Business and Economic

Thầy Kiên iFIGHT – Lean Vocabulary Vol.
2 – Business and Economy
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Thầy Kiên cùng team làm sách của IELTS – iFIGHT chúc bạn thành công.
Thầy Kiên iFIGHT – Lean Vocabulary Vol. 2 – Business and Economy
Lời nói đầu:
Từ vựng là phần chủ yếu cản trở bạn đến với điểm số IELTS mong muốn. Đa phần các cuốn
sách về vocabulary hiện tại dành cho IELTS chỉ list ra những từ “học thuật” theo chủ đề, ít ví dụ
về cách dùng, ít hoặc không có các từ đồng nghĩa với những từ vựng học thuật đó. Phần thiếu sót
có lẽ lớn nhất của các cuốn sách từ vựng hiện tại là “collocations” và topic vocabulary, đây là
các cụm từ hay đi cùng nhau và dùng đặc biệt trong cách topic nhất định.
Việc thiếu từ đồng nghĩa sẽ làm bạn đọc hiểu rất khó vì từ vựng dùng trong bài đọc thường được
paraphrase ở trong câu hỏi để kiểm tra được độ rộng và mức độ hiểu của người học.
Ngoài ra việc thiếu collocations sẽ làm bạn diễn đạt vô cùng khó khăn và thiếu tự nhiên khi viết
hoặc nói. Nhưng từ trình độ <8.0 thì lại khó nhận ra những collocations nào nên học. Do đó cuốn
sách này, mình đã trực tiếp highlight tất cả các collocations hay, hay gặp và có giá trị dùng lại rất
nhiều trong quá trình nói và viết của các bạn. Sau khi học xong 6 cuốn trong bộ “LEAN
VOCABULARY”, chắc chắn bạn sẽ nhận biết được một lượng collocations đủ lớn để có thể
nghe hiểu, đọc hiểu tốt và nhất là dùng được tốt khi nói và viết.
Để học tốt cuốn sách:

Bước 1: Chọn 1 bài đọc bất kì, tập trung đọc hiểu và xem phần “synonym – từ đồng nghĩa” của
các từ được in đậm, đây là các từ ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến mức độ hiểu của bạn khi đọc 1 câu
văn.
Bước 2: Đọc lại thật kĩ và chú ý các “cụm từ được gạch chân” – đây là các collocations hay
dùng.
Bước 3: Chọn 3-5 cụm THẬT SỰ ẤN TƯỢNG và luyện nói hoặc viết bằng cách đặt câu hoàn
chỉnh. Các câu đặt cần đảm bảo: Là câu đơn và ít bị thay đổi so với câu gốc nhất, có liên quan
đến bản thân nhất. (Nên có bút highlight để lưu lại những cụm đó)
Bước 4: Đọc lại 1 lần vào ngày hôm sau trước khi học bài mới.
(Sách có 210 bài đọc chia thành 6 chủ đề lớn: Technology (30), Health & Sports (30),
Environment (45), Education (45), Business & Economy (45), Science (45), nên với các bạn còn
thời gian (6 tháng), hãy chọn chủ đề mình yếu từ vựng nhất, hoặc từ cuốn dễ nhất: Education 
Business  Health  Evironment  Tech  Science - học ít nhất 1 bài 1 ngày và ít nhất 30
bài, học thật sâu và đọc hiểu. Với các bạn còn 3 tháng thì có thể học 1 ngày 3 bài, nhưng nên
chia ra 3 lần học, không nên học 1 lúc 2 bài)
Không cần làm đề nhiều. Chỉ cần 1 tháng làm 1 đề để kiểm tra lại khả năng tiếng Anh. Sẽ có
những collocations các bạn thấy có highlight nhưng không hiểu, khi đó hãy đánh dấu nháy nháy
và cụm đó lên google: “…………” thì sẽ có ví dụ và giải nghĩa của nó.
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Lời cảm ơn:
Công sức của các bạn sẽ giúp nhiều, rất nhiều các bạn khác đạt được mục tiêu.
Nguyễn Đình Hạnh – Khóa 9 - UNETI
Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym

cho hơn 45 bài đọc cho Vol.6 - Environment của bộ LEAN
VOCABULARY.
Nguyễn Thu Loan: K58 – NEU

cho 30 bài đọc cho Vol.1 - Education - của bộ LEAN
VOCABULARY.
Hoàng Phương Linh: Du học sinh Úc

cho hơn 45 bài đọc cho Vol.5 - Science - của bộ LEAN
VOCABULARY
Vũ Thị Ba: K57 - FTU
Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym cho
30 bài đọc cho Vol.2 – Sports and Health - của bộ LEAN
VOCABULARY
Nguyễn Thu Phương: K60 - NEU

cho hơn 30 bài đọc cho Vol.3 – Business & Economy của bộ LEAN
VOCABULARY
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Lời nói đầu: .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Lời cảm ơn: .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 1: The way the brain buys ..................................................................................................... 6
Topic 2: Motivating Employees under Adverse Conditions ................................................... 9
Topic 3: NATURAL CHOICE Coffee and chocolate ................................................................. 13
Topic 4: White mountain, green tourism ................................................................................... 17
Topic 5: Recovering a damaged reputation .............................................................................. 20
Topic 6: IMPLEMENTING THE CYCLE OF SUCCESS: A CASE STUDY .......................... 24
Topic 7: UK companies need more effective boards of directors ..................................... 27
Topic 8: Change in business organisations ................................................................................. 31
Topic 9: Motivating Drives ............................................................................................................... 33
Topic 10: The Sweet Scent of Success ........................................................................................ 37
Topic 11: Stress of Workplace ........................................................................................................ 41
Topic 11: The Impact of Wilderness Tourism........................................................................... 45
Topic 13: A Workaholic Economy ................................................................................................. 49
Topic 14: Delivering The Goods ..................................................................................................... 52
Topic 15: Measuring Organisational Performance ................................................................. 56
Topic 16: Advantages of public transport ................................................................................. 60
Topic 17: Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project ........................................................ 64
Topic 18: Roller coaster .................................................................................................................... 69
Topic 19: Martin Luther King ........................................................................................................ 73
Topic 20: Beyond the blue horizon............................................................................................... 75
Topic 21: The Motor Car .................................................................................................................. 79
Topic 22: Keep a Watchful Eye on the Bridges ....................................................................... 82
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Topic 23: BAKELITE - The birth of modem plastics ............................................................ 85
Topic 24: The Problem of Scarce Resources ............................................................................. 89
Topic 25: Trends in the Indian fashion and textile industries .......................................... 92
Topic 26: Sustainable growth at Didcot .................................................................................... 95
Topic 27: Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth ............................................................ 98
Topic 28: Reducing electricity consumption on the Isle of Eigg ..................................... 102
Topic 29: Pottery production in ancient Akrotiri................................................................ 108
Topic 30: A Theory of Shopping.................................................................................................. 110
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Topic 1: The way the brain buys
Supermarkets take great care over the way the

