 × 10–31 × 1.4 × 10–16) be made up of photons. Each photon has
= 1.6 × 10–23 Ns energy = hf.
This is in the data book. A photoelectron is emitted when the
atom absorbs a photon so the KE of a
You need to know what is in the data
photoelectron is related to f.
book in case you need to use a value.
–34 Intensity is related to the number of
(iii) λ = h = 6.6 × 10–23 = 4.1 × 10–11 m
p 1.6 × 10 photons, so increased intensity increases
6 (a) An electron can move from ground state to the number of photoelectrons, not their KE.
a higher energy level if (b) (i) From x intercept, threshold frequency
n = 3 _________________ –1.51 eV = 3.8 × 1014 Hz
n = 2 _________________ –3.40 eV (ii) From gradient, Planck constant
–19
n = 1 _________________ –13.68 eV = (4 – 1) × 1.6 × 1014
(13.5 – 6) × 10
1. It absorbs a photon.
= 6.4 × 10–34 J s
2. It gains energy as the gas is heated.
(iii) Work function = y intercept = 1.5 eV
10

2
(c) So Bqv = mv
KE 4 r
(14, 4) ⇒ r = mv ⇒ r ∝ m
Bq
3
(b) m1 = 20 u r1 = 15 cm
2 m1 r
If r ∝ m then = 1
(6, 1) m2 r
1 r2 = 16.5 cm
0 20 u = 15
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 m2 16.5
–1 3∙8 × 1014Hz m2 = 22 u
1∙5 eV
–2 (c) Neon has proton number = 10
This would be given; you are not expected
–3
to remember these numbers.
–4 so 20 u nucleus has 10 p, 10 n
KE = hf – ϕ 22 u nucleus has 10 p, 12 n
y = mx + c
(They are isotopes.)
gradient = h
y intercept = – ϕ 10 (a) (i) μ– ➞ e– + γ
An electron is a lepton and has an
8 (a) 40
K ➞ 18
40
Ar + β+ + ν
19
electron lepton number 1; the μ is a
The proton number has gone down by 1
muon with muon lepton number 2.
but the nucleon number is
These don’t balance.
constant ➝ p+ ➝ no + β+ + ν
Alternatively according to the standard
(b) Rock contains 1.2 × 10–6 g of K and model leptons do not interact across
7.0 × 10–6 g of Ar generations.
Originally all of this was K so the original (ii) p + n ➞ p + π0
amount of K = (7.0 + 1.2) × 10–6
p and n are baryons so have baryon
= 8.2 × 10–6 g
number 1.
(c) (i) λ = ln 21 = ln 2 = 5.3 × 10–10 year–1
t2 1.3 × 109 π0 is a meson so has baryon number 0
–6
(ii) N0 = 8.2 × 10 g ➞ baryon number not conserved
N = 1.2 × 10–6 g (iii) p ➞ π+ + π–
N = N0e–λt
In this example the charge doesn’t
N
t = –1 ln N = 1 ln 0
λ N0 λ (N) balance.
t= 1 × ln 8.2 Charge on left = +1
5.3 × 10–10 1.2
Charge on right = +1 – 1 = 0
= 3.6 × 109 years
Also baryon number doesn’t balance
2
9 (a) Circular path ➞ F = mv +1 ≠ 0 + 0
r
This is due to magnetic force = Bqv (b) The gluon is the exchange particle of the
strong reaction between quarks.
The meson is the exchange particle
between nucleons so this could also be
mv2
the answer.
r
11

11 K– + p ➞ K0 + K+ + X A is a π+ meson (as stated in the question)
K– sū B must be an antiparticle as it points back
K+ us̄ in time and the other particle on the vertex
K0 ds̄ is a muon so this must be an antimuon
(a) The K is a hadron since it is made of two neutrino.
quarks. (b) (i) The W boson has charge (+ or –).
(b) proton – duu (ii) The W boson has rest mass but the
This you have to remember I am afraid. photon has zero rest mass.
(c) balancing quarks sū + duu ➞ ds̄ + us̄ + sss 14 (a) (i) An elementary particle cannot be split
strange 1 ➞ –1–1+1+1+1 into anything smaller.
up –1+1+1 ➞ +1 (ii) An antiparticle has the same rest mass
down –1+1+1 ➞ +1 as a particle but opposite charge.
A lepton is a group of fundamental
12 (a) (i) The force between quarks is the strong particles that do not take part in strong
force. interactions, e.g. an electron (–) and its
(ii) The exchange particle of the strong antiparticle the positron (+).
force is the gluon. (b) Coming into the interaction there is an
(b) baryon baryon electron and a positron: going out there are
↓ ↓ two gamma photons.
ν¯ + p ➞ n + e+ γ
↑ ↑
e–
antilepton antilepton
baryon number 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 conserved
lepton number –1 + 0 = 0 + –1 conserved

e+ γ
charge 0 + 1 = 0 + 1 conserved
To complete the diagram each vertex must
baryon antilepton have two straight lines and a wavy line so
↓ ↓ there must be a straight line joining the
ν + p ➞ n + e+ vertices.
↑ ↑
γ
lepton baryon
e–
lepton number +1 + 0 ≠ 0 + –1 not conserved
baryon number 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 conserved
charge 0 + 1 = 0 + 1 conserved γ
e+
Second interaction will not happen because
lepton number is not conserved. This particle must be an electron (because
of the way the arrow is drawn; if drawn
13 (a) B the other way this would be a positron)
w +
to make the lepton numbers balance. In
A
this interaction this electron is the virtual
u μ+ particle.
12

(c) (i) π+ has an up and an antidown quark. 2 Na ➞ 22Ne + e+
22
(ii) In this interaction the baryon number is Energy released = (mass (Na) – 11 × mass (e)) –
not conserved. [(mass (Ne) – 10 × mass (e)) + mass (e)]
1 = m(Na) –2me – m(Ne)
(d) Two particles with spin 2 cannot occupy the
= 21.994 434 – 2 × 0.000 548 6 – 21.991 383
same quantum state.
= 0.001 95
(e) Quarks have spin 12 so must obey the Pauli
= 0.001 95 × 931.5 MeV = 1.82 MeV
exclusion principle. The introduction of
colour as a property of quarks allows them
to exist in baryons and mesons without
violating the principle.
Challenge yourself
1 Proton number = 29 so
Binding energy = (29 × mass (H) + 34 × mass (n))
– mass (Cu)
= 29 × 1.0078 + 34 × 1.008 66 – 62.929 599
(you have to look that up)
= 0.591 04 u
= 0.591 04 × 931.5 MeV = 551 MeV
= 551 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
= 8.8 × 10–11 J per atom
1 mole of copper has mass 63 g so 3 g has
3 × 6 × 1023 atoms.
63
So 3 g would require 8.8 × 10–11 × 2.86 × 1022
= 2.5 × 1012 J
13

Worked solutions
Chapter 8
1
(b) Each half-life activity falls by 2
Exercises 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= 1
1 1024
light ⇒ 10 half-lives
electrical 10 × 11 months = 110 months = 9.2 years.
Thicker arrow ⇒
5 (a) Pu ➞ 96Zr + 136Xe + xn
239
heat more heat than balancing nucleon number.

light (depends on
type of bulb) 239 = 96 + 136 + x ⇒ x = 7
(b) 239
Pu ➞ 96Zr + 136Xe + 7n
2
This one probably should be much smaller (c) Energy released is found from the change in
mass:
light 239.052 158 – [95.908 275 + 135.907 213
electrical + 7 × 1.008 664] = 0.176 u
mechanical heat energy released = Δm × 931.5 eV
= 164 MeV
heat This is what happens (d) 1 mole Pu = 239 g ⇒ this contains
to most of the energy
6.022 × 1023 atoms
(e) 1 kg is 1000 moles
3 (a) Power = energy ⇒ energy = power × time 239
time so contains 1000 × 6.022 × 1023 atoms
1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 8.64 × 104 s 239
= 2.5 × 1024 atoms
energy produced = 1000 × 106 × 8.64 × 104
(f) 164 MeV released per nucleus so
= 8.64 × 1013 J
2.5 × 1024 × 164 = 4.1 × 1026 MeV
(b) % efficiency = energy out × 100 = 40%
energy in (g) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J so
energy in = energy out × 100 energy released = 4.1 × 1032 × 1.6 × 10–19
40
13 = 6.6 × 1013 J
= 8.64 × 10 × 100 = 2.16 × 1014 J
40
6 If 3% of the fuel is 235U then of 1 kg, 3 is 235U
(c) Energy density = energy so 100
mass = 0.03 kg
mass = energy 14
= 2.16 × 10 6 energy density = energy released
energy density 32.5 × 10 mass
= 9 × 1013 J kg–1
= 6.65 × 106 kg
⇒ energy released = 9 × 1013 × 0.03
(d) 1 tonne = 1000 kg; each truck contains = 2.7 × 1012 J
105 kg
6
7 (a) energy = power × time
number of trucks = 6.6 × 510 = 66.5 = 10 000 × 103 × 60 × 60 = 3.6 × 1010 J
10
(67 trucks needed) ↑ ↑
4 (a) Ba ➞ 142
142
La + β– + ν̄ 10 000 kW 1 hour
56 57

(b) 1 kg releases 2.7 × 1012 J (d) Each cell ➞ 0.03 A so 10 batteries in
i.e. 2.7 × 1012 J kg–1 parallel ➞ 0.3 A
Amount of fuel needed to release 3.6 × 1010 J (e) Each cell produces 0.015 W, so to produce
= 1.3 × 10–2 kg = 13 g 100 W requires 100 = 6667 cells
0.015
–2
8 1000 Wm
etc.
4 m2
10
electrical
(a) Intensity = power light

area
power = intensity × area = 1000 × 4 = 4 kW
heat
absorbed
↓
(b) % efficiency = power out × 100 = 50
power in 11 (a) Using the formula 12 ρπr2v3 = power in the
↑
from Sun wind
power = 1 × 1.2 × 3.14 × 542 × 103
power out = 4 × 50 = 2 kW (2000 J s–1.) 2
100
(c) In 60 s, energy = 2000 × 60 = 1.2 × 10 J 5 = 5.5 × 106 W = 5.5 MW
This is given to 1 kg of water so using (b) % efficiency = power out × 100 = 20%
power in
Q = mcΔθ power out = 20 × 5.5 = 1.1 MW
100
1.2 × 104 = 1 × 4200 × Δθ = 28.6°C
(c) Since power is proportional to v3, increasing
9 1000 Wm–2 speed by a factor 1.5 increases power by
factor 1.53. So power = 1.1 × 1.53 = 3.7 MW
Note: power in the wind = 5.5 × 1.53
= 18.6 MW
12 (a) λ = 0.002 89 = 0.002 89 = 5.8 × 10–6 m

T 500
(b) P = σT = 5.67 × 10–8 × 5004
4
1 cm2 A
(a) Incident power = area × intensity = 3.54 × 103 W m–2
= 1 × 10–4 × 1000 = 0.1 W (c) P = A σT4 = 4πr2 σT4
= 4π × 0.022 × 3.54 × 103 = 18 W
15% of this is absorbed ⇒ 15 × 0.1
100
(d) At 1m, I = P 2 = 18 × 12 = 1.4 W m–2
= 1.5 × 10–2 W 4πr 4π
(b) P = IV ⇒ 1.5 × 10 = I × 0.5 –2 13 (a) Direct from Sun = 68 W m–2
I = 0.03 A radiated from Earth = 358 W m–2
(c) 10 × 0.5 V batteries in series ➞ 5 V convection = 105 W m–2
etc. total = 531 W m–2

(b) 31 W m–2

(c) Reflected = 110 W m–2 (b) (i) From the graph:
incident = 350 W m–2 350
albedo = 110 = 0.31

350 (720, 340)
340
(d) Radiated back to the Earth = 332 W m–2
output temperature (K)
W
radiated away 199 W m–2
100
330
tion
total = 531 W m–2
trac
W
(e) 41 W m–2 passes straight through
W
r ex
200
300
320
400
e
399 W m–2 radiated from Earth
pow
(399 )
41 × 100% = 10.3%
310
300
Practice questions 200 300 400 500 600
input power (W)
700 800
1 (a) Fossil fuels are continually being made on Input power = 720 W
the sea floor as organisms die; however, the so if intensity = 800 W m–2
rate at which they are made is much slower will need an area = 720 = 0.90 m2,
800
than the rate they are used up. You don’t really need to understand
(b) (i) Nuclear waste: the process of nuclear what is happening; you just read the
fission produces radioactive waste, graph.
which is difficult to dispose of. (ii) The point (500, 320) is between the
(ii) Nuclear weapons: although nuclear 100 W and 200 W lines.
fuel cannot be used directly to make
350
bombs, the process of enrichment and
raw materials are the same. A country
with a nuclear power programme could 340
output temperature (K)
theoretically be producing weapons.

