CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
An electric vehicle (EV) is one that operates on an electric motor, instead of an internal-
combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel and gases. Therefore, such as
vehicle is seen as a possible replacement for current-generation automobile, in order to address
the issue of rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources, etc. Though the
concept of electric vehicles has been around for a long time, it has drawn a considerable amount
of interest in the past decade amid a rising carbon footprint and other environmental impacts of
fuel-based vehicles.

In India, the first concrete decision to incentivise electric vehicles was taken in 2010.
According to a Rs 95-crore scheme approved by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), the government announced a financial incentive for manufacturers for electric
vehicles sold in India. The scheme, effective from November 2010, envisaged incentives of up
to 20 per cent on ex-factory prices of vehicles, subject to a maximum limit. However, the
subsidy scheme was later withdrawn by the MNRE in March 2012.

In 2013, India unveiled the 'National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020' to make a
major shift to electric vehicles and to address the issues of national energy security, vehicular
pollution and growth of domestic manufacturing capabilities. Though the scheme was to offer
subsidies and create supporting infrastructure for e-vehicles, the plan mostly remained on
papers. While presenting the Union Budget for 2015-16 in Parliament, then finance minister
Arun Jaitley announced faster adoption and manufacturing of electric vehicles (FAME), with an
initial outlay of Rs 75 crore. The scheme was announced with an aim to offer incentives for
clean-fuel technology cars to boost their sales to up to 7 million vehicles by 2020.

In 2017, Transport Minister Nitin Gadkari made a statement showing India’s intent to move to
100 per cent electric cars by 2030. However, the automobile industry raised concerns over the
execution of such a plan. The government subsequently diluted the plan from 100 per cent to 30
per cent.
In February 2019, the Union Cabinet cleared a Rs 10,000-crore programme under the FAME-II
scheme. This scheme came into force from April 1, 2019. The main objective of the scheme is
to encourage a faster adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles by offering upfront incentives on
purchase of electric vehicles and also by establishing necessary charging infrastructure for EVs.

A large amount of sunlight that falls on the earth's surface is enough to power the whole
world. The sun provides enough energy in one minute to produce the world's energy needs for
one year. The amount of sunlight that falls on the earth is about half of the total radiation.
In the last 20 years, the price of solar energy has largely dropped. . Over the past many
years, electric vehicles (EV) have gained a huge However, EVs require a charging station
to charge their batteries. While EV's are a Pollution-free source of transportation, the
electric power that is used to charge the batteries of the electric vehicles is taken from the
regular fossil-fueled or coal power plants, which affect their appeal to be the eco-friendly
mode of transportation. Recently, a trend was started to reduce this problem which used
solar power to charge the electric vehicle and the designing of the solar-powered EV charging
station as shown in Figure 1.1 . It consists of solar modules to be installed on the rooftop of
the charging stations, solar canopies on the top of parking stations. This will benefit the
vehicle in two ways it will charge the vehicle as well as provide the shade to the
vehicle. In this paper, I have reviewed how solar EV charger is beneficial and cost-efficient
to the user and the environment and also I have discussed a new type of batteries which
when combine with solar EV chargers can lead to a fast and efficient electric vehicle.

Figure 1.1 The Solar-Powered EV Charging Station

1.2 Project Objective

Better for the environment. Less pollution: By choosing to drive an EV you are helping to
reduce harmful air pollution from exhaust emissions. An EV has zero exhaust emissions, but
still creates a degree of greenhouse gas emissions when it is charged from the electricity grid.
The long-term objective of this project is to design, fabricate and assemble a fully functioning
vehicle powered by solar energy, which in the future can be used to compete in the Shell
 EcoMarathon. The race car competition is sponsored by Shell and takes place in Detroit, MI.
The goal for this year’s team is to develop a complete set of plans, design solar car’s concept,
and to purchase critical components within our budgetary constraints.

1.3 Features

1. Automatic object detection

2. Low power consumption.
3. Controls high and low voltage during charging
4. No Negative impact on Environment
5. Reduced installation costs.
6. Easy development, installation, and coverage

1.4 Project Significance

It leads to a Reliable Range Prediction, Eco-routing and Eco-driving as well as novel

functionalities like Smart Fast Charging and Assured Charging. The key objectives are: Ensure
a leap forward in user's confidence, functionalities and energy efficiency of future EVs.

Electric vehicles could help diversify the energy needed to move people and goods thanks to
their reliance on the wide mix of primary energy sources used in power generation, greatly
improving energy security.

Solar power systems derive clean, pure energy from the sun. Installing solar panels on your EV
helps combat greenhouse gas emissions and reduces our collective dependence on fossil fuel.
Traditional electricity is sourced from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. When fossil
fuels are burned to produce electricity, they emmit harmful gases that are the primary cause of
air pollution and global climate change. Not only are fossil fuels bad for the environment, but
they are also a finite resource. Because of this, the price is constantly fluctuating and can
increase in a short period of time.