goods they sell are arranged. This is because
they know a lot about how to persuade people to persuade /pəˈsweɪd/: to make somebody do
buy things. something by giving them good reasons for doing
it
When you enter a supermarket, it takes some Synonyms: argue, bring, bring around, convert,
time for the mind to get into a shopping mode. convince, induce, prevail (on or upon), talk (into)
This is why the area immediately inside the
entrance of a supermarket is known as the promotion /prəˈməʊʃn/: activities done in order to
‘decompression zone’. People need to slow down increase the sales of a product or service; a set of
and take stock of the surroundings, even if they advertisements for a particular product or service
are regulars. Supermarkets do not expect to sell Synonyms: advancement, ascent, creation,
much here, so it tends to be used more for elevation, preference, preferment, rise, upgrade,
promotion. So the large items piled up here are upgrading
designed to suggest that there are bargains
further inside the store, and shoppers are not Regulars: a regular customer or member, for
necessarily expected to buy them. Walmart, the example of a bar, store, or team
world’s biggest retailer, famously employs
‘greeters’ at the entrance to its stores. A friendly Bargains: a thing bought or offered for sale more
welcome is said to cut shoplifting. It is harder to cheaply than is usual or expected.
steal from nice people. synonyms: good buy, cheap buy;
Immediately to the left in many supermarkets is a (good) value for money
‘chill zone’, where customers can enjoy browsing
magazines, books and DVDs. This is intended to guilty /ˈɡɪlti/: feeling ashamed because you have
tempt unplanned purchases and slow customers done something that you know is wrong or have
down. But people who just want to do their not done something that you should have done
shopping quickly will keep walking ahead, and the Synonyms: ashamed, shamed
first thing they come to is the fresh fruit and
vegetables section. However, for shoppers, this at work: in action
makes no sense. Fruit and vegetables can be
easily damaged, so they should be bought at the invariably /ɪnˈveəriəbli/: always
end, not the beginning, of a shopping trip. But Synonyms: always, consistently, constantly,
psychology is at work here: selecting these items continually, ever
makes people feel good, so they feel less guilty
about reaching for less healthy food later on. tempt /tempt/: to attract somebody or make
somebody want to do or have something
Shoppers already know that everyday items, like
milk, are invariably placed towards the back of a Synonyms: allure, bait, beguile, betray, decoy,
store to provide more opportunity to tempt entice, lead on, lure, seduce
customers to buy things which are not on their
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shopping list. This is why pharmacies are also
generally at the back. But supermarkets know
shoppers know this, so they use other tricks, like
placing popular items halfway along a section so
that people have to walk all along the aisle looking
for them. The idea is to boost ‘dwell time’: the
length of time people spend in a store.
Having walked to the end of the fruit-and-
vegetable aisle, shoppers arrive at counters of
prepared food, the fishmonger, the butcher and
the deli. Then there is the in-store bakery, which
can be smelt before it is seen. Even small
supermarkets now use in store bakeries. Mostly
these bake pre-prepared items and frozen
ingredients which have been delivered to the
supermarket previously, and their numbers have
increased, even though central bakeries that
deliver to a number of stores are much more
efficient. They do it for the smell of freshly baked arouse /əˈraʊz/: to make somebody have a
bread, which arouses people’s appetites and thus particular feeling or attitude
encourages them to purchase not just bread but
also other food, including ready meals. Synonyms: awake, rouse, wake
Retailers and producers talk a lot about the
‘moment of truth’. This is not a philosophical
idea, but the point when people standing in the philosophical /ˌfɪləˈsɒfɪkl/: having a calm
aisle decide to buy something and reach to get it. attitude towards a difficult or disappointing
At the instant coffee section, for example, branded situation
products from the big producers are arranged at
eye level while cheaper ones are lower down,
along with the supermarket’s own label products.
But shelf positioning is fiercely fought over, not
just by those trying to sell goods, but also by
those arguing over how best to manipulate manipulate /məˈnɪpjuleɪt/: to control or influence
shoppers. While many stores reckon eye level is somebody/something, often in a dishonest way so
the top spot, some think a little higher is better. that they do not realize it
Others think goods displayed at the end of aisles
sell the most because they have the greatest Synonyms: exploit, play (upon)
visibility. To be on the right-hand side of an eye-
level selection is often considered the very best
place, because most people are right-handed and own-label: used to describe a product that has
most people’s eyes drift rightwards. Some the name of thestore where you buy it, rather than
supermarkets reserve that for their most a name used by the company that made it
expensive own-label goods.
Scott Bearse, a retail expert with Deloitte
Consulting in Boston, Massachusetts, has led
projects observing and questioning tens of
thousands of customers about how they feel
about shopping. People say they leave shops
empty- handed more often because they are empty-handed /ˌempti ˈhændɪd/: without getting
‘unable to decide’ than because prices are too what you wanted; without taking something to
high, says Mr Bearse. Getting customers to try somebody
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something is one of the best ways of getting them
to buy, adds Mr Bearse. Deloitte found that
customers who use fitting rooms in order to try on
clothes buy the product they are considering at a
rate of 8% compared with 58% for those that do
not do so.
struggle /ˈstrʌɡl/: to try very hard to do
Often a customer struggling to decide which of something when it is difficult or when there are a
two items is best ends up not buying either. In lot of problems
order to avoid a situation where a customer
decides not to buy either product, a third ‘decoy’ Synonyms: effort, exertion, labor, pains, trouble,
item, which is not quite as good as the other two, work
is placed beside them to make the choice easier
and more pleasurable. Happier customers are
more likely to buy.
adapted from The Economis
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Topic 2: Motivating Employees under Adverse
Conditions
THE CHALLENGE
motivate /ˈməʊtɪveɪt/: to make somebody want to
It is a great deal easier to motivate employees do something, especially something that involves
in a growing organisation than a declining one. hard work and effort
When organisations are expanding and adding Synonyms: inspire, stimulate, encourage, provoke,
personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises, influence, prompt
and the excitement of being associated with a
dynamic organisation create feelings of personnel /ˌpɜːsəˈnel/: the people who work for
optimism. Management is able to use the an organization or one of the armed forces
growth to entice and encourage employees. Synonyms: force, labor force, manpower, staff,
When an organisation is shrinking, the best and workforce
most mobile workers are prone to leave
voluntarily. Unfortunately, they are the ones the dynamic /daɪˈnæmɪk/: having active strength of
organisation can least afford to lose - those with body or mind
the highest skills and experience. The minor Synonyms: energetic, flush, red-blooded, robust,
employees remain because their job options are vigorous, forceful
limited.
Morale also suffers during decline. People fear optimism /ˈɒptɪmɪzəm/: a feeling that good things
they may be the next to be made redundant. will happen and that something will be successful;
Productivity often suffers, as employees spend the tendency to have this feeling
their time sharing rumours and providing one Synonyms: bullishness, sanguinity
another with moral support rather than focusing
on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, entice /ɪnˈtaɪs/: to persuade somebody/something
pay increases are rarely possible. Pay cuts, to go somewhere or to do something, usually by
unheard of during times of growth, may even be offering them something
imposed. The challenge to management is how Synonyms: persuade, allure, bait, beguile
to motivate employees under such
retrenchment conditions. The ways of meeting prone /prəʊn/: likely to suffer from something or to
this challenge can be broadly divided into six do something bad
Key Points, which are outlined below. Synonyms: apt, given, inclined, tending
KEY POINT ONE morale /məˈrɑːl/: the amount of confidence and

There is an abundance of evidence to support enthusiasm
the motivational benefits that result from
carefully matching people to jobs. For example,
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if the job is running a small business or redundant /rɪˈdʌndənt/: without a job because
an autonomous unit within a larger business, there is no more work available for you in a
high achievers should be sought. However, if company
the job to be filled is a managerial post in a Synonyms: laid off, out of work, out of a job,
large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate jobless, dismissed, fired, terminated
who has a high need for power and a low need
for affiliation should be selected. impose /ɪmˈpəʊz/: to introduce a new law, rule,
Accordingly, high achievers should not be put tax, etc.; to order that a rule, punishment, etc. be
into jobs that are inconsistent with their needs. used
High achievers will do best when the job Synonyms: assess, charge, exact, fine, lay, levy,
provides moderately challenging goals and put
where there is independence and feedback.
However, it should be remembered that not retrenchment /rɪˈtrentʃmənt/: the policy of
everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in spending less money; a deliberate reduction of
independence, variety and responsibility. costs
KEY POINT TWO abundance /əˈbʌndəns/: a large quantity that is
The literature on goal-setting theory suggests more than enough
that managers should ensure that all employees Synonyms: plenty, wealth, profusion
have specific goals and receive comments on
how well they are doing in those goals. autonomous /ɔːˈtɒnəməs/: able to govern itself or
For those with high achievement needs, typically control its own affairs
a minority in any organisation, the existence Synonyms: free, freestanding, independent, self-
of external goals is less important because high governing, self-ruling, separate
achievers are already internally motivated.
The next factor to be determined is whether the managerial /ˌmænəˈdʒɪəriəl/: connected with the
goals should be assigned by a manager work of a manager
or collectively set in conjunction with the
employees. The answer to that depends on bureaucratic /ˌbjʊərəˈkrætɪk/: relating to the
perceptions of goal acceptance and the business of running an organization, or
organisation's culture. If resistance to goals is government
expected, the use of participation in goal-setting
should increase acceptance. If participation is affiliation /əˌfɪliˈeɪʃn/: a person’s connection with
inconsistent with the culture, however, goals a political party, religion, etc.
should be assigned. If participation and the
culture are incongruous, employees are likely inconsistent with /ˌɪnkənˈsɪstənt/: not matching
to perceive the participation process as a set of standards, ideas, etc.
manipulative and be negatively affected by it. Synonyms: clashing, conflicting, disagreeing,
discordant
KEY POINT THREE
Regardless of whether goals are achievable or collectively /kəˈlektɪvli/: in a way that is done or
well within management's perceptions of the shared by all members of a group of people; in a
employee's ability, if employees see them as way that involves a whole group or society
unachievable they will reduce their
effort. Managers must be sure, therefore, that Synonyms: collaborative, conjunct, cooperative,
employees feel confident that their efforts can joint, public, shared, united
lead to performance goals. For managers, this
means that employees must have the capability conjunction /kənˈdʒʌŋkʃn/: a combination of
of doing the job and must regard the appraisal events, etc., that causes a particular result
process as valid. Synonyms: confluence, convergence
KEY POINT FOUR
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Since employees have different needs, what perception /pəˈsepʃn/: the way you notice things,
acts as a reinforcement for one may not for especially with the senses
another. Managers could use their knowledge of Synonyms: discernment, insight, perceptiveness,
each employee to personalise the rewards over wisdom, awareness
which they have control. Some of the more
obvious rewards that managers allocate include incongruous /ɪnˈkɒŋɡruəs/: strange, and not
pay, promotions, autonomy, job scope and suitable in a particular situation
depth, and the opportunity to participate in goal- Synonyms: odd, improper, inappropriate, incorrect,
setting and decision-making. unsuitable, wrong, strange, incompatible
KEY POINT FIVE appraisal /əˈpreɪzl/: a judgement of the value,
Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance or nature of somebody/something
performance. To reward factors other than Synonyms: appraisement, assessment, estimation,
performance will only reinforce those other evaluation, judgment
factors. Key rewards such as pay increases
and promotions or advancements should be allocate /ˈæləkeɪt/: to give something officially to
allocated for the attainment of the employee's somebody/something for a particular purpose
specific goals. Consistent with maximising the Synonyms: allow, apportion, assign, distribute
impact of rewards, managers should look for
ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating the contingent /kənˈtɪndʒənt/: depending on
secrecy surrounding pay or openly or influenced by something else
communicating everyone's remuneration, Synonyms: dependent
publicising performance bonuses and allocating
annual salary increases in a lump sum rather reinforce /ˌriːɪnˈfɔːs/: make a feeling, an idea, etc.
than spreading them out over an entire year are stronger
examples of actions that will make rewards Synonyms: strengthen, bolster, support
more visible and potentially more motivating.
attainment /əˈteɪnmənt/: success in achieving
KEY POINT SIX something
The way rewards are distributed should be Synonyms: accomplishment, achievement,
transparent so that employees perceive that success
rewards or outcomes are equitable and equal to
the inputs given. On a simplistic equitable /ˈekwɪtəbl/: fair and reasonable; treating
level, experience, abilities, effort and other everyone in an equal way
obvious inputs should explain differences in Synonyms: fair, equal, reasonable, impartial,
pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes. justifiable
The problem, however, is complicated by
the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes
and by the fact that employee groups
place different degrees of importance on them.
For instance, a study comparing clerical
and production workers identified nearly twenty
inputs and outcomes. Clerical
workers considered factors such as quality of
work performed and job knowledge near the top
of their list, but these were at the bottom of the
production workers' list. Similarly,
production workers thought that the most
important inputs were intelligence and personal accomplishment /əˈkʌmplɪʃmənt/: an impressive
involvement with task accomplishment, two thing that is done or achieved after a lot of work
factors that were quite low in the importance
ratings of the clerks. There were also important, Synonyms: achievement, acquirement, attainment
though less dramatic, differences on the
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outcome side. For example, production workers
rated advancement very highly, whereas clerical
workers rated advancement in the lower third of
their list. Such findings suggest that one
person's equity is another's inequity, so an ideal
should probably weigh different inputs and
outcomes according to employee group.
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Topic 3: NATURAL CHOICE Coffee and
chocolate
What's the connection between your