0W
n 10
330
2 (a) A solar panel is a panel containing water
ctio
pipes that absorb the Sun’s radiation to

xtra
W
200
er e
300
heat the water. This hot water can be used 320

400
pow
for showers, washing dishes, etc.

A solar cell is a semiconductor device that 310
absorbs light, converting it to electrical
potential energy.
300
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
input power (W)
Estimate power extraction ≈ 150 W

efficiency = power out × 100%
power in
= 150 × 100% = 30%
500

3 (a) Coal is burnt to produce heat; this heats Also assumes all of the energy of the wind
water, which turns to steam; the steam is converted to KE of turbine, this is not the
turns a turbine, which turns a generator. case.
The generator produces electricity. (d) The main disadvantage is that turbines take
Chemical energy ➞ Heat ➞ Kinetic energy ➞ Electrical up a lot of space and must be built in windy
places.
coal water turbine generator
It is not easy to build big towers in windy
(b) (i) Although coal is being made from
places.
dead plants it is classified as non-
renewable since it is used faster than it 5 (a) (i) This reaction is a fission reaction.
is produced. (ii) The energy liberated is given to the
(ii) The heavy elements used in nuclear KE of the products. Increasing the KE
fuel are not produced on the Earth, so of the atoms results in an increased
nuclear fuel is non-renewable. temperature.
(c) (i) To maintain a chain reaction, neutrons (b) This is best shown in a diagram.
must be absorbed by further nuclei.
This won’t happen if the neutrons are U
moving too quickly, so they are slowed U
down by the moderator. U
(ii) The chain reaction can be slowed down
by preventing some of the neutrons
Neutrons from the first fission are absorbed
from being absorbed by the fuel. The
by U nuclei, initiating further fissions.
control rods absorb neutrons slowing
down the rea ction. (c) (i) If the neutrons are travelling too quickly,
they will pass through the U nucleus.
(d) The main advantage is that the nuclear
To allow them to be absorbed they are
power station does not produce
slowed down by the moderator atoms.
greenhouse gases. Another advantage
is that there is a lot more nuclear fuel moderator
remaining in the Earth than coal.
4 (a) Annual energy = 120 T J = 120 × 1012 J fast neutron neutron loses energy as it
so total power = 120 × 1012 collides with moderator atoms
seconds in 1 year
120 × 1012 (ii) The control rods are used to slow
= = 3.8 MW
60 × 60 × 24 × 365 the reaction down. They do this by
If 20 turbines, each turbine has power absorbing neutrons, preventing them
3.8 = 0.19 MW from being absorbed by 235U, leading to
20 further fissions.
(b) Power of turbine = 12 ρπr2 v3
(d) Fission of U ➞ KE to products. This causes
⇒ r = 2P2 = 2 × 0.19 × 106 = 12 m the temperature to increase. The hot fuel is
ρπv 1.2 × π × 93
used to turn water into steam, which drives
(c) This is an estimate since the wind speed is
a turbine. The turbine turns a generator that
not always the same; the average will vary
produces electricity.
from year to year.
This calculation also doesn’t take into 6 (a) Only half of the Earth is exposed to the Sun,
account energy loss due to friction etc. which absorbs energy as if it were a disc of
area πR2.

So energy power absorbed = 1400 πR2 (b) (i) P
= σT4 = 5.67 × 10–8 × 58004
A
If we now calculate the power received per
= 6.4 × 107
unit area we get
1400 πR2 A = 4πr2 = 4π × (7x108)2
total area of the Earth = 6.16 × 1018 m2
= 1400 πR
2
= 350 W m–2 P = 6.4 × 107 × 6.16 × 1018
2
4πR = 3.9 × 1026 W
(b) (i) Emissivity = power radiated by body
(ii) At a distance of 1.5 × 1011 m, the power
divided by power radiated by a black
has spread over a larger area, so
body at the same temperature. From 3.9 × 1026
power per unit area =
the diagram, we see that power 4π × (1.5 × 1011)2
radiated by atmosphere = 0.7 σT4. = 1400 W m–2
A black body radiates σT4, so emissivity (iii) If average power absorbed per unit
= 0.7. area = 240 W m–2 then
(ii) Power radiated per unit area = 0.7 σT4 = power in = 240 × area
0.7 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 2424 = 136 W m–2 (iv) power out = area × σT4
(iii) Power in = 245 + 136 = 381 W m–2 power in = power out
area × σT4 = 240 × area
If in equilibrium, power in = power out
σT4 = 240 Wm–2
σTE4 = 381 W m–2
T = 255 K
TE = 4 381 = 286 K
5.67 × 10–8 (c) The radiated radiation is in the infrared
(c) (i) Carbon dioxide molecules have a region of the spectrum so is absorbed
natural frequency in the infrared region by the CO2 in the atmosphere. After
of the electromagnetic spectrum, this absorption, the molecules re-radiate in all
means that infrared radiation will cause directions. A proportion of this returns to the
the molecule to oscillate and therefore Earth; this increases the temperature. An
be absorbed. The temperature of increase in the Earth’s temperature results
the Earth is such that the peak in in more power radiated until equilibrium is
the electromagnetic spectrum is in maintained.
the infrared region so a lot of the (d) Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 into
power radiated from the Earth will be the atmosphere, this increase in CO2
absorbed. concentration leads to more absorption
(ii) The Sun has a temperature of about of infrared radiation, enhancing the
6000 K so radiates in the visible region, greenhouse effect, resulting in more
which does not resonate with the CO2 radiation being re-radiated back to Earth.
molecules.
(iii) Burning fossil fuels produces CO2.
Plants absorb CO2.
7 (a) The power emitted per unit surface area of

a black body is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature
P
= σT4
A

2 Distance to Sun, R = 1.5 × 1011 m
Challenge yourself radius of Moon, r = 1.7 × 106 m
power from Sun, P = 3.8 × 1026 W
1 3 litres of diesel contains 3 × 36 = 108 MJ of P
power per unit area at Moon =
4πR2
energy = 1.34 × 103 W m–2
50% efficient so 54 MJ is converted to useful albedo of Moon = 0.123, so power absorbed
work per unit area = (1 – 0.123) × 1.34 × 103
Work done against air resistance: = 1.18 × 103 W m–2
work done = force × distance power absorbed by the Moon =
= F × 100 × 103 54 × 106 1.18 × 103 × πr2 = 1.07 × 1016 W
= F × 100 × 103 power radiated = εσAT4
F = 540 N emissivity, ε = 0.9
This is the force at 50 km h–1, force when when equilibrium reached,
stopped = 0N power in = power out
so average force = 540 = 270 N 1.07 × 1016 = 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 4πr2 × T4
2
This gives an average acceleration T4 = 5.77 × 109
T = 276 K
= F
m
= 0.27 m s–2
initial velocity = 50 kmh–1 = 14 m s–1
assuming acceleration is constant v2 = u2 + 2as
so 0 = 142 – 2 × 0.27 × s
s = 196 = 363 m
0.54

Worked solutions
Chapter 9
4 γ= 1 = 1.4
Exercises (1 – 0.7 ) 2
Δt = 2 s
1 s’ 8 m s–1 Δt′ = γ Δt = 1.4 × 2 = 2.8 s
5 γ= 1 = 7.1
A C 0.5 m s–1 (1 – 0.99 ) 2
Δt = 30 s
s
Δt′ = γ Δt = 7.1 × 30 = 213 s
6 a) Rocket observer uses same clock so

measures proper time = 2 years
B 1
(b) γ = 1.67
(1 – 0.8 ) 2
(a) Velocity measured by B = 8 + 0.5 Δt′ = γ Δt = 1.7 × 2 = 3.3 years

= 8.5 m s–1 7 γ= 1 = 1.4
(b) On train C walks 20 × 0.5 = 10 m (1 – 0.7 ) 2
L0
(c) Measured by B, C walks 20 × 8.5 = 170 m L= = 2 = 1.43 m
γ 1.4
2 x = 100 m 8 γ= 1 = 7.1
t = 4 × 10–8 s (1 – 0.992)
v = 2 × 108 m s–1 (a) d = vt = 0.99 × 3 × 108 × 2 × 10–8 = 5.94 m
(a) γ = 1 = 1.34 (b) Δt′ = γ Δt = 7.1 × 2 × 10–8 = 14.2 × 10–8
(1– cv )2
2
= 1.42 × 10–7 s
(b) x′ = γ (x – vt) (c) d = vt′ = 0.99 × 3 × 108 × 1.42 × 10–7
8 –8
= 1.34 × (100 – 2 × 10 × 4 × 10 ) = 42.2 m
= 123.4 m 2 × 10–8 ms–1
(
t′ = γ t – vx2
c )
= 1.34 × (4 × 10 )
8
–8
– 2 × 10 × 8100
2
(3 × 10 )
= –2.44 × 10–7 s
3 γ= 1 = 1.67 42.2 m
(1 – 0.82)
Event 1
(
t′ = γ t – vx2
c )
( (3 × 10 ) )
(d) Proper time is measured in nucleus frame
= 1.67 × 4 × 10–6 – 0.8 × 08 2 = 6.68 × 10–6 s
since the same clock can be used to
Event 2 measure at the start and finish.
(
t′ = 1.67 × 4 × 10–6 – 0.8 × 100
8 2
= 6.22 × 10–6 s
(3 × 10 ) ) (e) Proper length is measured on Earth since
the start and finish do not move relative to
Earth.

9 0.8 c 12 s’ s
0.8 c 0.7 c
B
u′ = u – v ; u = –0.7 c; v = 0.8 c
1– uv
c2
5 Iight hours X
u′ = –0.7 c – 0.8 c = – 1.5 c = – 0.96 c
1 – –0.7 c ×2 0.8 c 1.56
c
γ= 1 = 1.67 13 x = 100 m
(1 – 0.8 ) 2
t = 4 × 10–8 s
(a) t = d = 5 = 6.25 hours x′ = 123.4 m
v 0.8 t′ = –2.44 × 10–7 s
L0
(b) L = = 5 = 3 light hours (ct)2 – x2 = (3 × 108 × 4 × 10–8)2 – 1002
γ 1.67
d 3 = –9.86 × 103 m2
(c) t = = = 3.75 hours
v 0.8 (ct′)2 – x′2 = (3 × 108 × –2.44 × 10–7)2 – 123.42
10 s’ = –9.87 × 103 m2
s
0.9 c 0.9 c 14
t (years) t'
7
8
7 6
u′ = u – v ; u = –0.9 c;
1– uv
c2
v = 0.9 c 6 5
u′ = –0.9 c – 0.9 c2 = –1.8 c = –0.99 c 5

1 – –0.9 ×20.9 c 1 + 0.81 4
c
x'
11 s’ s’ 4
3 7
0.5 c 0.6 c 3 6
5
2
2 4
s 3
1
1 2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (light years)
u′ = u – v ; u = 0.5 c; v = –0.6 c
1 – uv2 x = 4 light years
c
t = 6.5 years
u′ = 0.5 c – –0.6 c2 = 1.1 c = 0.85 c
1– 0.5 × –0.6 c 1.3 x′ = 1 light years
c2
If meteor and ship are the other way round the t′ = 5 years
γ= 1 = 1.15
answer is –0.85 c.
(1 – 0.52)
x′ = γ (x – vt) = 1.15 × (4 – 0.5 × 6.5)
= 0.86 light years
2

( )
t′ = γ t – vx2 = 1.15 × (6.5 – 0.5 × 4)
c
16
t (years) t'
= 5.2 years
S = (ct)2 − (x)2 = 42 − 6.52 = –26.3 ly2 7
8
S′ = (ct′)2 − (x′)2 = 12 − 52 = –24 ly2
7 6
15
t (years) 6 5
t'
7 5
8 4
x'
4
7 6
3 7
3 6
6 5 5
2
2 4
5
4 3
x' 1
1 2
4
3 7 1
6 0
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 x (light years)
2
2 4
Δt′ = 4 years
1 3 1
1 γ= = 1.15
(1 – 0.52)
2
1
0 Δt′ = γΔt = 1.15 × 3.5 = 4 years
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (light years)
17
x′ = 5 light years
t (years) t'
t′ = 1 year
x = 6.3 light years 7
8
t = 4 years
γ= 1 = 1.15 7 6
(1 – 0.52)
6 5
x′ = γ (x – vt) = 1.15 × (x – 0.5 × 4) = 5
x= ( 1.15 )
5 + 2 = 6.3 light years 5
4
x'
t′ = γ (t – vx ) = 1.15 × (t – 0.5 × 6.3) = 1 year
2
4
c 7
3
t=(
1.15 )
1 + 3.15 = 4.0 years 6
3
5
2 2
S = (ct) − (x) = 4 − 6.3 = –23.7 ly 2 2 2 2
2 4
S′ = (ct′)2 − (x′)2 = 12 − 52 = –24 ly2
1 3
1 2
1
0
0 1 1.7 2 3 4 4.3 5 6 7 8
x (light years)
length = 4.3 – 1.7 = 2.6 light years