1.5 Identification Of Problem and Issues

1.5.1 High Initial Investment

Setting up the EV charging station is quite high in cost. To set up the EV charging
infrastructure, some requirements need to be fulfilled like proper location, land, right vendor,
grid power stability, remittance of power, varieties of charger types, cables, and other
auxiliaries.
With the high cost of setting the EV charging station, the only way to make fast charging

stations feasible is to increase their utilization. For that charging infrastructure should be set
with DC charging which is more useful than AC charging technology. Even the government
also needs to help for setting up the charging infrastructure by investing with EV companies.

1.5.2 Location to Set up the EV Charging Station

To set up the Electric Vehicle charging station, the location of the charging station is a major
challenge. Location or design of charging station should be such that it is easily visible,
accessible, save time, and charging queue can be minimized.
For that, location should be considered as a prime location having characteristics of ample
parking space, approachable, feasible to set up, convenient waiting area, etc. so the consumer
can utilize the ideal time to charge their EVs.

1.5.3 Technical Safety at EV charging stations

Setting up the EV charging stations requires specialized technical safety. Voltage fluctuations,
over current, frequency mismatch, and ground fault are major concerns. To overcome Voltage
fluctuations, stabilizers, proximity sensors, and control pilot sensors need to be integrated to
keep a check on it. Otherwise, it may damage the expensive components.
Barriers for EVs in the Indian market can be addressed from various prospective such as
Technical barriers, policy barriers, and lack of infrastructure.

1.5.4 Battery Lifespan/Efficiency

The electric cars are usually created by using electric motors, batteries, chargers and
controllers by replacing fuel tank and gasoline engine of a conventional vehicle. As the EVs
batteries are designed for a long life, it wears out in due course of time. Currently, most
manufacturers are offering eight years/100,000 mile warranty for their batteries.

1.5.5 Charging Time

Charging time is closely related to the issue of driving range. With a slow charger, the EV can
take up to 8 h for a full charge from the empty state using a 7 kW charging point. The charging
time mainly depends upon the size of the battery. Bigger the size of car batteries, longer the
time it takes to recharge the battery from empty to full state. Also, the charging time of the
battery directly depends on the charging rate of the charge point. Higher the charging price of
the charge point, lower will be the time taken by the battery to get fully charged. In the current
scenario, rapid chargers are used to charge the vehicle in a faster way reducing the time
required. The commercially available electric cars are compatibles with charge points having a
higher maximum charge rate than they can handle. This indicates that the battery can be
charged at a maximum rate that they can handle without any fault. However, the charging rate
of the battery with rapid charger reduces with a decrease in temperature or at cold temperature.
The EV chargers are categorized in accordance with their charging speed at which their battery
gets recharged.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction

In present scenario, air pollution has become a serious concern for the India. According to
recent global report, many cities in the India are most polluted cities. Major sectors contributing
to the air pollution are industrial sector and transport sector. Among this 51% of air pollution is
caused by the industrial sector and 27% by the transport sector. Air pollution contributes to the
premature deaths of 2 million Indians every year. In order to minimize the air pollution, Electric
Vehicle (EV) can act as blessing in lowering the GHG emission. Electric Vehicles offer
numerous advantages such as decreasing the pollution level and reduction in oil import bills etc.
Although there is considerable amount of threats in establishing the Electric Vehicles in India.
This paper provides the brief literature review on the Electric Vehicles and compiles the
advantages and threats in promoting EVs in India.
Air pollution is one of the greatest threats in the global context, and in a country comprising of
world second largest population of almost a 130 million (equivalent to 17.7% of world’s
population), people are finding problematic to breath in most of the metropolitan cities. India is
facing some serious air pollution issues since a decade and it is increasing at an alarming rate.
The main cause of this exponential increase in the pollution levels is poor fuel quality, old
vehicles, inadequate maintenance, congested traffic, poor road condition and old automotive
technologies and traffic management system.
The major pollutants emitted from the automobiles are hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, lead,
carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter. Reason behind large share of
vehicular pollution is India’s gigantic automotive industry i.e.,
4th largest in the world. According to the population of electric vehicle in India is increasing at
the rate of 37.5%. And the government is focusing the more concern towards the Electric
Vehicles and charging stations . placement of charging station has been proposed to optimize
the charging stations and provide the maximum power as per the requirement.
All over the world there is huge demand for electric vehicles with increase in vehicles we need
have an efficient charging station to charge electric vehicles. Usually the conventional charging
stations utilize the electric grid to charge the electric vehicles which increases the stress on the
grid. To overcome this problem, we need to use renewable energies like solar photovoltaic
systems. In this paper we reviewed the various solar based charging stations which utilizes the
solar energy to charge the electric vehicles. This paper covers the storage systems, battery and
controller, converters, battery exchange stations. This paper gives information to readers about
a review of photovoltaic charging station for electric vehicles and solution to various problems
faced by the charging station.
Solar energy is a renewable energy which would exist for even billions of years more. In 2015,
COP21 known as the 2015 Paris Climate Conference took place in Paris and the cooperation of
over 190 countries agreed on climate, with the aim of keeping global warming below 2℃. In
this conference many condition were imparted on developing nation like India to reduce carbon
monoxide emission, which ultimately effect the transportation by road and their development.
Thus the use of renewable energy like solar has to be incorporated in transportation in order to
reduce the carbon monoxide emission without any lag in development.This is a review paper
dealing with research paper published related to solar electric car.