morning coffee, wintering North American
birds and the cool shade of a tree? Actually,
unite a lot, says Simon Birch.
When scientists from London’s Natural History descend /dɪˈsend/ : to come or go down from a
Museum descended on the coffee farms of the higher to a lower level
tiny Central American republic of El Salvador,
they were astonished to find such diversity of Synonyms: decline, dip, drop, fall, plunge, sink
insect and plant species. During 18 months'
work on 12 farms, they found a third more
species of parasitic wasp than are known to astonished /əˈstɒnɪʃt/: very surprised
exist in the whole country of Costa Rica. They
described four new species and are aware of a Synonyms: amazed, astounded, surprised,
fifth. On 24 farms, they found nearly 300 overwhelmed, shocked
species of tree when they had expected to find
about 100.
El Salvador has lost much of its natural forest,
with coffee farms covering nearly 10% of the
country. Most of them use the ‘shade-grown’
method of production, which utilises a semi-
natural forest ecosystem. Alex Munro, the sophisticated /səˈfɪstɪkeɪtɪd/: clever and complicated
museum’s botanist on the expedition, says: in the way that it works or is presented
‘Our findings amazed our insect specialist.
There’s a very sophisticated food web Synonyms: complex, high-level, clever, advanced
present. The wasps, for instance, may depend
on specific species of tree.’
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It's the same the world over. Species diversity
is much higher where coffee is grown in shade
conditions. In addition, coffee (and chocolate)
is usually grown in tropical rainforest - regions
that are biodiversity hotspots. ‘These habitats genuinely /ˈdʒenjuɪnli/: truly; in a way that is exactly
support up to 70% of the planets plant and what it appears to be and is not artificial
animal species, and so the production methods Synonyms: actually, authentically, certifiably, really,
of cocoa and coffee can have a hugely truly
significant impact,' explains Dr Paul Donald of
the Royal Society for the. Protection of Birds. sustainable /səˈsteɪnəbl/: involving the use of natural
products and energy in a way that does not harm the
So what does ‘shade-grown’ mean, and why is environment
it good for wildlife? Most of the world's coffee is Synonyms: defendable, defensible, justifiable,
produced by poor farmers in the developing maintainable, supportable, tenable
world. Traditionally they have grown coffee
(and cocoa) under the shade of selectively mulch /mʌltʃ/: material, for example, decaying leaves,
thinned tracts of rain forest in a genuinely that you put around a plant to protect its base and its
sustainable form of farming. Leaf fall from the roots, to improve the quality of the soil or to stop
canopy provides a supply of nutrients and acts weeds growing
as a mulch that suppresses weeds. The
insects that live in the canopy pollinate the suppress /səˈpres/: to prevent something from
cocoa and coffee and prey on pests. The trees growing, developing or continuing
also provide farmers with fruit and wood for Synonyms: burke, cover (up), hush (up)
fuel.
pollinate /ˈpɒləneɪt/: to put pollen into a flower or
Bird diversity in shade-grown coffee plantations plant so that it produces seeds
rivals that found in natural forests in the same
region.’ says Robert Rice from the Smithsonian refuge /ˈrefjuːdʒ/: a place, person or thing that
Migratory Bird Center. In Ghana, West Africa - provides shelter or protection for
one of the world's biggest producers of cocoa - somebody/something
90% of the cocoa is grown under shade, and Synonyms: asylum, sanctuary, sanctum, shelter
these forest plantations are a vital habitat for
wintering European migrant birds. In the same collapse /kəˈlæps/: to fall down or fall in suddenly,
way, the coffee forests of Central and South often after breaking apart
America are a refuge for wintering North Synonyms: exhaustion, ruining, crash, disruption
American migrants.
More recently, a combination of the collapse in swathe /sweɪð/: a long strip of land, especially one
the world market for coffee and cocoa and a on which the plants or crops have been cut
drive to increase yields by producer countries
has led to huge swathes of shade-grown intensive /ɪnˈtensɪv/: aimed at producing as much
coffee and cocoa being cleared to make way food as possible using as little land or as little money
for a highly intensive, monoculture pattern of as possible
production known as ‘full sun’. But this system Synonyms: concentrated, thorough, rigorous
not only reduces the diversity of flora and
fauna, it also requires huge amounts of monoculture /ˈmɒnəkʌltʃə(r)/: the practice of growing
pesticides and fertilisers. In Cote d’Ivoire, which only one type of crop on a certain area of land
produces more than half the world's cocoa,
more than a third of the crop is now grown in
full-sun conditions.
The loggers have been busy in the Americas

too, where nearly 70% of all Colombian coffee
is now produced using full-sun production. One
14
study carried out in Colombia and Mexico
found that, compared with shade coffee, full-
sun plantations have 95% fewer species of
birds.
In El Salvador, Alex Munro says shade-coffee
farms have a cultural as well as ecological
significance and people are not happy to see
them go. But the financial pressures are great,
and few of these coffee farms make much
money. ‘One farm we studied, a cooperative of labour /ˈleɪbə(r)/:work, especially physical work
100 families, made just $10,000 a year, $100
per family and that's not taking labour costs incentive /ɪnˈsentɪv/: something that encourages you
into account.’ to do something
Synonyms: inducement, motivation, encouragement,
The loss of shade-coffee forests has so enticement
alarmed a number of North American wildlife
organisations that they are now harnessing preservation /ˌprezəˈveɪʃn/: the act of keeping
consumer power to help save these threatened something in its original state or in good condition
habitats. They are promoting a ‘certification' Synonyms: protection, conservation, defense
system that can indicate to consumers that the
beans have been grown on shade plantations. steep /stiːp/: rising or falling quickly, not gradually
Bird-friendly coffee, for instance, is marketed Synonyms: sheer, vertical, sharp
by the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center. The
idea is that the small extra cost is passed convert /kənˈvɜːt/: to change or make something
directly on to the coffee farmers as a financial change from one form, purpose, system, etc. to
incentive to maintain their shade-coffee farms. another
Synonyms: change, adapt, alter, transform, transfer
Not all conservationists agree with such
measures, however. Some say certification profitably /ˈprɒfɪtəbli/: in a way that gives somebody
could be leading to the loss not preservation an advantage or a useful result
of natural forests. John Rappole of the Synonyms: lucratively, cost-effectively, gainfully,
Smithsonian Conservation and Research beneficially, advantageously
Center, for example, argues that shade-grown
marketing provides ‘an incentive to convert subsistence /səbˈsɪstəns/: the state of having just
existing areas of primary forest that are too enough money or food to stay alive
remote or steep to be converted profitably to
other forms of cultivation into shade-coffee virtually /ˈvɜːtʃuəli/: almost or very nearly, so that any
plantations’. slight difference is not important
Synonyms: almost, nearly
Other conservationists, such as
Stacey Philpott and colleagues, argue the case identical /aɪˈdentɪkl/: similar in every detail
for shade coffee. But there are different types Synonyms: same, equal, indistinguishable, alike
of shade growing. Those used by subsistence
farmers are virtually identical to natural forest
(and have a corresponding diversity), while
systems that use coffee plants as
the understorey and cacao or citrus trees as
the overstorey may be no more diverse than
full-sun farms. Certification procedures need to rigorous /ˈrɪɡərəs/: done carefully and with a lot of
distinguish between the two and attention to detail
Ms.Philpott argues that as long as the process
is rigorous and offers financial gains to the Synonyms: exact, thorough, precise, careful, accurate
producers, shade growing does benefit the
environment.
15
Topic 4: White mountain, green tourism
The French Alpine town of Chamonix has been