L0 = 3 light years
L0
L= = 3 = 2.6 light years
γ 1.15
3

18 From the view of the rocket, the Earth moves
t (years) with velocity 0.5c as shown.
t'
T light years = 0.5 T light years + 2 light years
7 T = 4 years
8
This is the time for the signal to reach Earth but
light
7 6 the signal was sent 4 years after launch so it
arrives 8 years after launch.
6 5 The Earth observer can measure both launch
5 and arrival of signal with the same clock, so this
4
x' is the proper time. T0 = T = 8 = 7 years after
γ 1.15
4 launch.
3 7
Alternative method:
3 6
When rocket has travelled 4 years measured by
5
2 the rocket, the time for an Earth observer
2 4
= 4 × 1.15 = 4.6 years
1 3
1 2 Distance travelled by the rocket in this time
1 = 2.3 light years
0 Time for signal to arrive = time to point of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (light years) sending + time for signal to travel back
Note that the rocket is taken to be S and the = 4.6 + 2.3 = 7 years
Earth S′ This is the proper time, since it can be
Signal arrives on Earth (t′) 7 years after the measured with the same clock on Earth.
rocket launched. This is 8 years as measured Time for rocket observer = γT0 = 7 × 1.15
on the rocket. = 8 years
Maybe you are now convinced about space
time diagrams.
19
t (years) t'
7
8
2 light years 0.5 c 7 6
6 5 arrive
5
leave 4
x'
4
3 7
3 6
5
2
2 4
1 3
1 2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.5 T x (light years)
light years 2 light years
Rocket departs in June 2003 and arrives back
T light years in January 2001.
If travelling at 2c the rocket arrival and departure
4 would be simultaneous.

Can’t check since γ = 1 , which we 23 (a) E 2 = m02c4 + p2c2; m0 = 938 MeV c–2
–15 E 2 = 9382 + 1502; p = 150 MeV c–1
cannot do, even using complex numbers, since
E = 950 MeV
it would give a complex answer and complex
(b) KE = total energy – rest energy = 950 – 938
time does not have a meaning.
= 12 MeV
20 If v = 0.8 c (c) Accelerating pd = 12 MV
γ= 1 = 1.67 (d) E = γ m0c2 ⇒ γ = E = 950 = 1.013
(1 – 0.8 )2
m0c2 938
1
m0 = 100 MeVc–2 ⇒ 1.013 =
1 – v22
c
Energy of particle = rest energy + KE
E = γ m0c2 = 1.67 × 100 = 167 MeV (
v2 = 1 – 1
1.0132 )
c2
but E 2 = m02c4 + p2c2 v = 0.16 c
⇒ p2c2 = E 2 – m02c4 = 1672 – 1002 = 17 889
pc = 17 889 = 134 MeV 24 KE of each electron = 1 MeV
p = 134 MeV c–1 Total energy = KE + rest energy
or = 2 × 1 + 2 × 0.5 = 3 MeV
γ M0V = 1.67 × 100 MeV c–2 × 0.8 c This is 1.5 MeV each if the energy is shared
= 134 MeV c–1 equally between them.
21 M0 = 200 MeV c–2 ⇒ rest energy = 200 MeV 25 1 MeVc –1

KE = 1GeV
2 MeV e– 45°
(a) E = rest energy + KE = 1000 + 200
= 1200 MeV e+ 45°
2 2 4 2 2
E = m0 c + p c
1 MeVc –1
p2c2 = E 2 – m02c4 = 12002 – 2002
Momentum of photon = E = 2 MeV c–1
⇒ pc = 1183 MeV; p = 1183 MeVc –1 c
(b) KE = (γ – 1) m0c2 ⇒ 1000 = (γ – 1) 200 Horizontal component of momentum after
( )
1 = 2 × 1 × cos 45° = 1.41 MeV c–1
γ=6= ⇒ v2 = 1 – 12 c2
1 – v22 6 So momentum of nucleus
c
= 2 – 1.41 = 0.59 MeV c–1
v = 0.986 c
26
22 M0 = 200 MeV c–2
γ= 1 = 1.67
(1 – 0.8 )2 0.0042 nm
v = 0.8 c
(a) KE = (γ – 1) m0c2 = (1.67 – 1) 150 0.003 nm 60°
= 100.5 MeV
(b) Total energy = rest energy + KE
= 200 + 100.5 = 300.5 MeV 6.63 × 10–34 × 3 × 108 = 0.414 MeV
Ein = hc =
λ 1.6 × 10–19 × 0.003 × 10–9
(c) E 2 = m02c4 + p2c2
Eout = hc = 0.296 MeV
p2c2 = E 2 – m02c4 = 400.52 – 2002 λ
pc = 260; p = 260 MeV c –1 Energy transferred to the electron
= 0.414 – 0.296 = 0.118 MeV

27 Photon energy = 14.4 keV
= 14.4 × 103 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 2.3 × 10–15 J Practice questions
–15
E = hf ⇒ f = E = 2.3 × 10 –34 = 3.48 × 1018 Hz
h 6.63 × 10
1 (a) Proper length and time are lengths and
Δf = gΔh ⇒ Δf = fgΔh
f c2 c2 times measured by an observer in a frame
= 3.48 × 1018
× 9.8 × 22.6 of reference that is at rest relative to the
(3 × 108)2 events being measured.
Δf = 8.56 × 103 Hz (b) (i) If Miguel sees the matches light
28 (a) The rocket is an inertial frame of reference simultaneously then the light from
so no different from a stationary frame; the each strike must arrive to him at the
wavelength will be the same at each end. same time. But to Carmen, Miguel is
(b) The rocket is accelerated; this is the same moving towards B so the light from
as if it were in a gravitational field, as B has travelled a shorter distance, so
shown: if the lights reach Miguel at the same
time, the match A must have been
struck first.
A was here when B was here

Carmen struck match
B
a Note: This is the other way round if the

events are simultaneous on the station
but not on the train.
A
(ii) Miguel is at rest relative to A and B so

L0 = 20 m
Carmen is moving relative to A and B so
L
L= 0 ⇒γ=2
γ
As photon goes from A to B it will lose 1 2
energy and its wavelength will increase, so γ= ⇒ 12 = 1 – u2

1 – u22 γ c
c
its frequency decreases. ⇒u=c 1– 1
γ2
29 Rs = 2GM u = 0.87 c
C2
2 × 6.67 × 10–11 × 2 × 1031 (iii) The measurements are different
Rs = = 29 600 m
(3 × 108)2 because they are in different frames of
= 29.6 km.
Δt 60
reference; there is no right and wrong.
30 (a) Δt = 1 – R = 1 – 29 600 = 60.0009 s
s
r 109 2 (a)
60 v
(b) Δt = 1 – 29 600 = 71.5 s
105
60
(c) Δt = 1 – 29 600 = 84.3 s v=c
6 × 104
Tends towards c but doesn’t pass
same at low speeds
0
0 V

(b) According to the principles of special (iv) We know that observer E sees the light
relativity it is not possible for the electron travel from F to R in time T. Since the
to exceed the speed of light. This is speed of light is the same for all inertial
because the mass tends to go as velocity observers this must be a distance cT.
approaches the speed of light so to reach c so cT0 = 2 D2 + ( vT
2 )
2
would require ∞ force.

At low speeds there is, however, no
but D =
cT0
2
so cT = 2 cT0 2 + vT
2
( ) ( )
2
2
difference between classical and relativistic

( )
2 2
c T0 2 2
squaring ⇒ c2T 2 = 4 + vT
predictions. 4 4
c2T2 = c2T02 + v2T 2
( )
(c) pd = 1.5 × 106 V 2 2
(c2 – v2)T 2 = c2T02 ⇒ T02 = c –2 v T 2
⇒ gain in KE of electrons = 1.5 MeV
( )
2
c
T0 = 1 – v2 T 2
velocity = 0.97 c c
T0
(i) Relativistic mass = γ m0 ⇒T=
1 – v22
1 1 c
where γ = = = 4.1
1 – v22 1 – 0.9722c2 4 (a) According to special relativity, energy and
c c
Rest mass of e– = 0.5 MeV c–2 mass are equivalent (E = mc2) so the mass
of a body at rest can be converted into
⇒ Relativistic mass = 4.1 × 0.5
energy; this is the rest mass energy.
= 2.1 MeV c–2
When accelerated, a body gains KE so it
Easiest to work in MeV c–2
now has KE + rest mass energy; this is the
(ii) Total E = mc2 = 2.1 MeV total energy of the body.
3 (a) An inertial frame of reference is a co- (b) Total energy of β particle = 2.51 MeV
ordinate system covered in clocks within β particle is an electron so has rest mass
which Newton’s laws of motion are obeyed. = 0.511 MeVc–2
In other words not accelerating. Total energy = mc2 = γ m0c2
(b)
c (
T0 = 2D distance
velocity ) ⇒ 2.51 = γ × 0.511 ⇒ γ = 4.91
(c) (i) If γ = 4.91 then
D
37 cm
C
v
(c) (i)
can find speed of β particles using
1
γ= ⇒v=c (1 – γ1 )
2
1 – v22
c
F R
v=c (1 – 4.911 ) = 0.979 c
2
(ii) Distance F–R = vT (ii) 0.979 c = 0.979 × 3 × 108

(iii) From Pythagoras: = 2.94 × 108 m s–1
vT 2
path length = 2 × (D2 + 2) distance = 0.37 m
t= d = 0.37 = 1.258 ns
D v 2.94 × 108
(d) (i) From the β particle’s frame of reference,
½vT the detector and source are moving.

u v u′ = 0.8–0.8
c + 0.8 c =
c × 0.8 c
1.6 c
1– 1 + 0.64
c2
u′ = 0.98 c
6 (a) A reference frame is a coordinate system

(ii) The speed of the detector is the same covered in clocks. It is used by an observer
as the speed of the β particle as to measure the time and position of an
measured in the laboratory reference event.
frame. (b) Classically the light coming from the lamp
v = 2.94 × 108 m s–1 will have velocity = c – v
(iii) In the frame of reference of the β like throwing something off the back of
particle the distance from source to a truck.
detector is contracted v
L0
so L =
γ
L0 = 37 cm, the distance measured at
c
rest relative to the detector
L = 37 = 7.5 cm
4.91
5 (a) Postulate 1. The laws of physics are the
same for all inertial observers. (c) According to Maxwell’s theory the speed of
Postulate 2. The speed of light in a vacuum light doesn’t depend on the velocity of the
is the same as measured by all inertial source so velocity = c
observers. (d) u′ = u – cv
v ; substitute u = c to get
1 – c2
(b) (i)
u′ = c – cv
v = c – v = c(c – v) = c
1 – c2 1 – cv c–v
0.80 c 0.80 c
(e) (i) Proper time is the time as measured by
A B
an observer at rest relative to the event
being timed.
Each spacecraft moves away from the (ii) T = γT0 T0 = 1.5 μs

observer at 0.8 c; this is not greater γ=2 T = 3.0 μs
T0 2
than c. γ= ⇒ 12 = 1 – v2
1 – v22
c
γ c
To find out how fast they move
from each other, we would have to ⇒ v = c (1 – 1
γ2 )
determine the velocity of A relative to B. v = 0.87 c
(ii) velocity transform is u′ = u – uv
v
1– 7 (a) (i) The time to travel 52 light years at a
c2
Let us measure the velocity of A from speed of 0.8 c = 52 = 65 years
0.8
the reference frame of B
(ii) The Earth observer measures the
proper distance between Earth and the
A O B
planet distance measured by Amanda
0.80 c 0.80 c L0
= = 52 = 31.2 light years
γ (5)
3
u – velocity of A measured by O = –0.8c
v – velocity of B’s reference frame
relative to O = 0.8 c
8