Although Electric Vehicles (EV) have become more popular in the recent few years, there are
several challenges in this field such as the lack of efficient charging stations, and most often
electrical vehicles are charged with unclean electricity from conventional thermal power plants.
Possible charging options include power points using electricity from the grid. However,
electricity from the grid is not green, expensive, provides slow charging and the ordinary house
plugs are not capable of charging the car effectively. Second option is the recharging in public
stations which is also considers expensive and impractical (high demand and low supply;
because of time period of charging). Thirdly and most convenient option charging at home with
a solar power system. Such a method provides a renewable energy charging source,
independency of utility companies, and relatively less expensive.

2.2 Solar Charging Stations for Electric Vehicles (EV’s)

The combination of solar energy and electric vehicle (EV) charging is the key in
drastically reducing our dependence on fossil fuels. Electricity comes from a variety of sources
and it’s crucial that electric vehicles will be powered by renewable. Electric cars are becoming
immensely popular and coming years we expect nearly anyone who owns a solar energy system
will install a solar charging station at its home. For this to happen we’ll need a fundamental
change in how we think about refueling our cars and a natural evolution of our energy
infrastructure.

2.3 Advantages for Solar + EV

Electrification of transportation is recognized as perhaps the primary opportunity to lower
transportation carbon emissions both in Minnesota and nationally. Transportation emissions are
now the largest source of carbon emissions in Minnesota (and in the nation). Of the
transportation emissions, the light-duty fleet (the cars and light trucks driven by households and
businesses to meet daily transportation needs) is the largest sector of emissions and energy use.
EVs are a much more energy efficient and lower carbon means of providing daily
transportation needs than gasoline-powered vehicles, even under the current carbon footprint of
the electric grid. But Minnesota’s long-term goal of largely decarbonizing transportation needs
to be more than simply electrification; it means finding pathways to carbon-free electrification.
Minnesota’s 2019 vision for electrification,
Accelerating Electric Vehicle Adoption, notes that meeting Minnesota’s 2030 carbon emission
goals requires that the State do more than merely electrify the fleet as the electric grid gets
cleaner. The report notes that Minnesota’s forecast renewable energy deployment falls short of
what would be required to meet decarbonization goals in transport. Additional renewable
energy equal to the demand of 20,000 electric vehicles will have to be added to the grid to meet
Minnesota’s. goals.
Since the publication of the vision, additional commitments to renewable and carbon-free
electric production have been advanced by some of the State’s utilities, but the carbon-intensity
of the statewide grid is still insufficient to reach 2030 transportation decarbonization goals.
Minnesota’s adopted policies on the future of the electric grid also demonstrate the need for
Solar+EV strategies. The legislature and the Public Utilities Commission specifically prioritized
the importance of designing the electric grid to accommodate an evolving market for services,
increasing levels of variable renewable energy deployment, and a rapidly expanding set of
distributed energy resources (DERs) that include both supply and demand-side applications
behind the meter.
This project examines how, as solar energy and EV charging infrastructure are being deployed
across the state, these two distinct technologies can be jointly deployed to meet Minnesota’s
goal of carbon-free electrification, deepen deployment of renewable energy systems, and limit
risks to the electric grid.

2.4 Need for Non Home Charging

Nearly all market forecasts predict consistent and long-term growth of EV sales and use, and a
commensurate reduction in GHG emissions. However, the barriers to high-level penetration are
also acknowledged in market forecasts. One of the primary barriers cited by potential EV
buyers is the lack of readily available opportunities to charge EVs. 3 Analysis conducted by
NREL and others4 confirms that, without routine access to charging infrastructure both at home
and in non-residential locations, market forecasts for EV adoption are unlikely to materialize.
Consumers need to feel as confident that they can charge EVs as they do that they can fuel
gasoline-powered vehicles. In particular, the need for non-home charging options is critical to
achieving the high penetration EV goals needed to meet carbon reduction goals.
2.5 Advantages of EV Car over Conventional Car
Pure electric vehicles, also called battery electric vehicles (BEV), are the long term solution for
mobility. Compared with internal combustion engine (ICE) powered vehicles, battery electric
vehicles have a series of advantages which are summarized in the table below
Table 2.5 Advantages of EV Car over Conventional Car
Advantage Electric vehicle Internal combustion engine vehicle

Powertrain Electric vehicles are powered by electric The typical efficiency of an internal
efficiency motors and single speed gearboxes combustion engine is between 18 … 24
which, depending on the operating point %. Diesel engine have slightly higher
(speed and torque), have an overall efficiency than gasoline engine but
efficiency between 75 … 95 %. This overall, internal combustion engines are
means that, for the same amount of 4 times less efficient than electric
power at the wheel, less energy is used motors. Compared with an electric
from the high voltage battery compared motor, for the same amount of wheel
with an internal combustion engine power, an internal combustion engine
vehicle has to consume 4 times more energy

Vehicle An permanent magnet synchronous An internal combustion engine can not

acceleratio electric motor has an ideal traction deliver maximum torque from minimum
n characteristic. Also, at zero speed, the speed (idle). They also need more time
electric motor can deliver the maximum to reach maximum torque because of
available torque which translates in very engine dynamics (air and mechanical
good launch capabilities of the vehicle inertia, turbo-lag, etc.)