a magnet for tourists since the 18th century.
But today, tourism and climate change are
putting pressure on the surrounding
environment. Marc Grainger reports.
A
The town of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc sits in a
valley at 1,035 metres above sea level in the
Haute-Savoie department in south-eastern
France. To the northwest are the red peaks of
the Aiguilles Rouges massif; to the south-east
are the permanently white peaks of Mont
Blanc, which at 4,810 metres is the highest
mountain in the Alps. It’s a typical Alpine
environment, but one that is under increasing strain /streɪn/: pressure on somebody/something
strain from the hustle and bustle of human because they have too much to do or manage, or
activity. something very difficult to deal with; the problems,
worry or anxiety that this produces
B
Tourism is Chamonix’s lifeblood. Visitors have Synonyms: stress, nervous, worry, anxiety,
been encouraged to visit the valley ever since it pressure, burden
was discovered by explorers in 1741. Over 40
years later, in 1786,
hustle and bustle : A large amount of activity and
Mont Blanc’s summit was finally reached by a work, usually in a noisy surrounding.
French doctor and his guide, and this gave
birth to the sport of alpinism, with Chamonix at
its centre. In 1924, it hosted the first Winter alpinism /ˈælpɪnɪzəm/: the sport of climbing high
Olympics, and the cable cars and lifts that were mountains, especially the Alps
built in the years that followed gave everyone
access to the ski slopes.
C
Today, Chamonix is a modern town, connected via /ˈvaɪə/: by means of a particular person,
to the outside world via the Mont Blanc Road system, etc.
Tunnel and a busy highway network. It receives Synonyms: by, through
16
up to 60,000 visitors at a time during the ski
season, and climbers, hikers and extreme- swarm /swɔːm/: a large group of people, especially
sports enthusiasts swarm there in the summer when they are all moving quickly in the same
in even greater numbers, swelling the town’s direction
population to 100,000. It is the third most Synonyms: group, horde, crowd
visited natural site in the world, according to
Chamonix’s Tourism Office and, last year, it
had 5.2 million visitor bed nights - all this in a swelling /ˈswelɪŋ/: the condition of being larger or
town with fewer than 10,000 permanent rounder than normal
inhabitants. Synonyms: bulge, distension, growth
D
This influx of tourists has put the local influx /ˈɪnflʌks/: the fact of a lot of people, money
environment under severe pressure, and the or things arriving somewhere
authorities in the valley have decided to take Synonyms: arrival, invasion, entry, inflow
action. Educating visitors is vital. Tourists are
warned not to drop rubbish, and there are now
recycling points dotted all around the valley, severe /sɪˈvɪə(r)/: extremely bad or serious
from the town centre to halfway up the Synonyms: harsh, strict, serious, awful
mountains. An internet blog reports
environmental news in the town, and the
‘green’ message is delivered with all the tourist vital /ˈvaɪtl/: necessary or essential in order for
office’s activities. something to succeed or exist
Synonyms: important, fundamental, essential,
E crucial, necessary
Low-carbon initiatives are also important for
the region. France is committed to reducing its
carbon emissions by a factor of four by 2050. initiative /ɪˈnɪʃətɪv/: a new plan for dealing with a
Central to achieving this aim is a strategy that particular problem or for achieving a particular
encourages communities to identify their purpose
carbon emissions on a local level and make Synonyms: wits, plan, idea
plans to reduce them. Studies have identified
that accommodation accounts for half of all by a factor of: tăng or giảm bao nhiêu lần
carbon emissions in the Chamonix valley.
Hotels are known to be inefficient operations, strategy /ˈstrætədʒi/: a plan that is intended to
but those around Chamonix are now cleaning achieve a particular purpose
up their act. Some are using low-energy Synonyms: plan, scheme, policy
lighting, restricting water use and making
recycling bins available for guests; others have
invested in huge projects such as furnishing geothermal /ˌdʒiːəʊˈθɜːml/: connected with the
and decorating using locally sourced materials, natural heat of rock deep in the ground
using geothermal energy for heating and
installing solar panels.
F
Chamonix’s council is encouraging the use of
renewable energy in private properties too, by
making funds available for green renovations
and new constructions. At the same time, efficient /ɪˈfɪʃnt/: doing something well and
public- sector buildings have also undergone
thoroughly with no waste of time, money or energy
improvements to make them more energy
efficient and less wasteful. For example, the
Synonyms: effective, proficient, well-organized,
local ice rink has reduced its annual water
competent
17
consumption from 140,000 cubic metres to
10,000 cubic metres in the space of three
years.
G
Improving public transport is another feature of
the new policy, as 80 percent of
carbon emissions from transport used to
come from private vehicles. While the Mont
Blanc Express is an ideal way to travel within
the valley - and see some incredible scenery
along the route - it is much more difficult to
arrive in Chamonix from outside by rail. There
is no direct line from the closest airport in
Geneva, so tourists arriving by air normally
transfer by car or bus. However, at a cost of 3.3 shuttle /ˈʃʌtl/: a plane, bus or train that travels
million euros a year, Chamonix has introduced regularly between two places
a free shuttle service in order to get people out
of their cars and into buses fitted with particle Synonyms: transport, vehicle
filters.
H
If the valley’s visitors and residents want to
know why they need to reduce their
environmental impact, they just have to look fragility /frəˈdʒɪləti/: the fact of being weak and
up; the effects of climate change are there for uncertain or easily destroyed or spoilt
everyone to see in the melting glaciers that Synonyms: brittleness, tenuousness, delicacy
cling to the mountains. The fragility of the
Alpine environment has long been a concern
among local people. Today, 70 percent of the comprise /kəmˈpraɪz/: to have
805 square kilometres that comprise somebody/something as parts or members
Chamonix-Mont-Blanc is protected in some Synonyms: include, consist, contain
way. But now, the impact of tourism has led the
authorities to recognise that more must be prosperous /ˈprɒspərəs/: rich and successful
done if the valley is to remain prosperous: that Synonyms: wealthy, rich, well-off, flourishing
they must not only protect the natural
environment better, but also manage the
numbers of visitors better, so that its residents
can happily remain there.
18
Topic 5: Recovering a damaged reputation
In 2009, it was revealed that some of the inaccurate /ɪnˈækjərət/: not exact or accurate; with
information published by the University of East mistakes
Anglia’s Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in the Synonyms: imprecise, inexact, mistaken, incorrect,
UK, concerning climate change, had been wrong
inaccurate. Furthermore, it was alleged that
some of the relevant statistics had been withhold /wɪðˈhəʊld/: to refuse to give something to
withheld from publication. The ensuing somebody
controversy affected the reputation not only of Synonyms: refuse, deny, suppress
that institution, but also of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), with which ensuing /ɪnˈsjuːɪŋ/: that happens after or as a result
the CRU is closely involved, and of climate of another event
scientists in general. Even if the claims of Synonyms: resultant, subsequent, following
misconduct and incompetence were
eventually proven to be largely untrue, or controversy /ˈkɒntrəvɜːsi/: public discussion and
confined to a few individuals, the damage was argument about something that many people
done. The perceived wrongdoings of a few strongly disagree about, disapprove of, or are
people had raised doubts about the many. shocked by
Synonyms: disagreement, argument, debate,
The response of most climate scientists was to dispute
cross their fingers and hope for the best, and
they kept a low profile. Many no doubt hoped misconduct /ˌmɪsˈkɒndʌkt/ : unacceptable
that subsequent independent inquiries into the behaviour, especially by a professional person
IPCC and CRU would draw a line under their Synonyms: bad behavior, misbehavior
problems. However, although these were likely
to help, they were unlikely to undo the harm perceive /pəˈsiːv/: to notice or become aware of
caused by months of hostile news reports and something
attacks by critics. Synonyms: observe, detect
The damage that has been done should not be
underestimated. As Ralph Cicerone, the doubt /daʊt/: a feeling of being uncertain about
President of the US National Academy of something or not believing something
Sciences, wrote in an editorial in the Synonyms: hesitation, uncertainty, distrust,
journal Science: ‘Public opinion has moved disbelief, suspicion
toward the view that scientists often try to
suppress alternative hypotheses and ideas draw a line under: resolve not to engage in further
and that scientists will withhold data and try to discussion or consideration of (a difficult or
manipulate some aspects of peer review to distressing issue or situation).
19
prevent dissent.’ He concluded that ‘the
perceived misbehavior of even a few scientists subsequent /ˈsʌbsɪkwənt/: happening or coming
can diminish the credibility of science as a after something else
whole.’ Synonyms: following, ensuing, consequent, later
An opinion poll taken at the beginning of 2010 underestimate /ˌʌndərˈestɪmeɪt/: to not realize how
found that the proportion of people in the US good, strong, determined, etc. somebody really is
who trust scientists as a source of Synonyms: undervalue, underrate, misjudge
information about global warming had
dropped from 83 percent, in 2008, to 74 alternative /ɔːlˈtɜːnətɪv/: a thing that you can
percent. Another survey carried out by the choose to do or have out of two or more possibilities
British Broadcasting Corporation in February Synonyms: other, another, substitute, different
2010 found that just 26 percent of British
people now believe that climate change is hypothesis /haɪˈpɒθəsɪs/: an idea or explanation
confirmed as being largely human-made, of something that is based on a few known facts but
down from 41 percent in November 2009. that has not yet been proved to be true or correct
Regaining the confidence and trust of the public Synonyms: theory, premise, guess
is never easy. Hunkering down and hoping for
the best - climate science’s current strategy - dissent /dɪˈsent/: the fact of having or expressing
makes it almost impossible. It is much better to opinions that are different from those that are
learn from the successes and failures of officially accepted
organisations that have dealt with similar blows Synonyms: opposition, disagreement, conflict
to their public standing.
diminish /dɪˈmɪnɪʃ/: to make somebody/something
In fact, climate science needs professional help seem less important than they really are
to rebuild its reputation. It could do worse than Synonyms: reduce, lessen, moderate
follow the advice given by Leslie Gaines-Ross, a
‘reputation strategist’ at Public Relations (PR)
company Webef Shandwick, in her recent carry out : to do and complete a task
book Corporate Reputation: 12 Steps to Synonyms: perform, do, complete, accomplish
Safeguarding and Recovering
Reputation. Gaines-Ross’s strategy is based on hunker down : to prepare yourself to stay
her analysis of how various organisations somewhere, keep an opinion, etc. for a long time
responded to crises, such as desktop-printer
firm Xerox, whose business plummeted during blows: an unexpected event that has
the 1990s, and the USA’s National Aeronautics a damaging effect on someone or something
and Space Administration (NASA) after the
Columbia shuttle disaster in 2003. reputation /ˌrepjuˈteɪʃn/: the opinion that people
The first step she suggests is to ‘take the heat - have about what somebody/something is like,
leader first’. In many cases, chief executives based on what has happened in the past
who publicly accept responsibility for corporate Synonyms: standing, status
failings can begin to reverse the freefall of their
company’s reputations, but not always. If the plummet /ˈplʌmɪt/: to fall suddenly and quickly from
leader is held at least partly responsible for the a high level or position
fall from grace, it can be almost impossible to Synonyms: fall, plunge, drop
convince critics that a new direction can be
charted with that same person at the helm. convince /kənˈvɪns/: to make somebody/yourself
believe that something is true
This is the dilemma facing the heads of the Synonyms: persuade, prove, influence, convert,
IPCC and CRU. Both have been blamed for assure
their organisations’ problems, not least for the
way in which they have dealt with critics, and dilemma /dɪˈlemə/: a situation in which very difficult
both have been subjected to public calls for their choice between things of equal importance must be
removal. Yet both organisations appear to made.
20
believe they can repair their reputations without
a change of leadership.
backfire /ˌbækˈfaɪə(r)/: to have the opposite effect
The second step outlined by Gaines-Ross is to to the one intended, with bad or dangerous results
‘communicate tirelessly’. Yet many climate Synonyms: go wrong, miscarry, fail
researchers have avoided the media and the
public, at least until the official enquiries have
concluded their reports. This reaction may be interpret /ɪnˈtɜːprət/: to explain the meaning of
understandable, but it has backfired. something
Journalists following the story have often been Synonyms: explain, clarify
unable to find spokespeople willing to defend
climate science. In this case, ‘no comment’ is
commonly interpreted as an admission of conduct /kənˈdʌkt/: to organize and/or do a
silent, collective guilt. particular activity
Remaining visible is only a start, though; climate Synonyms: control, manage, run, organize
scientists also need to be careful what they say.
They must realise that they face doubts not just
about their published results, but also about integrity /ɪnˈteɡrəti/: the quality of being honest and
their conduct and honesty. It simply won’t work having strong moral principles
for scientists to continue to appeal to the weight Synonyms: honesty, truth, honor, reliablility
of the evidence, while refusing to discuss the
integrity of their profession. The harm has been
increased by a perceived reluctance to admit reluctance /rɪˈlʌktəns/: the feeling of being unwilling
even the possibility of mistakes or wrongdoing. to do something and hesitating before you do it,
because you do not want to do it or because you
The third step put forward by Gaines-Ross is are not sure that it is the right thing to do
‘don’t underestimate your critics and Synonyms: unwillingness, disinclination, hesitancy
competitors’. This means not only recognising
the skill with which the opponents of climate acknowledge /əkˈnɒlɪdʒ/: to accept that something
research have executed their campaigns is true
through Internet blogs and other media, but also Synonyms: admit, recognize, accept, concede
acknowledging the validity of some of their
criticisms. It is clear, for instance, that climate validity /vəˈlɪdəti/: the state of being legally or
scientists need better standards of officially acceptable
transparency, to allow for scrutiny not just by Synonyms: legality, authority, legitimacy
their peers, but also by critics from outside the
world of research. scrutiny /ˈskruːtəni/: careful and thorough
It is also important to engage with those critics. examination
That doesn’t mean conceding to unfounded Synonyms: examination, inspection, analysis
arguments which are based on prejudice rather
than evidence, but there is an obligation to help
the public understand the causes of climate engage /ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ/: to succeed in attracting and
change, as well as the options for avoiding and keeping somebody’s attention and interest
dealing with the consequences. Synonyms: attract
To begin the process of rebuilding trust in their prejudice /ˈpredʒudɪs/: an unreasonable dislike of
profession, climate scientists need to follow or preference for a person, group, custom, etc.,
these three seeps. But that is just the start. especially when it is based on their race, religion,
Gaines-Ross estimates that it typically takes sex, etc.
four years for a company to rescue and restore Synonyms: bias, preconception, prejudgement
a broken reputation.
consequence /ˈkɒnsɪkwəns/: a result of something
that has happened
Synonyms: result, effect
21
Winning back public confidence is a marathon,
not a sprint, but you can’t win at all if you don’t
step up to the starting line.
22
Topic 6: IMPLEMENTING THE CYCLE OF
SUCCESS: A CASE STUDY
Within Australia, Australian Hotels Inc (AHI)