(iii) Time to reach plenet according to 9 (a) Particle A has only rest energy; KE = 0
spacecraft is Particle B has rest energy + KE
31.2 light years = 39 years, (b) (i) Using the relativistic velocity
0.80 c
transformation
so Amanda is 20 + 39 = 59 years old. ux – v
u′x =
1 – ux v
(b) If we take Amanda’s frame of reference, c2
Earth is moving away so the signal has to ux – velocity of body measured in S

travel an extra distance to get to Earth. ux′ – velocity of body measured in S′
0.80c v – relative velocity of two frames of
reference
planet
Earth u′x = 0.96 c + 0.96 c = 0.999 c
1 + 0.96 c ×2 0.96 c
c
0.80c (ii) Total energy = γ m0c2 where
1 1
Earth planet where γ = = = 3.57
1 – v22 1 – (0.962 c)2
c c
31.2 light years 0.8T light years The rest energy of a proton = 938 MeV
so total energy of proton in question
In the time T for the signal to get to
= 3.57 × 938 = 3.35 GeV
Earth the signal travelled 31.2 + 0.8 T
light years (c) (i) Total energy before collision
= 2 × 3.35 = 6.7 GeV
The signal travelled at the speed of light
so in T years light will have travelled T After collision energy = energy of proton
light years + energy of neutron + energy of pion
T = 31.2 + 0.8 T = 156 years If pion has 502 GeV (0.502 MeV) then
the proton and neutron will have
8 (a) The Schwarzschild radius is the minimum 6.7 – 0.502 = 6.2 GeV
distance from the centre of a black hole that
(ii) using E 2 =m02c4 + p2c2
light can escape.
–11 31 where E = total pion energy
(b) Rs = 2GM
2
= 2 × 6.7 × 10 8×22 × 10
c (3 × 10 ) pc = pion momentum
= 3 × 104 m m0c2 = pion rest energy
(c) (i) Clocks tick slowly near to large masses p2c2 = 5022 –1402 = 232 400
so the oscillator near the large mass p = 482 MeV c–1
will have a lower frequency than an (d) The proton must have momentum in the
identical oscillator on the space station. –x direction to balance the proton and
(ii) The time dilation equation is pion plus momentum in the –y direction to
Δt0 balance the y momentum of the neutron.
Δt =
1 – Rs
r n0
Rs
r
=1–
Δt0
Δt ( ) 2
where Δt0 = 1 hour and Δt = 10 hours

Rs
= 0.99 π+
r
r = 1.01 Rs, which means they would be
0.01 Rs from the event horizon.
proton

Worked solutions
Chapter 10
(b) F
Exercises
1 0.1 m 0.2 m 0.2 m 600 N
0.8 m 1.0 m
F × 1.8 = 600 × 0.8
3N F = 267 N
W
1m (c) 50 N
Clockwise: W × 20
Anticlockwise: 3 × 20 F
W × 20 = 3 × 20 30 cm
W = 3 N
Mass = 300 g 5 mm
paint tin lid
2 0.1 m
Again F is force acting on the lid; force on
0.1 m 0.5 m L
the screwdriver is opposite.
50 × 30 = F × 0.5
F = 3000 N
1N 2N 3.5 N 4 FA FB
1m 1m
5m
Clockwise: 3.5 × L
Anticlockwise: 1 × 0.5 + 2 × 0.1 = 0.7 N m
3.5 × L = 0.7
A 800 N 100 N B
L = 0.2 m
Take torques about B
3 (a) F
2m Clockwise: FA × 5
0.1 m
Anticlockwise: 800 × 4 + 100 × 2.5
500 N FA = 690 N
Vertical forces balance so FA + FB = 900 N
FB = 210 N
F marked is the force on the rock.
Force on crowbar acts in the opposite
direction so turns the bar anticlockwise.
500 × 2 = F × 0.1
F = 10 000 N

5 6N 7
3m
0.1 m 0.4 m 0.4 m 0.1 m
L
0.5 m F
45°
R
A 2N 8N B 1.5 m
Drawn at breaking point 500 N 100 N

Take torques about A
Clockwise: 2 × 0.4 + 8 × L
Anticlockwise: 6 × 0.8 = 4.8 N m
4.8 = 0.8 + 8 × L
L = 0.5 m (a) Take torques about the wall
Moved 0.1 m T × sin 45° × 2.5 = 500 × 3 + 100 × 1.5
T= 1650
6 2.5 × sin 45°
3m
T = 933 N
(b) Horizontal forces are balanced
F
R = horizontal component of T
0.5 m
45° = 933 cos 45°
R
1.5 m
R = 660 N
(c) Vertical forces are balanced
600 N
500 + 100 = 933 × sin 45° + F
F = 600 – 660
F = –60 N (downwards)
8
(a) Take torques about the wall RW
T × sin 45° × 2.5 = 600 × 1.5

T= 900
2.5 × sin 45°
T = 509 N
θ
(b) Horizontal forces are balanced
R = horizontal component of T 5m
4m
= 509 × cos 45° = 360 N
(c) Vertical forces are balanced 200 N
T × sin 45° + F = 600
F = 240 N
Rg
F
3m
It’s a 3-4-5 triangle so height = 4 m

Vertical forces are balanced, Rg = 200 N

Take torques about the top
13
Clockwise: Rg × 3 = 200 × 3 = 600 N m
Anticlockwise: F × 4 + 200 × 1.5
600 = 4F + 300
F = 75 N 2m
9 0.5 m
200 N
F = μN = 75 N
(a) ω = 0.25 × 2π = 0.5π = 1.57 rad s–1

Ladder is about to slip so
μ × N = 75 (b) red child v = ω r = 2 × 0.5π = π = 3.14 ms–1
μ × 200 = 75 blue child v = ω r = 0.5 × 0.5π = 0.25π
μ = 0.375 = 0.79 ms–1
10 ω i = 6 rad s–1 (c) F = mω2r

α = 2 rad s–2 red child F = 20 × (0.5π)2 × 2 = 98.7 N
t = 5 s blue child F = 20 × (0.5π)2 × 0.5 = 24.7 N
(a) a = (v – u)
t 14
v = u + at
ω f = 6 + 2 × 5 = 16 rad s–1 20 N
(b) s = (v + u)t
2 0.5 m
θ= (16 + 6) × 5 = 55 rad
2
Number of revolutions = 55 = 8.75
2π
11 θ = 2π
ω i = 5 × 2π rad s–1
2.5 kg
ω f = 0 rad s–1
Γ = Iα
(a) v2 = u2 + 2as
I = mr2 = 2.5 × 0.52 = 0.625 kg m2
a = (v + u )
2 2

2s α = Γ = 20 = 32 rad s–2
l 0.625
α = – (10π) )
(0 2
15
(2 × 2π)
α = −25π = –78.54 rads–2
(b) s = (u + v)t
2
t= 2s = 2 × 2π = 0.4 s 0.5 m
(u + v) 10π
12 5m
2 ms–2 F
(a) α = a = 2 = 0.4 rad s–2
r 5 2.5 kg
(b) a = α r = 2.5 × 0.4 = 1 m s–2
ω i = 2π rad s–1
ω f = 0 rad s–1
t = 1s

(ω f – ω i) (b) Length of string = 1 m
α= = –2π rad s–2
t
I = mr2 = 2.5 × 0.52 = 0.625 kg m2 Circumference of cylinder = 2π r = 0.126 m
Γ = Iα = 0.625 × 2π = 3.93 N m Number of revolutions = 1 = 7.96
0.126
Γ = Fr (c) θ = 7.96 × 2π
F = Γ = 3.93 = 7.85 N
r 0.5 ω i = 0 rad s–1
(This is just a spinning wheel; much more force α = 500 rad s–2
is required if the bike is being ridden.)
ω f2 = ω i2 + 2α θ = 0 + 2 × 7.96 × 2π × 500
16 20 N = 15920 π
ω f = 224 rad s–1
pivot
2 kg 2 kg
19
40 cm 40 cm 40 cm 40 cm 2 kg
20 N
0.02 m
I = Σmr2 = 2 × 0.82 + 2 × 0.42 = 1.6 kg m2
Total Γ = 20 × 0.4 + 20 × 0.8 = 24 N m
Γ = Iα
15 N 15 N
α = Γ = 24 = 15 rad s–2 10 N 10 N
l 1.6
Take clockwise as positive since that is direction
17 20 N
of initial rotation
pivot
2 kg 2 kg (a) Γ = –15 × 0.02 + 10 × 0.02 = –0.1 N m
(minus sign means it’s acting anticlockwise)
80 cm 40 cm 40 cm 120 cm
20 N (b) I = 1 mr 2 = 0.5 × 2 × 0.022 = 4 × 10–4 kg m2
2
I = Σmr2 = 2 × 0.82 + 2 × 0.42 = 1.6 kg m2 α = Γ = –0.1 –4 = –250 rad s–2
Total Γ = –20 × 0.8 + 20 × 2 = 24 N m l 4 × 10
(clockwise) (c) ω i = 100 × 2π rad s–1
Γ = Iα ω f = 0 rad s–1
α = Γ = 24 = 15 rad s–2 α = –250 rad s–2
l 1.6
A couple has the same effect no matter where (ω f – ω i )
α=
t
it acts. (ωf – ωi ) (–200π)
t= = = 2.51 s
18 2 kg
α –250
20 5m
0.02 m 200 N
200 N
(a) Sum of torques = 200 × 5 – 200 × 2.5

10 N
= 500 N m (anticlockwise)
(a) I = 1 mr2 = 0.5 × 2 × 0.022 = 4 × 10–4 kg m2 1 = 1
2 (b) I = = 167 kg m2
3 mL2 3 × 20 × 52
Γ = Fr = 10 × 0.02 = 0.2 N m
α = Γ = 500 = 3 rad s–2
Γ = Iα l 167
α= Γ = 0.2 = 500 rad s–2
l 4 × 10–4

21 4m v = 6gh
a b 5
6 is less than 10 so the hollow ball will have
3 kg c 5 7
0.02 m
lower velocity when it reaches the bottom
(it will take more time)
(a) KE = 1 Iω2
2
24
Icentre = 1 × ML2 = 3 × 4 = 4 kg m2
2
12 12
ω = 1 × 2π = 2π rad s–1
5 cm
KE = 0.5 × 4 × (2π)2 = 79 J 10°
= 1 ML2 = 3 × 4 = 16 kg m2
2
(b) Iend
3 3 (a) KE at bottom = PE at top = mgh
KE = 0.5 × 16 × (2π) = 316 J 2 = 0.5 × 10 × 0.05 = 0.25 J
(c) I = 1 Mr2 = 0.5 × 3 × 0.022 (b) since ball is solid
2
= 6 × 10–4 kg m2 v = 10gh
7
KE = 0.5 × 6 × 10–4 × (2π)2 = 0.85 m s–1
= 0.012 J (c) sin 10° = 0.05
L
22 0.5 kg L = 0.29 m
(d) u = 0 m s–1
v = 0.85 m s–1
0.45 m s = 0.29 m
s = (u + v)t
2
t= 2s = 0.68 s
(u + v)
25
ω = 2 × 2π = 4π rad s –1
0.4 kg
I = mr2 = 0.5 × 0.452 = 0.101
KE = 1 Iω 2 = 0.5 × 0.101 × (4π)2 = 8 J
2
20π rads–1
(This is just the spinning wheel.) 0.05 m
23 I = 1 mr2 = 5 × 10–4 kg m2
2
v L = Iω = 5 × 10–4 × 20π = π × 10–2
h
ω = 3.14 × 10–2 kg m2 s–1
26
0.1 m
mgh = 1 mv2 + 1 Iω 2 0.1 m
2 2 10π rads–1
For a hollow sphere I = 2 mr2 0.75 kg
3
If no slipping ω = v I = 2 mr2 = 3 × 10–3 kgm2
r 5
2 3 (
r2 2 )
1 mv2 + 1 2 mr 2 × v 2 = 1 mv2 + 2 mv2
2 6
L = Iω = 3 × 10–3 × 10π = 3π × 10–2
= 0.942 kg m2 s–1
5
mgh = mv2
6

27 (a) 0.15 m 28 0.15 m
π rads–1
2π rads
–1
1 kg
1m
2 kg (a) I1 = 1 mr2 = 0.5 × 1 × 0.152

2
= 1.125 × 10–2 kg m2
0.1 m 0.15 m
1 kg
60 kg

I1 = Ibody + Iarms
(b) I2 = 1.125 × 10–2 + mr2
= 1 × 60 × 0.152 + 2 × 2 × 12 = 4.675 kg m2
2 = 1.125 × 10–2 + 0.1 × 0.12
(b) 0.15 m = 1.225 × 10–2 kgm2
(c) I1ω1 = I2ω2
ω2 = 1.125 × π = 0.92 π = 2.9 rad s–1
1.225
29 0.5 m
0.25 cm
0.5 kg
60 kg
(a) L = Iω
I2 = 1 × 60 × 0.152 + 2 × 2 × 0.252 I1 = mr2 = 0.5 × 0.52 = 0.125 kg m2
2
= 0.925 kg m2 ω1 = v = 2 = 4 rad s–1
r 0.5
(c) I1ω1 = I2ω2 L1 = 0.5 kg m2 s–1
4.675 × 2π = 0.925 × ω2 (b) I1ω1 = I2ω2
ω2 = 5.1 × 2π rad s–1 I2 = mr2 = 0.5 × 0.22 = 0.02 kg m2