Reliability Having less moving parts, compared with The internal combustion engine has
an internal combustion engine, an electric many moving parts and also additional
motor has fewer sources of possible systems (fuel system, air induction
failures. Also, due to the high torque and system, exhaust gas after-treatment
high speed characteristic of the system, etc.) which can lead to
electric motor, there is no need for a possible failures. Due to the
multi-stage gearbox, a single- torque characteristic of the ICE, the
step mechanical gearbox is enough for vehicle requires a multi-step gearbox,
propulsion which can also be a source of
possible failures
Torque For an all-wheel drive (AWD) electric The internal combustion engine has
vectoring vehicle, stability during cornering can be limited contribution to the vehicle
improved by controlling the torque at the stability, most of the times, the electronic
wheels. Compared to the internal stability control system (ESC) it’s only
combustion engine, an electric motor has reducing the amount of torque delivered
faster torque response and can also by the engine
provide negative torque, which could
prove essential in the stability of the
vehicle

2.6 Electrical Vehicle Battery development

The power of electric vehicles is battery. The performance of battery determines the
performance of electric vehicles. The battery develops very fast with the rapid development of
electric vehicles . Various kinds of cars and batteries have been developed in the whole
developing process of electric vehicles. The lead-acid battery, nimh battery and lithium-ion
battery are three of the batteries which are commercially used now and have a huge impact on
the electric vehicle development.

2.7 Statement of Problem

Now, electric vehicles are almost certainly a disruptive technology they’re almost, certainly a
technology that will, with time, become dominant over their predecessor.
In this case, the predecessor is the internal combustion car that you, yourself almost certainly
use. Chances are, though, when asked, you’d say that your next car will not be electric, and
you’re right the average consumer, according to surveys, would not even consider purchasing
an electric vehicle, demonstrating that the technology is not yet at that tipping point where it’s
on a certain path towards market dominance.
But again, that path is almost certain. EVs are not there yet right now, they’re too expensive,
too short range, and too slow to charge but they’re close.
In fact, research can quantify just how close they are. It’s been shown that the “tipping point
price” for EVs, the price that will lead to mainstream adoption and eventual disruption, is
$36,000. Taking a look at the prices of the base-models of three of the world’s best selling
electric vehicles, they’re already roughly there, so we know that that’s not what’s holding mass-
market consumers back.
 CHAPTER 3
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
3.1 Introduction
An Electric Vehicle (EV) is an automotive  that uses one or more electric motors for
propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular
sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes charged by solar panels, or
by converting fuel to electricity using fuel cells or a generator)  EVs include, but are not limited
to, road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric
spacecraft.

3.2 Types of EV’s

When talking about EVs, we generally refer to three main types of electric vehicles: hybrid
electric vehicles (HEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) , Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
(FCEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV).

Figure 3.1 Classification Of EV

3.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicle

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE)
with an electric motor and battery pack to reduce fuel consumption.HEVs achieve this by using
an electric motor to drive the car during conditions when an ICE is especially inefficient, like
when accelerating from a stop. Hybrids can also favour the ICE unit when it is more efficient to
do so such as cruising at highway speeds. Hybrid vehicles are most similar Vehicle to drive to
normal ICE vehicles, as owners can only top them up with traditional fuels (usually petrol).
 Figure 3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle

3.4 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) combines an ICE with an electric motor and battery
pack similarly to a hybrid, however comes with distinct differences.
PHEVs generally have larger battery packs and more powerful electric motors than hybrids, as
the electric system does a lot of the heavy lifting while driving. This means PHEVs can be
driven in electric-only mode, switching the ICE off entirely.
Driving a plug-in hybrid is similar to driving a hybrid, as the car will automatically recharge the
battery and switch between ICE and electric power based on conditions. However, drivers have
the choice of topping up PHEVs with both fuel and electricity.
A PHEV can run on just petrol if all battery charge is used up, and battery charge alone if all
fuel is used up.

Figure 3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

3.5 Difference between Hybrid and Plug in Hybrid EV’s

3.5.1 Basics of Hybrid and Plug in Hybrid

Hybrid Hybrid Electric Vehicles, or simply referred to as HEVs, are the most common types of
electric vehicles that use a combination of two complimentary drive systems: electric motor
with a battery and a petrol engine with a fuel tank. HEVs are the most practical alternative of
the conventional vehicles because they are powered by both electricity and petrol. Plug-in
Hybrid Electric Vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles with a larger and more powerful
battery compared to HEVs that combine the benefits of a battery-powered electric vehicle and
traditional hybrid vehicles.

3.5.2 Drive Train

The propulsion energy of HEVs come from more than two types of sources, one of which is an
electric source. HEV drive trains are usually divided into three basic arrangements: series,
parallel, and series-parallel hybrids. HEVs with a series drive train use two different energy
sources that are combined in series; for the parallel HEV configuration, the vehicle uses both
electric and mechanical traction sources; and for a series-parallel configuration, the vehicles
combines the features of both series HEV as well as parallel HEV. PHEVs are based on the
same three power train configurations, but unlike the hybrids, they can be plugged into the
power grids.

