Biology, the study of life LESSON 1

What Is Biology?
• Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms,
including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular
interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution.

• Biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and

distribution of living organisms.
 Biosphere Ecosystem
Levels of Community
Biological All organisms in a particular
ecosystem

Organization Population
All alligators living
in a specific area

In life’s hierarchy of organization, Organism

An alligator
new properties emerge at each
level. Nerve
Spinal
cord
Organ system
Nervous system

Brain Organ
Brain

Tissue
Nervous tissue

Atom
Cell Nucleus
Nerve cell

Organelle Molecule
Nucleus DNA
Life’s hierarchy of organization
Biosphere—all of the environments on Earth that support life
Ecosystem—all the organisms living in a particular area and the physical components with which
the organisms interact
Community—the entire array of organisms living in a particular ecosystem
Population—all the individuals of a species living in a specific area
Organism—an individual living thing
Organ system—several organs that cooperate in a specific function
Organ—a structure that is composed of tissues
Tissue—a group of similar cells that perform a specific function
Cell—the fundamental unit of life
Organelle—a membrane-enclosed structure that performs a specific function within a cell
A tour of The CELL
What is a cell?

• The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known
organisms.

• A cell is the smallest unit of life.

• Cells are often called the "building blocks of life".

 Two distinct types of cells Chapter 4

EUKARYOTIC CELL DNA

(no nucleus)
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Membrane
Membrane •Bacteria
• Animals Cytoplasm
•Archaea
• Plants
• Fungi
• Protists

Nucleus
(membrane-enclosed)

Membrane-enclosed DNA (throughout

organelles nucleus) 1 µm
Comparing Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells
(II. Different Features)

 The location of the DNA

� In a eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA is in a membrane-enclosed
nucleus.
� In a prokaryotic cell, there is no true nucleus. The DNA is coiled into a
region called the nucleoid.
 Membrane-enclosed organelles
� Within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, a variety of membrane-
enclosed organelles are suspended in cytosol.
� These membrane-enclosed structures are absent in prokaryotic cells.

 Size
� Eukaryotic cells are generally larger than prokaryotic cells (10–100 μm
vs. 1–5 μm).
Comparing Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells
(I. Common Features)

 All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane.

 Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol.
 All cells contain chromosomes that carry genes in the form of
DNA.
 All cells have ribosomes, tiny complexes that make proteins
according to instructions from the genes.
 Eukaryotic cells
partitioned into functional compartments
(organelles).

1. Genetic Control
2. Endomembrane
System
3. Energy Processing
4. Support, movement
& communication
 Chapter 4

The nucleus
 The control center of the cell
• It contains the cell’s genetic instructions
encoded in DNA.
 separated from the cytoplasm by a double Ribosome
membrane called the nuclear envelope.
• Nuclear pores
 directs protein synthesis by making
messenger RNA (mRNA) according to
instructions provided by the DNA.
 In the nucleolus, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is
synthesized and assembled with proteins
brought in from the cytoplasm to form
ribosomal subunits.
 DNA

1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the
ribosomes
nucleus
mRNA

 Protein-making machine
Nucleus
use instructions from the nucleus, written in mRNA, to
build proteins.
Cytoplasm
 Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol
2 Movement of mRNA and synthesize proteins that function within the cytosol.
mRNA into Ribosome
 Bound ribosomes are attached to the rough
cytoplasm via
nuclear pore endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or nuclear envelope
and synthesize proteins that are inserted into
membranes, packaged into organelles, or exported
3 Synthesis of (secreted) from the cell.
protein in the
cytoplasm Protein
The Endomembrane
Systems
 A network of membranes inside and surrounding a eukaryotic
cell, physically connected or linked by vesicles, sacs made of
membrane

Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Plasma membrane

 manufacture and distribute cellular products.