L1
5.1 revolutions s–1 ω2 = = 25 rad s–1
I2
(d) KE before = 1 I1ω12 = 0.5 × 4.675 × (2π)2 speed = ω1r = 5 m s–1
2
= 92.3 J
30 1 mole Ar = 40 g
KE after = 1 I2ω22 = 0.5 × 0.925 × (10.2π)2 number of moles n = 100 moles = 2.5 moles
2
= 475 J 40
3
U = nRT = 1.5 × 2.5 × 8.31 × 300 = 9.4 kJ
(e) Work done pulling her arms in 2
31 Average KE = 3 kT = 1.5 × 1.38 × 10–23 × 400
2
= 8.28 × 10–21 J

32 P1 = 70 kPa 34
V1 = 100 × 10–6 m3
P (kPa)
V2 = 50 × 10–6 m3 200
(a) PV = nRT
PV1
= 70 × 10 × 100 × 10 = 700 K
3 –6
T1 = 150
nR 0.01
PV
(b) T2 = 2 = 70 × 10 × 50 × 10 = 350 K
3 –6
nR 0.01
100
3
(c) ΔU = nR ΔT = 1.5 × 0.01 × 350 = 5.25 J
2
(d) Work done = PΔV = 70 × 103 × 50 × 10–6
= 3.5 J 50
(e) Q = ΔU + W
Work done by gas = –3.5 J 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Change in internal energy = –5.25 J
V (cm3)
Heat loss = 8.75 J 5
(a) Adiabatic so PV 3 = constant
33
5 5
P1V1 3 = P2V2 3
P (kPa)
200 5
200 × 103 × (52 × 10–6) 3
5
150 = P2 × (150 × 10–6) 3
P2 = 34 kPa
100 Close, given the difficulty in reproducing and
reading the graph.
(b) Expansion, so the gas does work
50
Work is area under graph = 83 squares
As before, each square
0 = 10 × 103 × 10 × 10–6 = 0.1 J
0 50 100 150 200 250
V (cm3) So the gas does work = 8.3 J
P1V1
= 200 × 10 × 52 × 10 = 1040 K
3 –6
P1 = 70 × 103 Pa (c) T1 =
nR 0.01
V1 = 150 × 10–6 m3
P2V2
= 34 × 10 × 150 × 10 = 510 K
3 –6
P2 = 200 × 103 Pa (d) T2 =
nR 0.01
V2 = 50 × 103 m3
(e) ΔU = 3 nRΔT = 1.5 × 0.01 × (510 – 1040)
(a) T = PV = 70 × 10 × 150 × 10 = 1050 K
3 –6
2
nR 0.01 = –7.95 J
(b) Work done = area under curve = 70 + 46 (f) Q = ΔU + W = –7.95 + 8.3 = 0.35 J
= 116 squares
(This should be zero but is not, owing to
Each square = 10 × 103 × 10 × 10–6 = 0.1 J the difficulty in estimating the area under
Work done = 11.6 J the graph.)
(c) Temperature is constant so no change in
internal energy
heat loss = work done on gas = 11.6 J

35 (a) P (c) Gas does work when it expands
D C Work done = area under red and black
200 kPa
curves = A + B + C + D + E
Work done = 320 J
100 kPa
A B (d) Work done on gas when it is compressed
Work done = area under green and blue
250 cm3 500 cm3 V curves = A + B + C
PAVA PV Work done = 135 J
(b) (i) = B B ⇒ 100 × 250 = 100 × 500
TA TB 300 TB
(e) Net work done = E + D = 185 J
TB = 600 K
PBVB PV 37
(ii) = C C ⇒ 100 × 500 = 200 × 500
TB TC 600 TC
P (kPa)
200
TC = 1200 K
PCVC PV
(iii) = D D ⇒ 200 × 500 = 200 × 250
TC TD 1200 TD
150 TH
TD = 600 K
(c) Work done by gas from A ➞ B = area under
100
graph
= 100 × 103 × 250 × 10–6 = 25 J
(d) Work done on gas from C ➞ D = area 50
under graph TC
= 200 × 103 × 250 × 10–6 = –50 J
(e) Net work done by gas = –25 J (25 J of work 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
done on gas) V (cm3)
(a) At top point PV = 150 × 10 × 35 × 10

3 –6
36 P
nR 0.01
= 525 K
(b) At bottom point PV = 20 × 10 × 180 × 10
3 –6
E nR 0.01
D
= 360 K
A
1 – TC
B C (c) η = = 1 – 360 = 0.31 (≈0.3)
V TH 525
(d) Net work = area enclosed = 14 squares
Each area marked with a letter represents
= 14 × 10 × 103 × 10 × 10–6 = 1.4 J
an energy:
A – 50 J, B – 45 J, C – 40 J, D – 35 J, E – 150 J (e) Heat added = work done = area under
isothermal expansion = 48 squares = 4.8 J
(a) Isothermal expansion
(f) η = W = 1.4 = 0.29 (≈0.3)
Work done = area under red curve QH 4.8
=A+B+E
38 Entropy = ΔQ
Work done = 245 J T
(b) Adiabatic compression 400 K 250 K
Work done = area under green curve = A 500 J

Work done = 50 J

(a) (i) Entropy lost by hot body = –500 42 0.4 m
400
= –1.25 J/K
0.6 m
(ii) Entropy gained by cold body = +500
250
= +2 J/K
(b) Change in entropy = 2 + (–1.25)

= +0.75 J/kg
39 Lifting a load increases PE of load. Motor (a) Volume of wood under water
transfers electrical energy to PE. PE of load is = 0.6 × 1 × 1 = 0.6 m3
more ordered than electrical energy in battery. Mass of water displaced = Vρw
⇒ Heat must be lost otherwise entropy would = 0.6 × 103 kg
be reduced.
Buoyant force = 6000 N
40 Floating, so buoyant force = weight of wood
10 N F
= 6000 N
1 cm3 150 cm3 Mass of wood = 600 kg
Density of wood = 600 kg m–3
(a) P = F = 10 = 105 Pa
A 1 × 10–4 (b) If the cube is pushed under water, mass of
water displaced = Vρw = 1 × 103 kg
(b) P = F
A Upthrust = 10 000 N
The pressure in the fluid is the same 10 000 N
everywhere: 10 = F
1 150
F = 1500 N
41
T
FB
F
6000 N
F + 6000 = 10 000
F = 4000 N
43
W L1
m = 60 kg L2
ρg = 19.3 × 103 kg m–3

V = m = 3.1 × 10–3 m3
ρg
Mass of water displaced = Vρw
= 3.1 × 10–3 × 1 × 103 = 3.1 kg
Buoyant force, FB = 31 N If area of cube = A, then weight of water
To lift ball T = W – FB = 600 – 31 = 569 N displaced = L2 × A × ρw × g
Weight of ice = (L1 + L2) × A × ρi × g

The ice is floating, so (a) Volume flow rate = A1v1 = π × (0.01)2 × 3
L2 × A × ρw × g = (L1 + L2) × A × ρi × g = 9.4 × 10–4 m3 s–1
ρ
L2 = i = 0.92 = 0.89 (b) Using the continuity equation A1v1 = A2v2
(L1 + L2) ρw 1.03
π × (0.01)2 × 3 = π × (0.03)2 × v2
This means that 89% is under water.
44
( 0.03 ) × 3 = 0.33 m s
v2 = 0.01
2
–1
P1 V1 (c) P1 + 1 ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P2 + 1 ρ v22 + ρ gh2

2 2
No change in height so
5m
P1 + 1 ρ v12 = P2 + 1 ρ v22
2 2
P2 V2
500 × 10 + 0.5 × 103 × 32
3
= P2 + 0.5 × 103 × 0.332

Pressure at depth 5 m = Patmos + ρgh
P2 = (500 + 4.5 – 0.054) × 103 = 504.4 kPa
101 × 103 + 103 × 10 × 5 = 151 × 103
= 151 kPa 49
Assume the temperature is constant
P1V1 = P2V2
101 × 100 = 151 × V2 r1 = 0.015 m
P1 = 100 kPa
V2 = 67 cm3 v1 = 0.5 ms–1
45 A1v1 = A2v2
20 × 3 × 1 = 20 × 1 × v2
v2 = 3 m s–1 20 m
46 Volume flow is the same = 1.5

= π(0.25)2 × v2
v2 = 7.6 m s–1
47
40 cm V2
3 cm 3 mm
r2 = 0.005 m
P2
v1 = velocity of piston = 0.4 = 0.1 m s–1
4 (a) Volume flow rate = A1v1 = π × (0.015)2 × 0.5
A1v1 = A2v2
π × (0.03)2 × 0.1 = π × (0.003)2 × v2 = 3.53 × 10–4 m3 s–1
v2 = 10 m s–1 (b) Using continuity equation A1v1 = A2v2
π × (0.015)2 × 0.5 = π × (0.005)2 × v2
48
( 0.005 )
v2 = 0.015
2
× 0.5 = 4.5 m s–1
(c) P1 + 1 ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P2 + 1 ρ v22 + ρ gh2

2 2
V1 = 3 ms
–1
V2 100 × 10 + 0.5 × 10 × 0.52 + 103 × 10 × 20
3 3
= P2 + 0.5 × 103 × 4.52

P2 = (100 + 0.125 + 200 – 10.0125) × 103
P1 = 500 kPa P2
r1 = 0.01 m r2 = 0.03 m P2 = 290 kPa
10

vt = 2 × gr (ρs – ρf)
2
50 density of air = 1.3 kgm–3
9 η
static pressure 2 10 × 0.0052 (8000 – 900)
= ×
9 0.2
= 1.97 m s–1
9 × vt × η
54 ρs = + ρf = 9 × 0.5 × 0.22 + 900
2 × gr2 2 × 10 × 0.03
stagnation pressure
= 50 + 900
3 cm ρs = 950 kg m–3
55 Re = vrρ
η
Turbulent if Re > 1000
v = 1000 × 0.002 = 0.2 m s–1
0.01 × 1000
density of water = 1000 kgm–3
Volume flow rate = Av = π × (0.01)2 × 0.2
P2 – P1 = ρwgΔh = 1 ρav2 = 6.3 × 10–5 m3 s–1
2
56
v = 2ρw gΔh = 2 × 1000 × 10 × 0.03 = 21.5 m s–1
ρa 1.3
energy (J)
51 P2 – P1 = 1 ρ av2 25
2
600 km h–1 = 600 × 1000 = 166.7 m s–1 20
3600
ΔP = 0.5 × 1.3 × 166.72 = 18 kPa 15
52 10
5
4 cm
2 cm 0
0 1 2 3 4
4 cm2 time (s)
1 cm2
If f = 0.5 Hz, the time period = 1 = 2 s
0.5
energy stored
Q = 2π
[( ) ]
A1 energy lost per cycle
2
gΔh = 1 v12 –1
2 A2 25
Q = 2π = 9.8
2gΔh (25 – 9)
v1 =
( )
A1 2 – 1
A2
57
A1
=4
A2
2 × 10 × 0.02
v1 = = 0.163 m s–1
42 – 1 B
Volume flow rate = A1v1 = 4 × 10 × 0.163 –4 C
= 6.5 × 10–5 m3 s–1 A D
E
53 Density of oil = 900 kg m–3 F
Density of steel = 8000 kg m–3
(a) D is same length as A so resonance – this
Viscosity of oil = 0.2 N s m–2
implies a π phase difference.
2
11

B is much shorter so driver has lower (b) L = Iω = 280 × π = 880 kgm2s–1
frequency – it will be in phase. (c) No external torques act so angular
F is much longer so driver has higher momentum is conserved.
frequency – it will have a π phase difference. Initial angular momentum = final angular
C and E will be somewhere in between. momentum
(b) D has highest amplitude as it resonates with I1ω1 = I2ω2
the driver. I2 = 0.5 × 60 × 22 + 40 × 12 = 160 kg m2
I1ω1
= 880 = 5.50 rad s–1
ω2 =
I2 160
(d) Rotational KE = 1 Iω2
Practice questions 2
Initial KE = 0.5 × 880 × π2 = 1380 J
1 (a) The conditions for equilibrium are that the Final KE = 0.5 × 160 × 5.52 = 2420 J
sum of the forces acting on the body are Change in KE = 2420 – 1380 = 1040 J
zero and the sum of the torques about any (e) The increase in KE is due to the work done
point is zero. by the child pulling himself towards the
(b) The forces must add to zero so the centre.
resultant force must close the triangle of
3
P (105 Pa)
forces as shown. 5
3
m
1.0
m 2
0.8 70°
R 1 P R
S
10° 0
F m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
base of spine 0.5 v (m3)
Work done compressing gas = area under line