operates nine hotels and employs over 2000
permanent full-time staff, 300 permanent part- permanent /ˈpɜːmənənt/: lasting for a long time or
time employees and 100 casual staff. One of its for all time in the future; existing all the time
latest ventures, the Sydney Airport hotel (SAH), Synonyms: enduring, lasting, constant, stable
opened in March 1995. The hotel is the closest
to Sydney Airport and is designed to provide
the best available accommodation, food and beverage /ˈbevərɪdʒ/: any type of drink except water
beverage and meeting facilities in Sydney's Synonyms: drink
southern suburbs. Similar to many international
hotel chains, however, AHI has experienced
difficulties in Australia in providing long-term
profits for hotel owners, as a result of the viable /ˈvaɪəbl/: that can be done; that will be
country's high labour-cost structure. In order to successful
develop an economically viable hotel Synonyms: possible, practical, workable, worthwhile
organisation model, AHI decided to implement
some new policies and practices at SAH. implement /ˈɪmplɪment/: to make something that has
been officially decided start to happen or be used
The first of the initiatives was an organisational Synonyms: apply, execute, carry out
structure with only three levels of management
- compared to the traditional seven. Partly as a
result of this change, there are 25 per cent
fewer management positions, enabling a implication /ˌɪmplɪˈkeɪʃn/: a possible effect or result
significant saving. This change also has other of an action or a decision
implications. Communication, both up and Synonyms: effect, insinuation, inference
down the organisation, has greatly improved.
Decision-making has been forced down in
many cases to front-line employees. As a
result, guest requests are usually met without
23
reference to a supervisor, improving both
customer and employee satisfaction.
The hotel also recognised that it would need a
different approach to selecting employees who
would fit in with its new policies. In its
advertisements, the hotel stated a preference minimize /ˈmɪnɪmaɪz/: to reduce something,
for people with some 'service' experience in especially something bad, to the lowest possible
order to minimize traditional work practices level
being introduced into the hotel. Over 7000 Synonyms: lessen, reduce
applicants filled in application forms for the 120
jobs initially offered at SAH. The balance of initially /ɪˈnɪʃəli/: at the beginning
the positions at the hotel (30 management and Synonyms: at first, originally, firstly, primarily
40 shift leader positions) were predominantly
filled by transfers from other AHI properties. predominantly /prɪˈdɒmɪnəntli/: mostly; mainly
A series of tests and interviews were Synonyms: mainly, mostly, largely, chiefly, principally
conducted with potential employees, which
eventually left 280 applicants competing for the potential /pəˈtenʃl/: that can develop into something
120 advertised positions. After the final or be developed in the future
interview, potential recruits were divided into Synonyms: possible, hypothetical, likely, probable
three categories. Category A was for applicants
exhibiting strong leadership qualities, exhibit /ɪɡˈzɪbɪt/: to show clearly that you have or
Category C was for applicants perceived to be feel a particular feeling, quality or ability
followers, and Category B was for applicants Synonyms: display, show, demonstrate
with both leader and follower qualities.
Department heads and shift leaders then prospective /prəˈspektɪv/: expected to do something
composed prospective teams using a or to become something
combination of people from all three categories. Synonyms: potential, future, probable, likely
Once suitable teams were formed, offers of
employment were made to team members.
Another major initiative by SAH was to adopt a
totally multi-skilled workforce. Although there limitation /ˌlɪmɪˈteɪʃn/: a rule, fact or condition that
may be some limitations with highly technical limits something
jobs such as cooking or maintenance, Synonyms: drawback, imperfection, shortcoming
wherever possible, employees at SAH are able
to work in a wide variety of positions. A multi-
skilled workforce provides far greater flexibility /ˌfleksəˈbɪləti/: the ability to change to suit
management flexibility during peak and quiet new conditions or situations
times to transfer employees to needed Synonyms: suppleness
positions. For example, when office staff are
away on holidays during quiet periods of the
year, employees in either food or beverage or
housekeeping departments can temporarily. crucial /ˈkruːʃl/: extremely important, because it will
The most crucial way, however, of improving affect other things
the labour cost structure at SAH was to find
better, more productive ways of providing Synonyms: vital, important, essential, fundamental,
customer service. SAH management necessary
concluded this would first require a process of
'benchmarking'. The prime objective of the
benchmarking process was to compare a range
of service delivery processes across a range of
criteria using teams made up of employees
24
from different departments within the hotel
which interacted with each other. This process
resulted in performance measures that greatly
enhanced SAH's ability to improve productivity
and quality.
The front office team discovered through this
project that a high proportion of AHI Club
member reservations were incomplete. As a
result, the service provided to these guests was
below the standard promised to them as part of
their membership agreement. Reducing the
number of incomplete reservations greatly
improved guest perceptions of service.
In addition, a program modelled on an earlier
project called 'Take Charge' was implemented.
Essentially, Take Charge provides an effective
feedback loop horn both customers and
employees. Customer comments, both positive
and negative, are recorded by staff. These are
collated regularly to identify opportunities for Collated: compare and analyze (texts or other data).
improvement. Just as importantly, employees
are requested to note down their own
suggestions for improvement. (AHI has set an
expectation that employees will submit at least
three suggestions for every one they receive
from a customer.)
Employee feedback is reviewed daily and
suggestions are implemented within 48 hours,
if possible, or a valid reason is given for non-
implementation. If suggestions require analysis
or data collection, the Take Charge team has
30 days in which to address the issue and
come up with recommendations.
Although quantitative evidence of AHI's
initiatives at SAH are limited at present, anecdotal /ˌænɪkˈdəʊtl/: possibly not true or
anecdotal evidence clearly suggests that these accurate
practices are working. Indeed AHI is Synonyms: subjective, unreliable, untrustworthy
progressively rolling out these initiatives in
other hotels in Australia, whilst numerous progressively /prəˈɡresɪvli/: steadily and
overseas visitors have come to see how the continuously
program works. Synonyms: increasingly, gradually
25
Topic 7: UK companies need more effective
boards of directors
A After a number of serious failures of