 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
(ER)
Biosynthetic workshop
 Smooth ER lacks surface ribosomes.
• produces lipids.
• helps detoxification in liver cells.
• stores calcium ions.
 Rough ER has ribosomes on the outer
surface.
• Ribosomes attached to the rough ER
produce membrane proteins or
secretory proteins.
• Membrane-making machine
 The Golgi apparatus
 consists of a stack of membrane
plates
 Warehouse for receiving, sorting,
processing, and shipping products
made in the ER
• Molecules are transported to and
from the Golgi by means of vesicles.
• Products within a vesicle are usually
modified by enzymes during their
transit from the “receiving” to the
“shipping” side of the Golgi.
 Lysosomes
 Membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes found in animal cells
• Enzymes in a lysosome can break down large molecules.
• The enzymes and membranes of lysosomes are made by rough ER and processed in
the Golgi.
• A lysosome provides an acidic environment for its enzymes, while safely isolating them
from the rest of the cell. Compartmentalization.
 Chapter 4

Vacuoles
 Large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi
apparatus
 Vacuoles have a variety of functions in plants
• store organic nutrients, ions, water, enzymes, wastes,
pigments, etc.
• help protect plants by storing compounds that are poisonous
or unpalatable against plant-eating animals.
 Mature plant cells generally contain a large central
vacuole, which helps the cell grow in size by absorbing water
and enlarging.
Mitochondria
 Sites of cellular respiration
• use O2 and release CO2 to generate ATP from the energy of
food molecules.
• Cells use molecules of ATP as the direct energy source for most
of their work.
 enclosed by two membranes
• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane

• Matrix contains mitochondrial DNA,

ribosomes and enzymes.
Chloroplasts
 Sites of photosynthesis
• convert solar energy to chemical energy by
absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the
synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars
from CO2 and water.
 contain the green pigment, chlorophyll.
 found in plant cells and algae.
 double membrane
• Inner and outer membranes
• Stroma contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes
and enzymes.
 The Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein fibers extending throughout a cell
 Like a skeleton and muscles for the cell, functioning in support and
movement
• provides mechanical support to the cell and helps a cell maintain
its shape.
• provides anchorage and reinforcement for many organelles.
• causes the whole cell or some of its parts to move.

 3 types: microtubules, intermediate filaments &

microfilaments
 Chapter 4

Cilia and Flagella Flagellum of a

human sperm
cell

Cilia lining the respiratory tract

 composed of a group of microtubules
wrapped in an extension of the plasma
membrane.
Cilia and Flagella are complex filamentous cytoplasmic structures protruding
through a cell wall.

Flagella are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and
are used to move an entire cell.
Cilia are short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells or
substances along the outer surface of the cell
 Chapter 4

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

 The meshwork surrounding
animal cells; consists of
glycoproteins and
polysaccharides synthesized
and secreted by cells.
 helps hold cells together in
tissues and protects and
supports the plasma membrane.
 regulate a cell’s behavior.
CELL DIVISION
 Chapter
8

CELL DIVISION PLAYS MANY

IMPORTANT ROLES

The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division.

�Passing identical material to cellular offspring is a crucial function of cell division.

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
 Chapter
8

ASEXUAL vs. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
produces offspring that are all combines genes from two parents,
genetic copies of a single leading to genetically diverse
parent. offspring.

Reproduction of an amoeba Fertilization

 Chapter
8
PROKARYOTES
REPRODUCE BY
BINARY FISSION
Prokaryotes reproduce asexually
by binary fission.
• As the cell replicates its single
circular chromosome, the copies
move apart,
• the plasma membrane pinches
inward, and
• more cell wall is made, which
eventually divides the parent cell
into two daughter cells.
THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
CYCLE AND MITOSIS
 Chapter
8
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE
GENETIC MATERIAL
IN EUKARYOTES
▪ A eukaryotic cell has many more genes than a prokaryotic cell, and they are
grouped into multiple chromosomes in the nucleus.
▪ Individual chromosomes are visible only when the cell is in the process of
dividing; otherwise, chromosomes are thin, loosely packed chromatin fibers
too small to be seen.

Video: Cell division in Animal Cells

 THE LARGE, COMPLEX
CHROMOSOMES OF
EUKARYOTES
DUPLICATE WITH EACH
CELL DIVISION
▪ Before a cell starts dividing, the
chromosomes duplicate,
producing sister chromatids
(containing identical DNA) that are
joined together along their lengths
by proteins, most closely at a
region called the centromere.
▪ Cell division involves the
separation of sister chromatids
and results in two daughter cells,
each containing a complete and
identical set of chromosomes.
 Chapter
8

THE EUKARYOTIC
CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle includes two main stages:
▪ Interphase (growth phase)
• ≈ 90% of the total time
• Double everything in the
cytoplasm. (The cell’s metabolic activity
is very high.)
• DNA replication occurs.
▪ Mitotic (M) phase (division
phase)
• Mitosis: division of the nucleus
• Cytokinesis: division of the
cytoplasm