F = 1 × 105 × 3 = 3 × 105 J
R The answer is C.
S
(c) Torque about base = S × sin 70° × 0.8 4 (a) Work done during cycle = area inside cycle
(d) If in equilibrium torques about base are = 2 × 105 × 8 = 1.6 × 106 J
balanced so 8 m3
3 A B
P(×105 Pa)
clockwise torque = anticlockwise torque

S × sin70° × 0.8 = F × sin10° × 0.5
2 2 × 105
F = 0.8 × sin70° = 8.66 ≈ 9
S 0.5 × sin10°
1
2 (a) The radius should be marked as 2 m. D C
Moment of inertia = Idisc + Ichild 0

= 1 md r 2 + mc r 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
2 V(m3)
= 0.5 × 60 × 22 + 40 × 22
I = 280 kgm2
12

(b) 1.8 × 106 J thermal energy ejected (iii) According to first law of
So the energy in must equal thermodynamics
work done + energy lost Q = ΔU + W ⇒ ΔU = Q – W
= (1.6 + 1.8) × 106 = 3.4 × 106 J Gain in internal energy
= heat added – work done by gas
Efficiency = work out × 100%
energy in ΔU = 8 × 103 – 6 × 103 = 2 × 103 J
= 1.6 × 100% = 47%
3.4 6 (a) (i) A ➞ B the volume is getting less ⇒ gas
(c) Adiabatic are the steep ones. compressed so work is done on the
P
gas.
isothermal
adiabatic
P (105 Pa)
5 C A is on a higher isotherm than B
so A → B temperature reduced.
adiabatic 4
isothermal
2
V 1 B A
(d) (i) Adiabatic expansion 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Adiabatic compression V (m3)
Isothermal expansion
(ii) Temperature of gas goes down and
Isothermal compression
work is done on gas.
5 (a) Isothermal – the temperature remains First law: Q = ΔU + W
constant but heat enters or leaves. If ΔU and W are both negative then Q is
Adiabatic – no heat exchanged with negative ⇒ heat lost.
surroundings and temperature not constant. (b) Work done from A ➞ B = area under A–B =
(b) (i) PV = constant 1 × 105 × 0.4 = 0.4 × 105 J
T
(c) Total work done = area of ‘triangle’ ABC
P = 1·2 × 105 Pa = 1 × 4 × 105 × 0.4 = 0.8 × 105 J
2
(d) Useful work done = 8 × 104 J
Thermal energy supplied = 120 kJ
0.050 m3 0.10 m3 = 12 × 104 J
Q = 8 × 103 J
Efficiency = useful work × 100 = 8 × 100
P is constant so when V increases T energy in 12
must increase ⇒ not isothermal = 67%
Heat added ⇒ not adiabatic c. and d. are overestimates since the area is
∴ not adiabatic or isothermal; it is a bit less than the area of the triangle.
isobaric 7 (a) Isothermal is not a steep as adiabatic
(ii) Work done on gas = PΔV so AC – adiabatic
= 1.2 × 105 × 0.05 = 6 × 103 J
AB – isothermal
13

(b)
pressure (105 Pa) 8 (a) Volume per second = Av = π × 0.022 × 0.5
7.0 = 6.3 × 10–4 m3 s–1;
C
(b) Using continuity equation
6.0
A1v1 = A2v2
5.0 B π × 0.022 × 0.5 = π × 0.0152 × v2;
4.0 v2 = 0.9 m s–1;
(c) Using Bernoulli equation
3.0
P1 + 1 ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + 1 ρv22 + ρgh2;
2 2
2.0 A
300 × 10 + 0.5 × 10 × 0.52 + 103 × 10 × 0
3 3
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
volume (10–3 m3) = P2 + 0.5 × 103 × 0.92 + 103 × 10 × 5
Net work done is area inside the cycle ⇒ P2 = (300 + 0.125 – 0.405 – 50) × 103
(c) Estimate by counting small squares ∼ 150 = 250 kPa;
Each square is 0.1 × 105 × 0.1 × 10–3 = 1 J 9 (a) Using Bernoulli equation
so work done = 150 J P1 + 1 ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P2 + 1 ρ v22 + ρ gh2
2 2
(d) Adiabatic ⇒ no exchange of heat ⇒ Q = 0
Assume difference in height is negligible
First law states Q = ΔU + W
P1 + 1 ρ v12 = P2 + 1 ρ v22
Heat added = increase in internal energy + 2 2
1
P1 – P2 = ρ (v2 – v12)
work done by gas 2
2
In this case Q = 0 = 0.5 × 1.3 × (3402 – 2902)
and W is negative since work is done on ΔP = 2.05 × 104 Pa
gas
(b) Upward force = ΔP × A = 2.05 × 104 × 90
⇒ 0 = ΔU – W
= 1.8 × 106 N
⇒ ∆U = W
∴ Internal energy increases
⇒ Temperature increases
14

Worked solutions
Chapter 11
4 5 cm
Exercises
1 15 cm
(a) u = 5 cm
v=?
f = 15 cm
1 1
25 cm + = 1
5 v 15
1
Distance = focal length = 25 cm = 1 – 1 = 1–3 =– 2
v 15 5 15 15
1 1 1
+ = v = –7.5 cm
u v f
1 1 1 (b) Virtual (negative)
+ =
∞ v f
(c) M = v = 7.5 = 1.5
v=f u 5
5
2 30 cm
5m
5 cm
10 cm
(a) u = 30 cm (a) u = 5 m
f = 10 cm (b) u = 500 cm
1 1 1
+ = v=?
u v f
1 v = 5 cm
+ = 1
1
1
30 v 10 +1=1
500 v 5
1 1
= – 1 = 3–1 = 2 1 1 1
v 10 30 30 30 = – = 100 – 1 = 99
v 5 500 500 500
v = 15 cm
v = 5.05 cm
(b) Real
(c) M = v = 5.05 = 0.01
(c) M = v = 15 = 0.5 u 500
u 30
(d) If bush is 1 m then image is 0.01 m.
3 u=?
v = 20 cm 6 20 cm
f = 5 cm
1
+ 1 =1
u 20 5 5 cm
1 1
= – 1 = 4–1 = 3
u 5 20 20 20
u = 6.67 cm (a) u = 20 cm
v=?
f = 5 cm
1
+1=1
20 v 5

1 1
= – 1 = 4–1 = 3 9 400 000
v 5 20 20 20
v = 6.67 cm
3500
(b) M = v = 6.6 = 0.33
u 20
7 (a) f = –0.3 m α = 3500 = 8.75 × 10–3 rad
400 000
u = 5m
10 25 cm
1 1 1
= + gives 1 = 1 – 1 1 mm
f u v v f u
1 1 1 –50 – 3 –53
v
= – =
–0.3 5 15
=
15 α = 1 = 4 × 10–3 rad
250
v = –28.3 cm 11 u
5m
50 cm
25 cm
5 cm
u=?
v = –25 cm
(b) Linear magnification = v = 0.283 = 0.057
u 5 f = 5 cm
1
So if object is 50 cm as in diagram, image – 1 =1
u 25 5
will be 50 × 0.057 = 2.85 cm which is about
1 1 1
the same as the diagram. = + = 5+1 = 6
u 5 25 25 25
8 20 cm 20 cm 10 cm
u = 4.16 cm
image in first lens 12 M = 1 + 25 = 1 + 25 = 6

f 5
40 cm 13 u = 24 cm
f = 1 r = 10 cm
2
1st lens: 1
Object is 2f from lens so image distance will be = 1 – 1 = 24 – 10
v 10 24 240
2f. Image is real. v = 17.1 cm (real)
2nd lens:
M = v = 17.1 = 0.71
Image in 1st lens is object for 2nd but since rays u 24
h
will not cross at this image/object it is taken to 0.71 = i
ho
be a virtual object.
hi = 0.71 × 2 = 1.42 cm
u = –30 cm
f = 20 cm
1 1 1
= + gives 1 = 1 – 1
f u v v f u
1 1 1 3+2
= – =
v 20 –30 60
v = 12 cm
Image is real.
14 u = 5 cm
f = 1 r = 10 cm
2
1
= 1 – 1 = 5 – 10
v 10 5 50
v = –10 cm (virtual)

M = v = 10 = 2 (c) 1 cm 5 cm
u 5 3 cm 4.17 cm
hi
2=
ho
hi = 2 × 2 = 4 cm
1.5 cm
Can be seen from diagram that distance

between lenses
= 3 + 4.17 cm = 7.17 cm
18 uo vo ue
original object fo fe
image in objective
15 v = 30 cm object for eyepiece
u = 20 cm 1 cm 16 cm 4 cm
1 1 1 final image
= + = 1 + 1 = 3+2 25 cm
f u v 20 30 60
f = 12 cm For the eyepiece:
16 u = 5 cm f = 4 cm
ve = –25 cm (we know the image is virtual)
f = 1 r = –10 cm
2 1 1 1
= – = 1 – 1 = 25 – –4
1 1 1
= – = 1 – 1 = –1 – 2 u f v 4 –25 100
v f u –10 5 10 ue = 3.45 cm
v = –3.33 cm For the objective:
M = v = 3.33 vo = 21 – 3.45 = 17.55 cm
u 5
3.33 hi f = 1 cm
=
5 ho
= – = 1 – 1 = 17.55 – 1
1 1 1
hi = 3.33 × 2 = 1.33 cm u f v 1 17.55 17.55
5
uo = 1.06 cm
Linear magnification of objective lens = 17.55
1.06
= 16.6
Linear magnification of eyepiece lens = 25
3.45
= 7.2
Overall angular magnification = 16.6 × 7.2
= 120
1.22 λ f0 –9 –2
19 (a) d = = 1.22 × 600 × 10 –2 × 2 × 10
D 1 × 10
17 (a) For objective, u = 1.5 cm, f = 1 cm = 1.46 × 10–6 m

λair –6
1 1 1 1
= – = – 1 = 3 – 2 = 1 ⇒ v = 3 cm (b) λoil = so d = 1.46 × 10 = 8.1 × 10–7 m
v f u 1 1.5 3 3 n 1.8
(b) For eyepiece, v = –25 cm, f = 5 cm 20 100 cm 10 cm
1 1
= + 1 = 5+1 = 6 u = 4.17 cm
u 5 25 25 25
fo
(a) Angular magnification = = 100 = 10
fe 10
(b) Distance between lenses = fo + fe = 110 cm
3

(c) Eye ring is the image of objective in eyepiece 24 Pin = 1 mW
110 cm (a) Attenuation = 10 log10 ( PP )
in
out
10 cm Pout = 0.1 mW; A = 10 log10 (10) = 10 dB
(b) Pout = 0.2 mW; A = 10 log10 (5) = 7 dB
(c) Pout = 0.01 mW; A = 10 log10 (100) = 20 dB
25 (a) After 5 km, attenuation = 5 × 2 = 10 dB

(b) Pin = 1 mW
u = 110 cm Attenuation = 10 dB = 10 log10 1
Pout ( )
f = 10 cm ⇒ Pout = 0.1 mW
1 1 1
= – = 1 – 1 = 11 – 1 26 I0 = 0.1 kW m–2
v f u 10 110 110
v = 11 cm from the eyepiece I = 0.8 kW m–2
21 50 cm fe x = 4 mm
(a) I = I0 e–μx
(I )
⇒ loge I = –μx
0
I
μ = 1 log ( ) e
0
x I
f
= 5.6 × 10–2
Angular magnification = o
fe (b) x1/2 = 0.693 = 12.4 mm
50 μ
10 = fe = 5 cm
fe 27 I0 = 0.5 kW m–2
22 400 000 km x = 3 mm
3 500 km (a) μ = 0.693 = 0.693 mm–1

x1/2
(b) I = I0 e–μx = 0.5 × e–0.693 × 3
θ = 3.5 = 8.75 × 10–3 rad = 0.0625 kW m–2
400
23 θ2 28 (a) 40% reduction ⇒ I = 40 = e–μx
I0 100
1.7
θa n2 x = 6 mm ⇒ 0.4 = e–μ × 6
c loge (0.4) = –μx
1.8
μ = 1 loge (0.4)
n1 x
= 0.153 mm–1
na = 1
n2 (b) x1/2 = 0.693 = 4.5 mm
sin c = 0.153
n1
( 1.8 )
c = sin–1 1.7 = sin–1(0.94) = 71°
θ2 = 90° – c = 19°
Apply Snell’s law to light entering fibre:
sinθa n
= 2
sinθ2 na
sin θa = sin 19° × 1.8
θa = 36°
4

29 μb = 0.693 = 0.385 cm–1 (b) Time for reflection from far side of organ
1.8
= 120 μs
μm = 0.693 = 0.198 cm–1 Distance travelled = 120 × 10–6 × 1500
3.5
= 18 cm
⇒ Depth = 9 cm
muscle
Thickness of organ = 9 – 4.5 = 4.5 cm
bone
Practice questions
1 (a) (i) The point at which rays that are parallel

