IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

Unit 1
CELL STRUCTRUE

Cell
- the basic building block of living organisms
- countless millions of cells (in human body)
- many different types of cell, specialised carry out particular functions
- in most cells, some certain features

Cytoplasm
- living material ----- made up a cell
- sloppy jelly ----- between a solid & a liquid
- not made of one substance
- a complex materials ----- contain organelles
- organelles ----- cannot see under an ordinary light microscope
----- can see under an electron microscope (a much higher magnification)

Nucleus
- the largest organelle
- present in nearly all cells and absent in red blood cells
- controls the activities of the cell
- contains chromosomes (46 in human body cells) which carry genetic material or genes

Genes
- control the activities in the cells by determining which proteins the cell can make
- one very important group of proteins found in cells --- enzymes

Enzymes

- control chemical reaction takes place in the cytoplasm

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

Cell membrane (cell surface membrane)

- surrounds all cells
- a thin layer like a ‘skin’
- a boundary between the cytoplasm of the cell and the outside
- not a complete barrier
- allows some chemical to pass into and out of the cell (partially permeable)
- can actively control the movement of some substances (selectively permeable)

Inside a cell --- there are many other membranes

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- a network of membranes throughout the cytoplasm
- covered with thin tiny granules (ribosomes)
Ribosomes
- the organelles where proteins are made
- the spaces between the membranes of ER
- act as a transportation system sending protein to the part of the cell
where it is needed

Mitochondrion (Mitochondria)
- organelle found in the cytoplasm of nearly all living cells
- cells (e.g. muscle or nerve cells) need a lot of energy
- performs some of the reactions of respiration
- releases most of the energy from respiration

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

CHROMOSOMES, GENES & DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
- the chemical that is the basis of inheritance
- usually found in the nucleus of a cell , in chromosomes

A gene a section of DNA that determines a particular feature

Genes determine a person’s characteristics by instructing cells to produce particular proteins

Each chromosome --- contains one DNA molecule

DNA --- folded and coiled --- it can be packed into a small space
--- is coiled around proteins called histones

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

THE STRUCTURE OF DNA

Nucleotides a molecule of DNA --- made from two strands of molecular groups

Each nucleotide a deoxyribose sugar

a phosphate group
a nitrogen-containing group (a base)
4 bases adenine (A)
thymine (T)
cytosine (C)

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM
guanine (G)

In the two strands,

nucleotide with adenine thymine (opposite nucleotide)
cytosine guanine

complementary bases

Base-paring rule
complementary bases ----- bind with each other
----- nerve with any other base
Hydrogen bonds
- the two strands – held together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs
- weak bonds between H atoms on one base & O (or) N atoms on another base
- easily broken, allowing the chairs to separate
- DNA ----- makes a copy of itself (using this property)

*** In each molecule of DNA, adenine = thymine

cytosine = guanine

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

DNA Replication
DNA the only chemical --- can make exact copies of itself

able to pass genetic information from one generation to the next as a ̏genetic code̋

Replication when a cell ----- to divide

first make an exactly copy of each DNA molecules in nucleus

result each daughter cell receives exactly the same amount & type of DNA

(MITOSIS – cell division)

DNA polymerase
- an enzyme which controls the assembly of the new strands of DNA from nucleotides

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

THE GENETIC CODE

The template strand only one of the strands of a DNA molecule codes for the manufacture
of proteins in a cell
The non-template strand the other strand
Enzymes many of the proteins manufactured

control processes within the cell

Proteins structural e.g. keratin in the skin

myosin in muscles
functional e.g. haemoglobin

some hormones

- made of chains of amino acids

- for one amino acid --- a sequence of three bases in the template strands of the DNA codes

the DNA code – a triplet code

- e.g., TGT codes for the amino acid cysteine

CCG proline

A gene a section of a molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein

A gene the sequence of bases that codes for all the amino acids in a protein
A template a pattern that can be used to make something

the triplets of bases ----- code for individual amino acids --- the small in all organisms

TGT codes amino acid cysteine (in humans, bacteria, bananas, fish or any other organism)

DNA code a universal code

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IGCSE (EDEXCEL) HUMAN BIOLOGY DSM

THE STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

 DNA ------- in the nucleus

 protein synthesis ------- in the cytoplasm
 before proteins can be made ------- the genetic code --- copied
 transferred out (from the nucleus to the cytoplasm)
 carried out by ribonucleic acid (RNA) (a different kind of nucleic acid)

3 main differences between DNA & RNA

DNA RNA (extra oxygen atom)

1  a double helix  a single strand
2  deoxyribose sugar  ribose sugar
3  thymine (T)  uracil (C) (similar structure)

2 types of RNA take part in protein synthesis

(1) Messenger RNA (mRNA) ------- forms a copy of the DNA code
(2) Transfer RNA (tRNA) ------- carries amino acids to ribosomes to make the protein

**** A third type of RNA ------- ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

**** Ribosomes ------- made of RNA & protein

2 stages of protein synthesis (1) Transcription

(2) Translation

(1) Transcription
Transcription
- in the nucleus
- in the chromosomes, part of DNA double helix

unwinds & unzips

- 2 strands -- separate template strand

non-template strand

- expose the base along the template strand

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Template strand of the DNA ------ a framework

------ a mRNA  formed

RNA nucleotides (building blocks of mRNA)

RNA nucleotides ----- line up alongside the template strand (the complementary base-paring rules)

----- link up one of a time to form an mRNA molecule