3.5.3 Emissions  Involves in  Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid

In HEVs, battery is the power system to the internal combustion engine during vehicle
propulsion which reduces the toxic emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it
when needed. With PHEVs, a significant amount of emissions can be reduced due to the
reduced use of gasoline. Centralized electricity generation is much more efficient and produces
less toxic emissions compared to HEVs which in turn helps mitigate the heavy pollution from
the pollution-dense areas. This will have a long-term impact on the environment on the long
run.
3.5.4 Hybrid vs. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Comparison Chart

Table 3.1 Hybrid vs. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Comparison Chart
Hybrid Electric Vehicles Plug -in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

HEV is a vehicle whose propulsion energy is PHEVs are a vehicle equipped with a larger
acquired from more then two types of energy battery which can be plugged into the national
sources one of which is electric. grid or home outlets.

The battery can only be charged via The battery can charge via regenerative braking
regenerative braking and can call on gasoline to as well as by plugging it an any house hold 120-
extend its range. volt power outlet.

They mostly run on gasoline like regular cars They mostly use electric motor and they only
but use less fuel. switch to gasoline if the battery level drops low.

It reduces the toxic emissions by shutting down Centralized electricity generation is much more
the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed. efficient and produces less toxic emissions.

Maintenance cost is lower than PHEVs. Maintenance cost is higher than HEVs.
 CHAPTER 4
Charging Methods of EV
4.1 Introduction

There are three categories or types of charging: Trickle Charge, AC Charge and DC Charge.
The slowest method of charging your EV at home, using a standard (three-prong) 220V plug. It
is only recommended in urgent cases, with caution and consultation with electricity providers.

4.2 Different Types of Charging in EV’s

1) Trickle Charge
The slowest method of charging your EV at home, using a standard (three-prong) 220V
plug. It is only recommended in urgent cases, with caution and consultation with electricity
providers.
2) AC Charge
Having a wallbox installed lets you charge 3-4 faster using AC Household Charging. AC Public
Charging is also available.

3) DC Charge
The fastest way to charge your EV – at a public DC Fast charging station with power from
50kW and above. With this method you can top up your battery from 20 to 80% in approx. 40
minutes. There are also some ultra-fast charging stations that already provide more than
150kW.
There are several different terms used for charging stations but they all usually refer to the same
thing: charging station, charging outlet, charging plug, charging port, charger, and EVSE
(Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment).

4.3 Home Charging vs Public Charging

You have two options – charging your EV at home using your own domestic mains electricity
supply, or making use of public charging stations. This will affect the types (and speeds) of
charging available to you.

4.4 Home Charging

Around 80% of all EV charging is currently done at home. Usually overnight while owners
sleep – waking to a fully charged battery the next morning that almost always provides more
than enough EV range for most people’s daily travel needs.
There are TWO TYPES of home charging available: Using Trickle Charge with your household
current or AC Household Charge with an installed wallbox.
4.4.1 Trickle Charge
Provides charging through a standard (three-prong) 220V plug that comes with your EV. The
other end is simply plugged directly into your EV can deliver 13 to 16 km of range per hour of
charging
Charging speed: approx. 65 km of range in 5 hours (overnight), or 200 km in 14 hours doesn’t
require installation of additional charging equipment.

Figure 4.1 Trickle Charge

Using Trickle Charge is only recommended in urgent cases when you have low battery charge
and cannot drive to a public station or access an AC wallbox at home. This is because the use of
household electricity may cause problems associated with electricity bills and electrical loads,
so always use this charge solution with caution and discuss with your electricity provider before
first use. Purchasing an ICCB (In Cable Control Box) cable when using Trickle Charge is
recommended, for maximum reliability and peace of mind.

4.4.2 AC Household Charging with Wallbox

 Figure 4.2 AC Household Charging With Wallbox

The most common and recommendable home charging option provides charging through a
230V outlet which allows charging 3 to 4 times faster than Trickle Charge – depending on the
acceptance rate of your specific model and the charger especially useful if you have time to top
up your electric vehicle overnight: it takes around 6 hours to fully charge a 40 kWh battery car.
Requires the installation of a dedicated EV charging wallbox, which should be fitted by a
trained electrician.
Ideal if you have a garage or driveway in which it can be positioned There may also be
financial incentives in your local region or country to minimise purchase and installation costs.

4.5 Public Charging Station

Increasingly convenient thanks to the ever-growing network, these stations can often be located
throughout urban centers in particular and allow you to top up your battery on the go if you
need to travel longer distances. Public charging offers AC Charging with a wallbox or – in the
majority of cases – DC Fast Charging.
and both options are quicker than charging at home: AC Public Charging can be 3 to 10 times
faster than AC Household Charging, depending on the charging station output and your EV’s
capacity to handle AC Chargers. All DC Charging stations are considered fast.

Figure 4.5 Public Charging Stations

4.6 DC Fast Chargers

 Currently the quickest way to charge an electric vehicle.
  Provides charging power above 50kW through a voltage above 450V and current up to
125A.

 Is capable of charging from 20 to 80% of charge in approx.40 minutes.

Figure 4.6 DC Fast Charger

 Utilises Combo DC (CCS for Combined Charging System).
 Use of DC Charge should be kept to a minimum in order to help prolong high-voltage
battery life.