governance (that is, how they are managed governance /ˈɡʌvənəns/: the activity of governing a
at the highest level), companies in Britain, as country or controlling a company or an organization;
well as elsewhere, should consider radical the way in which a country is governed or a company
changes to their directors’ roles. It is clear or institution is controlled
that the role of a board director today is not
an easy one. Following the 2008 financial
meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and radical /ˈrædɪkl/: new, different and likely to have a
more prolonged period of economic great effect
downturn than anyone expected, the search Synonyms: extreme, uncompromising
for explanations in the many post-mortems
of the crisis has meant blame has been
spread far and wide. Governments,
regulators, central banks and auditors have
all been in the frame. The role of bank
directors and management and their widely publicise /ˈpʌblɪsaɪz/: to make something known to
publicised failures have been extensively the public; to advertise something
picked over and examined in reports, Synonyms: make public, broadcast, advertise, publish
inquiries and commentaries.
intense /ɪnˈtens/: very great; very strong
B The knock-on of this scrutiny has been to Synonyms: strong, powerful, forceful, penetrating
make the governance of companies in
general an issue of intense public debate debate /dɪˈbeɪt/: an argument or a discussion
and has significantly increased the expressing different opinions
pressures on, and the responsibilities of, Synonyms: discussion, argument, dispute
directors. At the simplest and most practical
level, the time involved in fulfilling the
demands of a board directorship has calling into question: to cause doubts about
increased significantly, calling into something
26
question the effectiveness of the classic
model of corporate governance by part-time,
independent non-executive directors. Where
once a board schedule may have consisted
of between eight and ten meetings a year, in
many companies the number of events
requiring board input and decisions has
dramatically risen. Furthermore, the dramatically /drəˈmætɪkli/: very suddenly and to a
amount of reading and preparation required very great and often surprising degree
for each meeting is increasing. Agendas can Synonyms: radically, noticeably, severely,
become overloaded and this can mean the considerably
time for constructive debate must
necessarily be restricted in favour of getting
through the business.
C Often, board business is devolved to devolved to: to (cause power or responsibility to) be
committees in order to cope with the given to other people
workload, which may be more efficient but
can mean that the board as a whole is less
involved in fully addressing some of the
most important issues. It is not uncommon
for the audit committee meeting to last
longer than the main board meeting itself.
Process may take the place of discussion at the expense of : /ɪkˈspens/: resulting in the loss of
and be at the expense of real collaboration, something
so that boxes are ticked rather than issues
tackled. D A radical solution, which may extensive /ɪkˈstensɪv/: including or dealing with a
work for some very large companies whose wide range of information
businesses are extensive and complex, is Synonyms: huge, vast, massive
the professional board, whose members
would work up to three or four days a week,
supported by their own dedicated staff and
advisers. There are obvious risks to this and
it would be important to establish clear
guidelines for such a board to ensure that it
did not step on the toes of management by
becoming too engaged in the day-to-day
running of the company. Problems of
recruitment, remuneration and
independence could also arise and this
structure would not be appropriate for all
companies. However, more professional and appropriate /əˈprəʊpriət/: suitable, acceptable or
better-informed boards would have been correct for the particular circumstances
particularly appropriate for banks where the Synonyms: suitable, apposite, applicable
executives had access to information that
part-time non-executive directors lacked, comprehend /ˌkɒmprɪˈhend/: to understand
leaving the latter unable to comprehend or something fully
anticipate the 2008 crash. Synonyms: understand, know, realize, figure out
E One of the main criticisms of boards and
their directors is that they do not focus
sufficiently on longer-term matters of anticipate /ænˈtɪsɪpeɪt/: to see what might happen in
strategy, sustainability and governance, but the future and take action to prepare for it
instead concentrate too much on short-term Synonyms: expect, foresee, predict
financial metrics. Regulatory requirements
27
and the structure of the market encourage
this behaviour. The tyranny of quarterly distort /dɪˈstɔːt/: to twist or change facts, ideas, etc.
reporting can distort board decision-making, so that they are no longer correct or true
as directors have to ‘make the numbers’ Synonyms: misrepresent, alter, change, mislead
every four months to meet the insatiable
appetite of the market for more data. This insatiable /ɪnˈseɪʃəbl/: always wanting more of
serves to encourage the trading something; not able to be satisfied
methodology of a certain kind of investor Synonyms: greedy, voracious, unsatisfiable
who moves in and out of a stock without
engaging in constructive dialogue with the
company about strategy or performance,
and is simply seeking a short- term financial
gain. This effect has been made worse by
the changing profile of investors due to the
globalisation of capital and the increasing
use of automated trading systems.
Corporate culture adapts and management incentivize /ɪnˈsentɪvaɪz/: to encourage somebody to
teams are largely incentivised to meet behave in a particular way by offering them a reward
financial goals. Synonyms: encourage
F Compensation for chief executives has
become a combat zone where pitched
battles between investors, management and
board members are fought, often behind
closed doors but increasingly frequently in
the full glare of press attention. Many would
argue that this is in the interest of
transparency and good governance as
shareholders use their muscle in the area of
pay to pressure boards to remove
underperforming chief executives. Their
powers to vote down executive remuneration
policies increased when binding votes came Remuneration: money paid for work or a service.
into force. The chair of the remuneration
committee can be an exposed and lonely
role, as Alison Carnwath, chair of Barclays
Bank’s remuneration committee, found when
she had to resign, having been roundly irony /ˈaɪrəni/: the amusing or strange aspect of a
criticised for trying to defend the enormous situation that is very different from what you expect; a
bonus to be paid to the chief executive; the situation like this
irony being that she was widely understood
to have spoken out against it in the privacy
of the committee. stimulate /ˈstɪmjuleɪt/: to make something develop or
G The financial crisis stimulated a debate become more active; to encourage something
about the role and purpose of the company Synonyms: rouse, encourage, motivate, increase,
and a heightened awareness of corporate promote
ethics. Trust in the corporation has been
eroded and academics such as Michael morality /məˈræləti/: principles concerning right and
Sandel, in his thoughtful and bestselling wrong or good and bad behaviour
book What Money Can’t Buy, are Synonyms: moral, ethic, principle, standard
questioning the morality of capitalism and
the market economy. Boards of companies encompass /ɪnˈkʌmpəs/: to include a large number
in all sectors will need to widen their or range of things
perspective to encompass these issues and Synonyms: include, involve, comprehend, contain
28
this may involve a realignment of corporate
goals. We live in challenging times. realignment /ˌriːəˈlaɪnmənt/: the act of changing your
opinions, policies, etc. so that they are the same as
those of another person, group, etc.
Synonyms: rearrangement, readjustment, shift,
change
29
Topic 8: Change in business organisations
A The forces that operate to bring about change