1 cm 10 cm 1 cm
to the axis converge.
12 cm muscle: (ii)
I0 converging lens
= e–μmxm = e–0.198 × 12 = 0.093
I1
⇒ 9.3%
2 cm muscle and 10 cm bone:
principal axis
I0
= e–(μmxm + μbxb) = e–(0.198 × 2 + 0.385 × 10) = 0.014 F O F
I2
⇒ 1.4%
30 Z = ρc; for muscle Z = 1540 x 1060

= 1.63 x 106 kg m–2s–1
for bone Z = 3780 x 1900

= 7.18 x 106 kg m–2s–1
(iii) The image is virtual since rays don’t
for fat Z = 1480 x 900 really cross.
= 1.33 x 106 kg m–2s–1
(b) f = 6.25 cm
31 Greatest percentage reflection from greatest u = 5 cm
difference in impedance, so bone and fat. 5 cm
Ir Z –Z 2
32
I0 (
Z 2 + Z1 ) (
= 2 1 = 7.18 – 1.63
7.18 + 1.63 ) 2
f 0.8 cm
= 0.397
⇒ 39.7%
6.25 cm
33 (a) (i) Using 1 + 1 = 1 ⇒ 1 + 1 = 1
Signal strength
u f v5 v 6.25
⇒ 1 = 1 – 1 = 5 – 6.25 = –1.25
v 6.25 5 5 × 6.25 31.25
organ ⇒ v = –25 cm
bone 60 120 200
Time (μs) (ii) Linear magnification = v = 25 = 5
u 5
So image is 5 × object = 5 × 0.8
Depth of organ can be found from 1st peak = 4.0 cm
Time for reflection = 60 μs
Distance travelled = 60 × 10–6 × 1500
= 0.09 m = 9 cm
⇒ Depth = 4.5 cm 5

2 (a) First draw the red ray that goes through objective lens eyepiece lens
the centre of the lens, appearing to come
from the virtual image at I2. Then draw the 60 mm
dashed line parallel to the axis from the
F F F1 F1
image at I1 to the lens L2. Finally, draw the 20 mm
blue ray, which comes from the image at 24 mm
I2 and passes through the point in the lens u
determined by the dashed line. This ray will 240

cross the axis at the focal point. Using 1 = 1 + 1
f u v
I2 1 1 1
L1 L2 ⇒ = –
u f v
where f = 60 mm
O
v = –240 mm (negative since
F
virtual)
1
= 1 – 1 = (4+1)
u 60 –240 240
I1 240
u= = 48 mm
5
(b) Magnification in objective = v = 120
u 24
Magnification in eyepiece = v = 240
u 48
120 240
(b) (i) Object is 1 cm tall and I2 is 2 cm tall so Total magnification = × = 25
24 48
linear magnification = 2 4 (a) Ultrasound frequency 1 MHz → 20 MHz
(ii) Final image is 6 cm tall so linear You will just have to remember this.
magnification of eyepiece = 6 = 3
2 (b) (i) Gel is applied to prevent the ultrasound
(c) Total magnification = 2 × 3 = 6
from being reflected when it passes
3 (a) (i) Using the lens formula 1 = 1 + 1 from air to body.
f u v
It does this by reducing the impedance
⇒1=1–1
v f u difference.
where f = 20 mm
Also makes the sensor slide more easily.
u = 24 mm
1 (ii)
= 1 – 1 = (24–20) = 4 A D
v 20 24 480 480
B C
v = 480 = 120 mm d
4
(ii) We know the image is real because the O
ultrasound
value for v is positive; this is because transmitter
and receiver
the object is further than the focal
length from the convex lens. l
layer of fat layer of fat
(iii) First put the image and object for the and skin and skin
eyepiece onto the diagram (can’t do
this exactly but it helps to see their A
(relative units)
pulse strength
positions). B D
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300

6 t (μs)

Each time there is a change in tissue, (ii) From graph x1/2 = 4 mm
there is a reflection. The beam gets I0
20
weaker as it passes through more
tissue. When the beam passes out of 155
/ (arbitrary units)
the body the reflection is greater, since
I0 10
the change in impedance from tissue to 2
air is large. 5
D should be passing from body to air 4
not from organ to body. 0

0 c 4 6 8 9 10 12
(iii) v = 1.5 × 103 m s–1 x 1/2 x (mm)
The depth of the organ can be found
(iii) 20% of 20 = 0.2 × 20 = 4
using peaks A and B.
from the graph the thickness required
Time for reflection = 50 – 35 = 15 μs
= 9 mm
⇒ time to get to organ = 7.5 μs
(iv) Using I = I0e–μx where μ = In 2
Depth of organ = 1.5 × 103 × 7.5 × 10–6 8
= 0.087 mm–1
= 1.1 cm
If 80% reduction then 20% gets
If B is one side of the organ and C the
through
other, then time to pass from B to C to
So I = 20 = e–0.087x
B is 50 μs I0 100
Time from B to C = 50 μs = 25 μs ⇒ In (0.2) = –0.087x ⇒ x = 18.5 mm
2
Thickness of organ
= 1.5 × 103 × 25 × 10–6 = 3.8 cm 6 (a) The half thickness is the thickness of
material that will reduce the intensity of an
(c) B-scan gives a 3D image.
X-ray beam by 12 .
(d) Advantage: non-ionizing
(b) The half thickness for bone is 1 × the half
Disadvantages: small depth penetration, 150
thickness for soft tissue
limit to size of objects that can be imaged, t1s
blurring of images t 12 b = 2
150
5 (a) (i) An X-ray picture shows up bones very μ = ln2

t1
2
clearly since X-rays are absorbed more
by bone than soft tissue; this would
μb
ln 2
t1b t1s
= 2 = 2 = 150
( )
therefore be the best choice to view a μs t1b
broken bone
ln2
t1s
2
( ) 2
(ii) It is too dangerous to use X rays to
μb = μs × 150 = 0.035 × 150 = 5.3 cm–1
view a fetus so non-ionizing radiation
(c) (i) IB = IAe–μsx
such as ultrasound is used.
IB
= e–0.035 × 5 = 0.84
(b) (i) The half thickness is the thickness of IA
the material required to reduce the (ii) IC = IBe–μbx
intensity of an X-ray beam to half of its IC
= e–5.3 × 5 = 3.1 × 10–12
original intensity. IB
(d) Most of the X-rays pass through the soft
tissue but almost all are absorbed by the
bone; this means that a shadow of the
bone will be cast on a photo plate placed
under the leg.

7 (a) (i) Ultrasound is sound that is higher (d) (i) The time between transmission and
frequency than we can hear, over reflection = 50 μs. This is the time to
20 kHz. reach the stomach and back, so the
(ii) Ultrasound is produced by applying an time to the stomach = 25 μs
alternating voltage to a piezo-electric Distance = vt = 1600 × 25 × 10–6
crystal. This causes molecules to align = 4.0 cm
with the field, resulting in vibration. (ii) An A scan simply shows the distance
(b) Z = ρc = 2800 × 1.5 × 10 3 to the organ whereas a B scan gives an
= 4.2 × 106 kg m–2 s–1 image.
(c) (i) The different parts of the brain are all
made of the same material, so there
is no difference in impedance, so no
reflections.
IR Z –Z
( ) = ( 1.6 × 10 + 430 )
2 6 2
1.6 × 10 – 430
(ii) = 1 2 6
=1
IO Z1 + Z2
(iii) The previous answer shows that
from air to tissue almost all of the
ultrasound will be reflected. By placing
gel between the transmitter and tissue
the impedance difference is reduced,
resulting in less reflection.

Worked solutions
Chapter 12
parallax angle = 0.05 = 0.025 arcsec
Exercises 2
d = 1 = 40 pc
p
1 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m 6
4 × 1013 km = 4 × 1016 m 1021 m
4 × 1016
= 4.2 light years 1.5 × 10 m
11
p
9.46 × 1015
2 Distance from Sun to Earth = 1.5 × 10 m 11
p = 1.5 × 1021 = 1.5 × 10–10 rad

11
t = d = 1.5 × 108 = 500 s

11
c = 3 × 10 ; 8 10
c 3 × 10 1 arcsec = 4.8 × 10–6 rad
= 8 min 20 s
p = 3.13 × 10–5 arcsec
3 Distance to nearest star = 4 × 1013 km (d = 3.2 × 104 pc)
t = d = 4 × 10 = 1.3 × 109 hours
13
Photograph scale = 50 mm arcsec so
v 30 000 Angle between 6 months
= 1.5 × 105 years
= 2 p = 6.26 × 10–5 arcsec
4 1pc = 3.26 light years = 3.26 × 9.46 × 1015 m Distance on photograph = 50 × 6.26 × 10–5
Distance to nearest star = 3.18 × 10–3 mm. This is too small to measure.
= 4 × 1013 × 10 × 9.46 × 1015 = 1.3 pc
3
3.26 7
4 × 103 km
Meissa
2 × 1.5 × 1011 m θ
Betelgeuse
θ = 3 × 1016 = 7.5 × 10–6 rad

11 Bellatrix
Alnilam
4 × 10
Mintaka
1 arcsec = 4.8 × 10–6 rad Alnktak
θ = 1.56 arcsec
Saiph
Rigel
p
2 AU θ p
Estimate from size of spot on photograph:

Betelgeuse 1 (0.4)
d=1= 1
= 1.28 pc Meissa 4 (3.5)
p 0.78
Bellatrix 2 (1.64)
5
Alnilam 3 (1.7)
Alnitak 3 (2)
Mintaka 3 (2.23)
Saiph 2 (2.09)
1 mm = 0.05 arcsec Rigel 0 (0)
actual values (from Wikipedia) in brackets
2 mm = 0.1 arcsec
8 (a) L = 3.839 × 1026 W
d = 1.5 × 1011 m
photo 1 and 2 photo 1 and 3
1 telescope rotated 0.1 arcsec 6 months later b = L 2 = 1.36 × 103 Wm–2
4πd

(b) d = 10 pc = 10 × 3.26 light years 13 spectral type
= 32.6 × 9.46 × 1015 m = 3.1 × 1017 m 106
O B A F G K M
–10
100 R 1000 R (I)
L
= 3.839 × 1017 2
26
b= 10 5 10 R f. Betelgeuse M2I –8
4πd2 4π(3.1 × 10 ) red giants (II)
e. Cassiopeiae M1III –6
= 3.2 × 10–10 Wm–2 104
d. Mira M7III –4
103 1R (III)
9 (a) L = 25 L = 25 × 3.839 × 1026 W –2
absolute magnitude (M)

= 9.6 × 1027 W 102 main sequence
0
(IV)
luminosity (L)
d = 8.61 light years = 8.61 × 9.46 × 1015 m
10 1
0.1 R a. Beta Pictoris A5V g. Eridani K1V 2
= 8.1 × 1016 m
c. Eta Arietis F5V 4
9.6 × 1027 100 Sun (V)
b= L 2 = 6
4πd 4π × (8.1 × 1016)2 10–1 0.01 R (VI)
= 1.2 × 10–7 W m–2 8
10–2 white dwarfs b. 61 Cygni A K5V
(VII) 10
(b) Brightness at 10 pc
10–3 0.001 R 12
(10 × 3.26 × 9.46 × 1015 m = 3.1 × 1017 m) red dwarfs
10–4 14
9.6 × 1027
= = 7.9 × 10–9 W m–2 40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2300
4π × (3.1 × 1017)2
temperature (K)
10 L = 5.0 × 1031 W
b = 1.4 × 10–9 W m–2 14 (a) λmax = 400 × 10–9 m
b= L 2
λmax = 2.9 × 10
–3
4πd
T
d= L = 5.0 × 1031 = 5.3 × 1019 m 2.9 × 10–3
4πb 4π × 1.4 × 10–9 T= = 7250 K
400 × 10–9
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m (b) Difficult to find 7250 on scale since it is not
5.3 × 10 m = 5.3 × 10 15
19
19 linear but gives ~ 1 L
9.46 × 10
= 5.6 × 103 light years 106L
luminosity
11 r = 3.1 × 1011 m; T = 2800 K supergiants

104L
A = 4πr2 = 1.2 × 1024 m2
L = σAT4 = 5.6 × 10–8 × 1.2 × 1024 × 28004 102L
= 4.2 × 1030 W giants
1L
12 (a) λmax = 400 × 10–9 m main sequence
T = 2.9 × 10 –9 = 7.25 × 103 K

–3
10–2L
400 × 10 white dwarfs
(b) Power/m2 = σT4 = 5.67 × 10–8 × 72504 10–4L
O B A F G K M
= 1.6 × 108 Wm–2 30 000 K 7500 K 5000 K
10 000 K 6000 K 3500 K
spectral class
From HR diagram L ~ L
= 3.84 × 1026 W
(c) b = 0.5 × 10–12 Wm–2
L
b=
4πd 2
d= 3.84 × 1026
4π × 0.5 × 10–12
d = 7.8 × 1018 m or 826 light years