4.7 Solar Panel EV Charging System

The combination of a solar panel system and EV charging station brings several benefits and
provides a cost-effective way to produce and make use of your solar energy. If you are trying to
set up a solar panel system that can provide enough energy to fuel your electric car, you will
need this type of setup.
Solar inverters are an important piece of this puzzle. Before your generated solar energy can be
used by most of your devices and appliances, it must be converted from direct current (DC) to
alternating current (AC). This is also the case for fueling your electric car with solar energy.
Lastly, the actual charging port will be installed and connected to the inverter so that it can draw
the electricity and send it into the electric car’s battery.
An even better option however, is to use a product like the new Solar-Edge EV charging
inverter, which pairs the charger and the inverter into one device

Figure 4.7 Solar Panel And EV Charging System

4.8 Charging modes of Electric Cars

4.8.1 Conventional Charging

After discharging of a battery is over, it shall be re-charged immediately. The charging current
is about 15A. This way is called conventional charging. Conventional battery charging methods
are small current constant voltage and constant current charging, and the charging time is 5~8h .
Because the power and current rating is not the key, conventional charger and the installation
cost are low. We can make full use of off-peak electricity for charging to reduce cost. This will
improve efficiency and prolong the service life of the battery. The main disadvantage of
conventional charging mode is that the charging time is too long. It is difficult to meet the
demand when there is an emergency.

4.8.2 Quick Charging

Quick charging can also be called rapid charging or emergency charging. This method uses 150
~ 400 A high charge current for charging in a short time and makes the electric car a full charge
in 20 min to 2h . This way of charging has a short charging time, a long battery life, and no
charging memory. It has a big charge and discharge capacity and will charge 70% to 80% of the
electricity in a few minutes. Compared with normal charging patterns, quick charging also has
certain disadvantages: charging efficiency is low, the corresponding work and installation cost
are high . Due to large charging current, quick charging puts forward higher request for
technology and safety. At the same time, the metering standard also needs special
consideration.

4.8.3 Mechanical Charging

Mechanical charging is to change the battery. When the power of a battery runs out, put a fully
charged battery for exchange . There are strong professional requirements for replacing battery
because the weight of a battery pack is very large. It requires the professionals to use
specialized machines to complete the replacement. Electric car users can rent a fully charged
battery to replace a used one. This can improve the efficiency of the electric cars. The users can
be more convenient and expeditious when they use the car . Making use of off-peak charging
can reduce charging cost and improve operation efficiency. It can also bring many other
benefits such as reducing the charging time, increasing running distance, etc. We can find the
problem in a single battery and repair it in time. The reduction of battery discharge depth will
also prolong the battery’s life.

4.8.4 Wireless Charging

No matter which kind of charging modes mentioned above are used, a fixed station is needed.
Due to a lack of dedicated private parking space in today’s city, street parking is very difficult.
There will no places to build new fixed stations for charging. Wireless charging of electric cars
will become the mainstream of future charging. The government has two options to deal with
such situations. One way is to build new charging stations which need to make the new street
planning, but this may greatly damage the existing public facilities. The other way is to deploy
wireless charging infrastructure, which will greatly reduce the damage to the area in the street .
In addition, the electric car drivers would like to choose a simple way of wireless charging.
Because there is no trouble of fix charging cables, and people don't have to worry about leakage
in rainy days. Using wireless charging has another big benefit: the electric car battery remains
from 40% to 80%, which will extend the service life of the electric car battery.
 CHAPTER 5
SOLAR PANEL

5.1 Introduction
Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light into
electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are
comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon,
phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive
charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The
resulting energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons
to be knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the

Figure 5.1 Solar Panel

solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a directional current. This entire process is
known as the Photovoltaic Effect. An average home has more than enough roof area for the
necessary number of solar panels to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power
needs excess electricity generated goes onto the main power grid, paying off in electricity use at
night.
A solar panel system is a system of interconnected assembly (also known as an array) of
photovoltaic (PV) solar cells.
The energy produced by the solar panel is measured in volts or watts, it will vary according to
the type of system and solar cell that you are using.
Each of the solar panels (modules) in the array consists of a group of solar cells packed jointed
in a metal frame.
5.2 The Benefits of Solar Panels
Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications. The
obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is not
serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar
power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility
poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially
less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly maintained.
Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit
that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable
source of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important that
we do whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of
greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are
ruggedly built and last for decades when porperly maintained.
Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar power is that, once a system has paid
for its initial installation costs, the electricity it produces for the remainder of the system's
lifespan, which could be as much as 15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is
absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the benefits begin from the moment the
system comes online, potentially eliminating monthly electric bills or, and this is the best part,
actually earning the system's owner additional income from the electric company. How? If you
use less power than your solar electric system produces, that excess power can be sold,
sometimes at a premium, to your electric utility company!
There are many other applications and benefits of using solar panels to generate your electricity
needs - too many to list here. But as you browse our website, you'll gain a good general
knowledge of just how versatile and convenient solar power can be.