• Chromosomes are
duplicated within the
nucleus, but cannot be
seen individually
because they are not
condensed yet.
• Two centrosomes have • The mitotic spindle
formed by duplication.
begins to form.
Centrosomes are regions that
organize the microtubules of the
spindle.
• Two daughter nuclei
• begins when the two form in the cell.
• The nuclear envelope • The mitotic spindle is centromeres of each
breaks into fragments. fully formed. • By the end of
• The chromatin fibers chromosome come apart,
telophase, the
become more tightly • The microtubules invade • The chromosomes are separating the sister
coiled, condensing into chromatin fibers
the nuclear area, aligned on the chromatids.
chromosomes. Each uncoil, and the
reaching the more metaphase plate. • The two daughter
duplicated chromosome appears mitotic spindle
condensed
as two identical sister chromatids. • The kinetochores of chromosomes begin disappears.
chromosome. moving toward opposite
the sister chromatids • Cytokinesis usually
• Each sister chromatid are attached to as their kinetochore
occurs
has a kinetochore, a microtubules coming microtubules shorten. The
Centrosomes move away from
protein structure located at the from opposite poles. cell elongates as the nonkinetochore simultaneously with
each other.
centromere. microtubules lengthen. telophase.
 Chapter
8
CYTOKINESIS
DIFFERS FOR PLANT
AND ANIMAL CELLS

⮚ Cleavage of an animal cell

In animals, cytokinesis occurs
when a cell constricts, forming a
cleavage furrow in which
contracting microfilaments pinch
the cell in two.

⮚ Cell plate formation in a plant

cell

In plants, it involves a fusion of

vesicles that forms new plasma
membranes and new cell walls
between the cells.
THE CELL CYCLE CONTROL
SYSTEM
▪ A set of molecules that triggers and
coordinates key events in the cell cycle
▪ The cell cycle is regulated at certain
checkpoints by both internal and external
signals.
• G1, G2 & M checkpoints

▪ Signals affecting critical checkpoints

determine whether a cell will go through the
complete cycle and divide.
• At the G1 check point, if a go-ahead signal never arrives,
the cell will switch to a permanently nondividing state (G0
phase).
• Many cells, such as mature nerve cells and muscle cells, in
MEIOSIS & SEXUAL LIFE
CYCLE
 Chapter

CHROMOSOMES ARE MATCHED IN 8

HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS
▪ In human, a somatic cell (typical
body cell) has 46 chromosomes
made up of two sets of 23, one set from
each parent.
▪ Homologous chromosomes
• A pair of chromosomes of the same
length, centromere position, and staining
pattern
• carry genes for the same characteristics
at the same place, or locus.
▪ Human somatic cells have 22
homologous pairs of autosomes,
and one pair of sex chromosomes.
• Sex chromosomes determines an Karyotype: A display of condensed
individual’s sex: female (XX) or male chromosomes arranged in pairs, starting with
(XY).
2n=46
the longest ones.
 Chapter
Haploid gametes (n = 23) Key 8

n
Haploid stage (n) GAMETES HAVE
Diploid stage (2n)
Egg cell
A SINGLE SET OF
n CHROMOSOMES
Sperm cell
▪ Cells with 2 sets of homologous
Meiosis Fertilization chromosomes are diploid.
▪ Gametes (eggs and sperm) are
haploid cells with a single set of
Ovary Testi
chromosomes.
s ▪ The human life cycle begins when a
haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg
2n during fertilization.
The resulting fertilized egg (zygote) is diploid.
Diploid ▪ Gametes are formed by a modified type
zygote of cell division called meiosis, which
Mitosis and
Multicellular
(2n = 46) occurs only in reproductive organs
development (ovary and testis).
diploid adults
(2n = 46)
MEIOSIS REDUCES THE NUMBER OF SETS
OF CHROMOSOMES FROM TWO (DIPLOID)
TO ONE (HAPLOID)
 Chapter
8
MEIOSIS REDUCES THE
CHROMOSOME NUMBER FROM
DIPLOID TO HAPLOID
MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

Chromosomes Homologous Pairs of Pairs of Two haploid During another round of cell division, the
duplicate. chromosomes homologous homologous cells form; sister chromatids finally separate;
pair up and chromosomes chromosomes chromosomes four haploid daughter cells result,
exchange line up. split up. are still doubled. containing single chromosomes.
segments. No replication
occurs between
meiosis I and