15 The spectral type of Beta Pictoris is A5V so This is greater than the Oppenheimer–Volkoff
from the HR diagram limit (3 M ) so Phi Orionis could become a
(a) L = 10L black hole
Δλ
(b) r = 2R 21 = v
λ c
(c) T = 8000 K
λ = 434.0 nm
(d) d = L = 10L = 6.86 × 1017 m
4πb 4π × 6.5 × 10–10 Δλ = 479.8 – 434.0 = 45.8 nm
= 22.2 pc v = c × Δλ = 3 × 108 × 45.8 = 3.17 × 107 m s–1
λ 434
16 L
L
= M
M ( ) 3.5
= 10 22 λ = 434.0; Δλ = 481.0 – 434.0 = 47.0 nm
1 v = c × Δλ = 3 × 108 × 47 = 3.25 × 107 m s–1
M = 10 × M 3.5 λ 434
M = 1.9 M It is further away since it is moving faster.
17 From figure, 20 days corresponds to a 23 H0 = recessional velocity

separation
luminosity of 6 × 103 L .
separation = recessional velocity = 150 = 2.1 Mpc
L = 6 × 103 × 3.84 × 1026 = 1.5 × 1019 m H0 72
d=
4πb 4π × 8 × 10–10 24 recessional velocity = H0 × separation = 72 × 20
d = 490 pc
= 1440 km s–1
18 Mass of Beta Pictoris = 1.9 M 3H02
25 ρc = using H0 in s–1
Δt = (1.9)–2.5 Δt = 0.2 Δt 8πG
= 3 × (2.33 × 10 )–11
–18 2
19 d= L = 1010L = 3.6 × 1025 m 8π × 6.7 × 10

4πb 4π × 2.3 × 10–16 = 9.7 × 10–27 kg m–3
= 1200 Mpc Mass of one hydrogen atom = 1.7 × 10–27 kg
20 so this is equivalent to about 6 atoms per m3.
λmax = 2.9 × 10 = 1.06 mm

–3
spectral type
26
O B A F G K M 2.73
106 –10
100 R 1000 R (I) 2.9 × 10–3
–8
27 λmax = = 9.7 × 10–7 m
105 10 R 3000
red giants (II)
z = λ(obs)–λ(em) = 1.06 × 10 – 9.7 × 10–7
–3
Phi Orionis BOV –6
104
–4 λ(em) 9.7 × 10–7
103 1R (III)
–2 = 1.09 × 103
102 main sequence

R(obs)
= λ(obs) = 1.06 × 10–7 = 1093
–3
0 28
(IV)
luminosity (L)
R(em) λ(em) 9.7 × 10

101 0.1 R 2
4 1
100 Sun (V) R(em) = = 9.2 × 10–4
1093
6
10–1 0.01 R (VI) 8
10–2 white dwarfs
10
10–3
0.001 R
(VII)
12
Practice questions
red dwarfs 14
10–4
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2300 1 (a) (i) An alternative to temperature is spectral
temperature (K) class.
Luminosity of Phi Orionis is ≈ 2 × 104 L (ii) An alternative to luminosity is absolute
L
L
= M
M ( ) 3.5
= 2 × 104
1
magnitude.
M = (2 × 104) 3.5 M = 17 M

(b) A = Main sequence 2 (a) The parallax angle, p is the angle
B = Super red giant subtended by a star to the Earth when the
C = White dwarf Earth has moved a distance of 1AU (1 Earth
D = Main sequence orbit radius). For practical reasons, the
spectral type angle is usually measured when the Earth
O B A F G K M is either side of the Sun (times separated
10 6
–10
(I) by 6 months); this gives an angle 2p. This
10 5 supergiants B –8
A red giants (II) angle is measured by measuring the angle
–6 between the star and a very distant star, as
104
–4 shown in the diagram.
103 (III)
–2

102 main sequence
0
(IV)
luminosity (L)
Sun
10 1 2
4
100 (V)
6
10–1 C
(VI) 8
distant star
distant star
10–2 white dwarfs
(VII) D 10
10–3 12
red dwarfs 14
10–4
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2300
temperature (K)
p p
(c) B is larger than A because even though B is d
colder it gives out more power (luminosity)
L = σAT4 so if L is large and T is small,
A must be big.
(d) From HR diagram, LB = 106L
bB = 7.0 × 10–8 W m–2
b = 1.4 × 103 W m–2
A B
d = 1.0 AU
Sun
L = 4πbd2 ⇒ LB = 4π × 7 × 10–8 × d 2
L = 4π × 1.4 × 103 × 1.02 1 AU 1 AU
So LB = 4π × 7 × 10 × d –8 2
= 106 (b) If parallax angle = 0.549 arc seconds then
L 4π × 1.4 × 103 × 1.02
distance d = 1/0.549 = 1.82 pc
d = 10 × 1.4 ×–8 10 = 1.4 × 108 AU
6 3
= 1.82 × 3.26 = 5.94 light years
7 × 10
(c) (i) Apparent brightness is the radiant
1 pc = 2.1 × 105 AU
power received per unit area at the
d = 1.4 × 105
8
2.1 × 10 Earth.
= 700 pc L
(ii) b =
4πd2
(e) At 700 pc, the parallax angle will be too bb (L /4πdb2)
small to measure. = b
bs (Ls/4πds2)
θ ∼ 7 × 10–9 rad Lb
Ls
bd2 b d
= b b2 = b × b
bsds bs ds ( ) 2
1 AU θ
= 2.6 × 10–14 × (5.94 × 6.3 × 104)2
1.4 × 10 AU 8
= 3.6 × 10–3

(d) Barnard’s star is (ii) The period of a Cepheid is related to its
(i) not hot enough to be a white dwarf luminosity, so if the period is measured
its luminosity can be calculated. If
(ii) too small to be a red giant
the apparent brightness is measured,
(see position on HR diagram; Barnard’s
we can then find its distance from
star is in fact a red dwarf)
the Earth.
spectral type In this way the distance to distant
O B A F G K M
10 6
–10 galaxies can be measured.
100 R 1000 R (I)
10 5 10 R –8 1.3
b (10–10 W m –2)
red giants (II) A
–6
104 1.2
–4
10 3 1R (III)
–2 1.1

102 main sequence
0 1.0
luminosity (L)
(IV)
10 1
0.1 R 2
0.9
Sun (V) 4
100 B
6 0.8
10–1
0.01 R 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(VI) 8 time (days)
10–2 white dwarfs
(VII) 10
(d) (i) L = 7.2 × 1029 W
10–3
0.001 R 12
and from the graph
red dwarfs 14
10–4
b = 1.25 × 10–10 W m–2
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2300
L
temperature (K) b= ⇒d= L
4πd 2 4πb
3 (a) (i) Luminosity is the total power radiated d= 7.2 × 1029 = 2.14 × 1019 m
from a star. 4π × 1.25 × 10–10
(ii) Apparent brightness is the power (ii) A standard candle is an object of

received from a star per m2 by an known luminosity; it can be used to
observer on the Earth. calculate distance by measuring its
brightness. Since the luminosities of the
L = power radiated b = power received Cepheid variables are known, they can
m2 be used as standard candles.
r b= L
4πr2 4 (a) We know that the Universe is expanding
and that all particles of matter are attracted
(b) A Cepheid variable has a change in
to each other by gravity. This means that
luminosity due to its change of size. When
the rate of expansion is getting less. The
it expands, its surface area increases, so it
rate at which the expansion is slowing down
radiates more energy, leading to increased
depends on the density of the Universe. If
luminosity and hence brightness.
very dense, it will stop expanding and start
(c) (i) The brightness is greatest when the to collapse. If not very dense, it will keep on
star is biggest. So it is biggest at expanding forever. The critical density is the
2 days. density beyond which the Universe will stop
expanding.
3H02
= 3 × (2.7 × 10 –11)
–18 2
(b) (i) ρo =
8πG 8π × 6.7 × 10
= 1.3 × 10–26 kg m–3

(ii) A nucleon has mass = 1.7 × 10–27 kg 6 (a) The peak in the CMBR occurs at about
1.07 mm so using Wien’s law we can
so number in 1 m3 = 1.3 × 10–27
–26
1.7 × 10 calculate the temperature

= 7.7 ~ 8 per m3
T = 2.9 × 10 –3 = 2.7 K
–3

1.07 × 10
5 (a)
(b) This radiation is the same in all directions
R (on a large scale) and has the same
spectrum as the radiation from a black
body. This is the same type of radiation that
would have filled the Universe soon after
the Big Bang. At this time the wavelength
would have been much shorter but it
has expanded as the space it is in has
expanded.
luminosity
(c) The fact that light from all distant galaxies

is red-shifted implies that they are moving
S
away from us. If space is expanding it must
W have been smaller in the past. This supports
the idea that the Universe began with a Big
Bang.
temperature
(b) The amount of power radiated per m2

depends on the temperature of the star.
( AL = σT )
4
So the total power emitted depends on the

size and the temperature.
As a star grows, it has a bigger surface area
so can give out more power even though it
is cooler.

Physics HL - WORKED SOLUTIONS by Chris Hamper

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WORKED

= 7200 + 3120 + 59 Density = M = 5.97 × 10 = 5.48 × 103 kg m–3

r = 25.4 = 12.7 μm = 12.7 × 10–6 m

M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 1 22/07/2014 16:38

11 Taking natural logs of A and B:

Equation of line log A = 2 logB + 0.6 6 cm

12 L = 0.050 ± 0.001 m sin θ = x

M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 2 22/07/2014 16:38

x = 22 + 62 = 40 Note: You don’t need to know about capacitors to

tan θ = 50 ⇒ θ = 26.6° 100 km

Note: The error bar on 30 nC is too small to plot

M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 3 22/07/2014 16:38

2 If distance is between 49.8 cm and 50.2 cm 8

M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 4 22/07/2014 16:38

0.8 Challenge yourself

Plotting log10 D vs log10 n will give a straight Percentage uncertainty in v = 4 + 17 = 21%

D for n = 7 is ± 0.08 Percentage uncertainty in g = v × 7

uncertainty in D2 = 2 × 6.3 = 13% Absolute uncertainty = 45 × 8.10 = 3.62 m s–2

From graph, gradient of best ﬁt line

M13_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL01.indd 5 22/07/2014 16:38

1 (a) 100 km → 100 000 = 27.8 m s–1

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 1 17/07/2014 16:25

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 2 17/07/2014 16:25

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 3 17/07/2014 16:25

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 4 17/07/2014 16:25

(a) Parallel to ramp

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 5 17/07/2014 16:25

Upward force = 0.1 – 0.06 650 N

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 6 17/07/2014 16:25

Before collision momentum = –5 m + 5 m = 0

37 Must throw the hammer away from

(a) Newton 1: Since the velocity of the gas

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 7 17/07/2014 16:25

From conservation of energy 12 mv2 = mgh = 4 J

44 At top of cliff the stone has

(a) Spring is stretched 2 cm.

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 8 17/07/2014 16:25

(a) Work done to compress spring = elastic PE

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 9 17/07/2014 16:25

If collision is elastic the velocities swap. E = 60 × 70 = 42 kJ

PE loss = mgh = 50 × 10 × 50 = 25 000 J

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 10 17/07/2014 16:26

= 12 × 0.5 × 0.8 + 0.8 × 11

So when they meet 18t = 81 + 27 (t – 6.0)

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 11 17/07/2014 16:26

T 3 velocity = 0 m s–1 at top

(a) (i) Using v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ s = v – u

4 (a) Newton’s third law: If body A exerts a force

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 12 17/07/2014 16:26

immediately after collision 13

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 13 17/07/2014 16:26

M14_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL02.indd 14 17/07/2014 16:26

6.022 × 10 Loss of PE = gain in KE + WD against friction

3 (a) Block has PE = mgh = 10 × 9.8 × 40

M15_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL03.indd 1 16/07/2014 10:07

= 4.8 × 10 g = 4.8 × 10 kg

M15_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL03.indd 2 16/07/2014 10:07

P2 = 250 × 350 = 292 k Pa

P = nRT = 5 × 8.31 × 293 (a) Ice melts when temperature is constant

P1 V1 P V 100 × V2 (ii) Time to heat ice from –15 to 0°C = 15 s

P2 = 2 × 100 = 400 kPa

M15_IBPH_SB_IBGLB_9021_SL03.indd 3 16/07/2014 10:07

t = Q = 156 000 = 1800 s mg sin 15° = 960 × 9.8 × 0.259

5 (a) (i) The molecules of an ideal gas are

Field due to 100 kg = 6.67 × 102 × 100