5.3 Working of Solar panel

Solar panels receive the sunlight as a source of energy to produce electricity or heat. A
photovoltaic module is usually a connected combination of photovoltaic solar cells.
Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates
and supplies. solar electricity in many applications. Each module is rated under standard test
conditions by its DC output power and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts.
The efficiency of a module given the same rated output, as 8% efficient 230W module will have
twice the area of a 16% efficient 230W module. There are some commercially available solar
modules that exceed 22% capacity and reportedly even exceed 24%.
 Figure 5.2 Working of Solar Panel

A single solar module can provide only an inadequate amount of power, most of the
installations include multiple modules. A photovoltaic system includes an array of PV
(photovoltaic) modules, an inverter, interconnection wiring, a battery pack for storage, and
optionally a solar tracking mechanism.

5.4 Types of Solar Panel

1. According to the first generation of solar panels

i. Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)

ii. Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Poly-SI)

2. According to the second generation of solar panels

i. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

ii. Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

3. According to the third generation of solar panels

i. Bio hybrid Solar Cell

ii. Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)
iii. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe)
5.5 First Generation Solar Panels
According to Green Match following are the different types of solar panels made of
monocrystalline silicon or polysilicon and are commonly used in traditional environments.

5.5.1 Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)

The monocrystalline solar panel is made of monocrystalline silicon is the purest. They are
available in the form of an equally dark look and rounded edges. The reason for the high purity
of silicon is that this type of solar panel has the highest efficiency of above 20% rate.

Figure 5.3 Monocrystalline Solar Panels

The benefits of using monocrystalline solar panels have a higher power output, occupy less
space, and last longer. They are also very expensive compared to other types of solar panels.
Another benefit to consider is that they are slightly less affected by high temperatures than
polycrystalline panels.

5.5.2 Polycrystalline Solar Panels

The polycrystalline solar panels have unique look than other panels. This type of solar panel has
squares and its angles are not cut. The appearance of this panel has a blue and speckled look.
These solar panels are manufactured by melting the raw silicon, which is a quicker and less
expensive process compared to monocrystalline panels.
This is also due to lower efficiency of around 15%, lower space efficiency, and a shorter
lifespan, even at lower final prices because they are affected to a greater degree by warmer
temperatures.
 Figure 5.4 Polycrystalline Solar Panels
But, the difference between mono- and polycrystalline types of solar panels is not so important
and the choice of using suitable solar panels will depend on your specific situation. This
provides slightly more space efficiency at a higher cost but the power outputs are the same.

5.6 Second Generation Solar Panels

These cells are different from first-generation solar cells and are essentially used for
photovoltaic power stations, integrated with buildings or smaller solar systems.

5.6.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

These are the different types of solar panels that one used mainly in the manufacture of a pocket
calculator. The amorphous silicon solar panel uses triple layered technology,
which is the most excellent of the thin film variety. The thickness of this solar sheet is around
about 1 micrometer, it is approximately about one-millionth of a meter. With only a
7% efficiency rate, these cells are less efficient than crystalline silicon ones, which have an
efficiency rate of circa 18%. The benefit of using this solar panel is that it is available at a low
cost.
 5.6.2  Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)
Thin-film solar panels also known as TFSC. These are made by placing one or more films of
PV material such as silicon, cadmium, copper, on a substrate. They are easy to produce and
economies of scale make them cheaper than options due to the low content required for their
production. Thin-film solar cells are flexible and less affected by high temperatures. By using
these solar cells, it opens up plenty of opportunities for alternative applications. The
disadvantage of this solar cells is that it takes more space, generally making them unsuitable for
residential establishments.

Figure  5.6  Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

Furthermore, they offer the lowest warranty because their lifespan is shorter than mono- and
polycrystalline type solar panels. It is best to instalment where a lot of space is available.

5.7 Third Generation Solar Cells

In third-generation solar panels include a type of thin film technology but most of them are in
the development stage. Any of them produce electricity utilizing natural materials, others use
inorganic materials.
5.7.1 Bio Hybrid Solar Cell

The Biohybrid solar cells have been founded by an expert team from Vanderbilt University.
The concept of this new technology is to take advantage of Photo system 1 and thus to simulate
the natural process of photosynthesis.

Figure 5.7 Biohybrid Solar Cell

Many of the materials applied in this cell are related to traditional methods. By combining
multiple layers of photosystem 1, the transformation from chemical to electrical energy
becomes more efficient. That is 1000 times more effective than the first generation types of
solar panels.

5.7.2 Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)

Compared to other types of solar panels, such CVP cells have a name that makes them so
efficient: curved mirror surfaces, lenses, and sometimes cooling systems are also used to bind
the sun’s rays, and thus their efficiency increases,
 Figure 5.8 Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)

Concentrated PV cells produce electrical energy as traditional photovoltaic systems do. The
efficiency rate of those multi-junction type solar panels is up to 41%, one of the highest of all
photovoltaic systems.
 CHAPTER 6
PROJECT COMPONENTS AND COSTING

6.1 Description of Main Components

1. IC LM358
2. Solar Panel
3. NPN Transistor (BC547)
4. Connecting Wires
5. Diode (1N4007)
6. Capacitor (1000uf 25v)
7. Battery
8. Dc Motor
9. Resistance 1k ,10k,470e
10. Voltage Regulator 7804
11. Charging Connector Micro USB
12. IR Sensor
13. Preset 5k
14. PCB

6.1.1 IC LM358
The LM358 IC is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel Op-Amp IC. It is designed
and introduced by national semiconductor. It consists of two internally frequency compensated,
high gain, independent Op-Amps.