in organisations can be thought of as winds merely /ˈmɪəli/: used meaning ‘only’ or ‘simply’ to
which are many and varied - from small summer emphasize a fact or something that you are saying
breezes that merely disturb a few papers, to Synonyms: just, only, simple, purely
mighty howling gales which cause devastation
to structures and operations, causing mighty /ˈmaɪti/: large and impressive
consequent reorientation of purpose and Synonyms: great, significant, impressive
rebuilding. Sometimes, however, the winds die
down to give periods of relative calm, periods of devastation /ˌdevəˈsteɪʃn/: great destruction or
relative organisational stability. Such a period damage, especially over a wide area
was the agricultural age, which Goodman (1995) Synonyms: destruction, damage, ruin, desolation
maintains prevailed in Europe and western
societies as a whole until the early 1700s. reorientation /ˌriːɔːriənˈteɪʃn/: the act of changing
During this period, wealth was created in the the focus or direction of somebody/something
context of an agriculturally based society
influenced mainly by local markets (both prevail /prɪˈveɪl/: to exist or be very common at a
customer and labour) and factors outside particular time or in a particular place
people’s control, such as the weather. During Synonyms: triumph, succeed, overcome
this time, people could fairly well predict the
cycle of activities required to maintain life, even
if that life might be at little more than
subsistence level.
innovation /ˌɪnəˈveɪʃn/: a new idea, way of doing
B To maintain the meteorological metaphor, something, etc. that has been introduced or
stronger winds of change blew to bring in the discovered
Industrial Revolution and the industrial age. Synonyms: novelty, revolution, improvement,
Again, according to Goodman, this lasted for a advance
long time, until around 1945. It was
characterised by a series of inventions and hitherto /ˌhɪðəˈtuː/: until now; until the particular
innovations that reduced the number of people time you are talking about
needed to work the land and, in turn, provided Synonyms: up till then, ntil now, previously, so far,
the means of production of hitherto rarely yet
30
obtainable goods; for organisations, supplying
these in ever increasing numbers became the obtainable /əbˈteɪnəbl/: that can be obtained
aim. To a large extent, demand and supply were Synonyms: available, accessible, attainable
predictable, enabling companies to structure
their organisations along what Burns and Stalker
(1966) described as mechanistic lines, that is as
systems of strict hierarchical structures and firm
means of control.
C This situation prevailed for some time, with

demand still coming mainly from the domestic
market and organisations striving to fill the
‘supply gap’. Thus the most disturbing
environmental influence on organisations of this
time was the demand for products, which
outstripped supply. The saying attributed to
Henry Ford that ‘You can have any colour of car
so long as it is black’, gives a flavour of the
supply-led state of the market. Apart from any
technical difficulties of producing different
colours of car, Ford did not have to worry about
customers’ colour preferences: he could sell all
that he made. Organisations of this period can efficient /ɪˈfɪʃnt/: doing something well and
be regarded as ‘task-oriented’, with effort being thoroughly with no waste of time, money or energy
put into increasing production through more Synonyms: well-organized, effective, proficient
effective and efficient production processes.
discriminating /dɪˈskrɪmɪneɪtɪŋ/: able to judge the
D As time passed, this favourable period for good quality of something
organisations began to decline. In the neo- Synonyms: discerning, selective, judicious
industrial age, people became more
discriminating in the goods and services they
wished to buy and, as technological
advancements brought about increased
productivity, supply overtook demand.
Companies began, increasingly, to look abroad
for additional markets.
E At the same time, organisations faced more

intensive competition from abroad for their own
products and services. In the West, this
development was accompanied by a shift in
focus from manufacturing to service, whether
this merely added value to manufactured
products, or whether it was service in-its own
right. In the neo-industrial age of western emphasis /ˈemfəsɪs/: special importance that is
countries, the emphasis moved towards adding given to something
value to goods and services - what Goodman Synonyms: mportance, prominence
calls the value-oriented time, as contrasted with
the task- oriented and products/services-
oriented times of the past.
F Today, in the post-industrial age, most people

agree that organisational life is becoming ever
more uncertain, as the pace of change quickens
31
and the future becomes less predictable.
Writing in 1999, Nadler and Tushman, two US predictable /prɪˈdɪktəbl/: if something is
academics, said: ‘Poised on the eve of the next predictable, you know in advance that it will happen
century, we are witnessing a profound or what it will be like.
transformation in the very nature of our business Synonyms: foreseeable, expectable, expected,
organisations. Historic forces have converged to probable
fundamentally reshape the scope, strategies,
and structures of large enterprises.’ At a less
general level of analysis, Graeme Leach, Chief fundamentally /ˌfʌndəˈmentəli/: in every way that is
Economist at the British Institute of Directors, important; completely.
claimed in the Guardian newspaper (2000) that: Synonyms: basically, essentially, necessarily
‘By 2020, the nine-to-five rat race will be extinct
and present levels of self-employment, enterprise /ˈentəpraɪz/: a large project, especially
commuting and technology use, as well as age one that is difficult
and sex gaps, will have changed beyond Synonyms: venture, project, operation
recognition.’ According to the article, Leach
anticipates that: ‘In 20 years time, 20-25 percent
of the workforce will be temporary workers and
many more will be flexible, ... 25 percent of
people will no longer work in a traditional office
and ... 50 percent will work from home in some
form.’ Continuing to use the ‘winds of change’
metaphor, the expectation's of damaging gale-
force winds bringing the need for rebuilding that
takes the opportunity to incorporate new ideas
and ways of doing things.
G Whether all this will happen is arguable.