Figure 6.1 IC LM358

This IC is designed for specially to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of
voltages. The LM358 IC is available in a chip.
Sized package and applications of this op amp include conventional Op-Amp circuits, DC gain
blocks and transducer amplifiers. LM358
IC is a good, standard operational amplifier and it is suitable for your needs. It can handle 3-
32V DC supply & source up to 20mA per channel. This Op-Amp is apt, if you want to operate
two separate Op-Amps for a single power supply. It’s available in an 8-pin DIP package.

6.1.2 NPN Transistor

BC547 is a Bipolar Junction Transistor, abbreviated as BJT. It is an NPN transistor. It has three
terminals named as:
 Emitter
 Collector
 Base

Figure 6.2: Transistor BC547

The maximum current gain of BC547 is 800mA.
Collector-Emitter Voltage is 75V.
Collector-Base Voltage is 80V.
Emitter-Base Voltage is 8V.
6.1.3 LED and Resistors
Figure 6.3: Resistor and LED
They are used in this prototype to replace real appliances. They indicate power being turned on
and off to the appliances. In real time operation they would be replaced by actual home
appliances.

6.1.4 Blank PCB

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a nonconductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double
sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Multi-layer PCBs allow for
much higher component density. Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-

Figure 6.4: Blank PCB

through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors, resistors or
active devices - embedded in the substrate.

6.1.5 Voltage Regulator 7805

7805 Voltage Regulator, a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulators used to
maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC). The xx in
78xx indicates the output voltage it provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power

supply with provisions to add a heat sink.

 Figure 6.5: Voltage Regulator

6.1.6 Diode
A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It allows current to
flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the opposite direction. The
two terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode. Diodes are also known as
rectifiers because they change alternating current (AC) into pulsating direct current (DC).
Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current capacity. Diodes have polarity,
determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead). Most diodes allow

current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode.

Figure 6.6 IN 4007 Diode

Specification
Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage, VRRM: 1000V
Average Rectified Forward Current at TA = 75oC , IO: 1A
Peak Surge Forward Current, IFSM: 30A
6.2 Cost Estimation of Project
Table 6.1: Cost Estimation Project

S. No Component Rating Cost Quantity Total

(Rs.)
Per piece

1 OP amp IC LM358 50 1 50

2 Voltage Regulator 7805 20 1 20

3 Resistor 1k 10k 470 3 8 24

4 Capacitor 1000uF25v 10 3 30
100uF 25v

5 NPN Transistor BC547 10 2 20

6 Diode IN4007 2 5 10

7 Solar Panel 5Volt 70mA 70 1 70

8 DC Motor 5v .3Amp 25 2 50

9 Battery Li-ion 5v 100 1 100

5v 2000mAh

10 Micro USB socket 40 1 40

11 IR Sensor 50 2 100

12 Preset 5K 5 1 5

13 PCB 30 1 40

14 LED 5 5 25

15 Wire 30

Total 615
6.3 Block Diagram Of Project

Figure 6.7 Block Diagram of Project

6.4 Circuit Operation
When the light radiate on the solar panel then it gives output to the battery parallel to the
conventional charging circuit and the battery get charged by solar panel when its not
connected to the conventional power source. IR sensor detect the object and sends a signal
to the IC LM358 and according to the input IC gives the output to the Transistor and
Transistor comes in on state and motor starts moving. If there’s an object in front of IR
then it sends a signal to the IC and transistor comes in off state and motor automatically
get stopped.

Figure 6.8 Photograph of Project

6.5 Circuit Diagram of Project

Figure 6.9 Circuit Diagram of project

 CHAPTER 7
RESULT and CONCLUSION

7.1 Result
To find out more about the results, testing and running the whole process of the project have
been made. The purpose is also to observe the performance and how well the project works.
The experimental model was made according to the circuit diagram and the results were as
expected. The battery was charging by both of the sources conventional and Renewable source
of energy. As for the result this project is manage to control light the vehicle to protect it from
the accidents because if IR sensor detect some object then vehicle will be stop automatically.

7.2 Further Enhancement and Future Scope

Electrification is one of the appropriate way to establish a clean and energy efficient
transportation. The impact of electric vehicle on the environment is considered as a serious
issue. The locomotive industry as well as power sector gets benefitted by the reliable
technology provided by the electric vehicle. This green vehicle also helps in creating an
alternative power source for household applications and provide ancillary services to the grid. It
also helps in integrating the intermittent resources for vehicle charging. As this vehicle
generates prominent feature of less maintenance and ease of charge at residential premises. The
electric vehicle creates a significant role in power sector mainly in the application of smart grid
and act as a smart vehicle through grid communication. The challenges imposed by the electric
vehicle and its effects in the transportation and energy sector are elaborately addressed in this
paper.

7.3 Conclusion
The experimental model was made according to the circuit diagram and the results were as
expected. The battery was charging by both of the sources conventional and renewable source
of energy. As for the result this project is manage to control light the vehicle to protect it from
the accidents because if IR sensor detect some object then vehicle will be stop automatically.
This project can be enhanced by using node MCU, arduino etc.
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