Forecasting the future is always fraught with incorporate /ɪnˈkɔːpəreɪt/: to include something so
difficulties. For instance, Mannermann (1998) that it forms a part of something
sees future studies as part art and part science Synonyms: include, encompass, contain
and notes: ‘The future is full of surprises,
uncertainty, trends and trend breaks, fraught /frɔːt/: filled with something unpleasant
irrationality and rationality, and it is changing Synonyms: full, filled
and escaping from our hands as time goes by. It
is also the result of actions made by
innumerable more or less powerful forces.’ What irrationality /ɪˌræʃəˈnæləti/ :the fact of not being
seems certain is that the organisational world is based on, or not using, clear logical thought
changing at a fast rate - even if the direction of
change is not always predictable. Consequently, Synonyms: illogicality, foolishness, senselessness
it is crucial that organisational managers and
decision makers are aware of, and able to
analyse the factors which trigger organisational trigger /ˈtrɪɡə(r)/: something that is the cause of a
change. particular reaction or development, especially a bad
one
Synonyms: active, cause, prompt
32
Topic 9: Motivating Drives
Scientists have been researching the way to get

employees motivated for many years. This
research in a relational study which builds the relational /rɪˈleɪʃənl/: existing or considered in
fundamental and comprehensive model for relation to something else
study. This is especially true when the business Synonyms: interactive, social
goal is to turn unmotivated teams into productive
ones. But their researchers have limitations. It is comprehensive /ˌkɒmprɪˈhensɪv/: including all, or
like studying the movements of car without taking almost all, the items, details, facts, information,
out the engine. etc., that may be concerned
Synonyms: complete, inclusive
Motivation is what drives people to succeed and
plays a vital role in enhancing an organizational vital /ˈvaɪtl/: necessary or essential in order for
development. It is important to study the something to succeed or exist
motivation of employees because it is related to Synonyms: important, essential, fundamental,
the emotion and behavior of employees. Recent critical, crucial, necessary
studies show there are four drives for motivation.
They are the drive to acquire, the drive to bond,
the drive to comprehend and the drive to defend. optimize /ˈɒptɪmaɪz/: to make something as good
The Drive to Acquire as it can be; to use something in the best possible
way
The drive to acquire must be met to optimize the
acquire aspect as well as the achievement Synonyms: enhance, improve, elevate
element. Thus the way that outstanding
performance is recognized, the type of perks that motivation /ˌməʊtɪˈveɪʃn/: the reason why
is provided to polish the career path. But somebody does something or behaves in a
sometimes a written letter of appreciation particular way
generates more motivation than a thousand Synonyms: incentive, inspiration, stimulus
dollar check, which can serve as the invisible
power to boost business engagement.
Successful organizations and leaders not only
need to focus on the optimization of physical
33
reward but also on moving other levers within the
organization that can drive motivation. bond /bɒnd/: something that forms a connection
between people or groups, such as a feeling of
The Drive to Bond friendship or shared ideas and experiences
The drive to bond is also key to driving Synonyms: link, connection
motivation. There are many kinds of bonds
between people, like friendship, family. In
company, employees also want to be an
essential part of company. They want to belong
to the company. Employees will be motivated if commitment /kəˈmɪtmənt/: the willingness to work
they find personal belonging to the company. In hard and give your energy and time to a job or an
the meantime, the most commitment will be activity
achieved by the employee on condition that the Synonyms: dedication, devotion, guarantee
force of motivation within the employee affects
the direction, intensity and persistence of
decision and behavior in company. persistence /pəˈsɪstəns/: the fact of continuing to
try to do something despite difficulties, especially
The Drive to Comprehend when other people are against you and think that
The drive to comprehend motivates many you are being annoying or unreasonable
employees to higher performance. For years, it Synonyms: perseverance, tenacity, determination
has been known that setting stretch goals can
greatly impact performance. Organizations need
to ensure that the various job roles provide
employees with simulation that challenges them
or allow them to grow. Employees don’t want to
do meaningless things or monotonous job. If the monotonous /məˈnɒtənəs/: never changing and
job didn’t provide them with personal meaning therefore boring
and fulfillment, they will leave the company. Synonyms: dull, droning, repetitious, boring,
tedious
The Drive to Defend
The drive to defend is often the hardest lever to
pull. This drive manifests itself as a quest to
create and promote justice, fairness, and the
ability to express ourselves freely. The
organizational lever for this basic human
motivator is resource allocation. This drive is also
met through an employee feeling connection to a
company. If their companies are merged with
merge /mɜːdʒ/: to combine or make two or more
another, they will show worries.
things combine to form a single thing
Two studies have been done to find the relations Synonyms: combine, unite, join, unify
between the four drives and motivation. The
article based on two studies was finally published
in Harvard Business Review. Most authors’
arguments have laid emphasis on four-drive
theory and actual investigations. Using the
results of the surveys which executed with
employees from Fortune 500 companies and
other two global businesses (P company and H
company), the article mentions about how
independent drives influence employees’
behavior and how organizational levers boost
employee motivation.
34
The studies show that the drive to bond is most
related to fulfilling commitment, while the drive to
comprehend is most related to how much effort
employees spend on works. The drive to acquire
can be satisfied by a rewarding system which ties
rewards to performances, and gives the best
people opportunities for advancement. For drive
to defend, a study on the merging of P company
and H company shows that employees in former
company show an unusual cooperating attitude.
The key to successfully motivate employees is to
meet all drives. Each of these drives is important
if we are to understand employee motivation. unify /ˈjuːnɪfaɪ/: to join people, things, parts of a
These four drives, while not necessarily the only country, etc. together so that they form a single unit
human drives, are the ones that are central to Synonyms: unite, join, merge, combine
unified understanding of modern human life.
35
Topic 10: The Sweet Scent of Success
A Innovation and entrepreneurship, in the right entrepreneurship /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːʃɪp/: the activity of

mix, can bring spectacular results and propel a making money by starting or running businesses,
business ahead of the pack. Across a diverse especially when this involves taking financial risks;
range of commercial successes, from the Hills the ability to do this
Hoist clothes line to the Cochlear ear implant, it
is hard to generalize beyond saying the creators
tapped into something consumers could not wait spectacular /spekˈtækjələ(r)/: very impressive
to get their hands on. However, most ideas Synonyms: stunning, impressive, amazing,
never make it to the market. Some ideas that magnificent
innovators are spruiking to potential investors
include new water-saving shower heads, a Spruik: Promote or publicize
keyless locking system, ping-pong balls that
keep pollution out of rainwater tanks, making
teeth grow from stemcells inserted in the gum,
and technology to stop LPG tanks from
exploding. Grant Kearney, chief executive of the
Innovation Xchange, which connects businesses
to innovation networks, says he hears of great
business ideas that he knows will never get on
the market. “Ideas by themselves are absolutely
useless”, he says. “An idea only becomes
innovation when it is connected to the right
resources and capabilities".
B One of Australia’s latest innovation successes

stems from a lemon-scented bath-room cleaner
called Shower Power, the formula for which was
concocted in a factory in Yatala, Queensland. In
36
1995, Tom Quinn and John Heron bought a
struggling cleaning products business, OzKleen,
for 250,000. It was selling 100 different kinds of
cleaning products, mainly in bulk. The business
was in bad shape, the cleaning formulas were harsh /hɑːʃ/: (of weather or living conditions) very
ineffective and environmentally harsh, and there difficult and unpleasant to live in
were few regular clients. Now Shower Power is
claimed to be the top-selling bathroom cleaning Synonyms: severe, tough
product in the country. In the past 12 months
,almost four million bottles of OzKleen’s Power
products have been sold and the company
forecasts 2004 sales of 10 million bottles. The
company’s, sales in2003 reached $11 million,
with 700k of business being exports. In
particular, Shower Power is making big inroads
on the British market.
revitalize /ˌriːˈvaɪtəlaɪz/: to make something

C OzKleen’s turnaround began when Quinn and stronger, more active or more healthy
Heron hired an industrial chemist to revitalize
the product line. Market research showed that Synonyms: strengthen, invigorate, refresh,
people werelooking for a better cleaner for the regenerate
bathroom, universally regarded as the hardest
room in the home to clean. The company also
wanted to make the product formulas more
environmentally friendly One of Tom Quinn’s
sons, Peter, aged 24 at the time, began working
with the chemist on the formulas, looking at the
potential for citrus-based cleaning products. He Citrus: any of
detested all the chlorine-based cleaning a group of plants that produce acidic fruits with a
products that dominated the market. “We didn’t lot of juice
want to use chlorine, simple as that,”he says. “It
offers bad working conditions and there’s no
money in it.”Peter looked at citrus ingredients,
such as orange peel, to replace the petroleum
by-products in cleaners. He is credited with
finding the Shower Power formula. “The
head,”he says. The company’s the recipe is in a
vault somewhere and in my sole owner of the
intellectual property. intellectual /ˌɪntəˈlektʃuəl/: connected with or
using a person’s ability to think in a logical way
D To begin with, Shower Power was sold only in and understand things
commercial quantities but Tom Quinn decided Synonyms: intelligent, knowledgeable
to sell it in 750ml bottles after the constant
“raves”from customers at their retail store at
Beenleigh, near Brisbane. Customers were commercial quantities /kəˈmɜːʃl/: bán buôn với số
traveling long distances to buy supplies. Others lượng thương mại
began writing to OzKleen to say how good
Shower Power was. “We did a dummy label and
went to see Woolworths,”Tom Quinn says. The
Woolworths buyer took a bottle home and was
able to remove a stain from her basin that had
been impossible to shift. From that point on, she Championed: to support, defend, or fight for
championed the product and OzKleen had its a person, belief, right, or principleenthusiastically
37
first supermarket order, for a palette of Shower
Power worth $3000. “We were over the
moon,”says OzKleen’s financial controller,
Belinda McDonnell.
E Shower Power was released in Australian

supermarkets in 1997 and became the top-
selling product in its category within six months.
It was all hands on deck cat the factory, labeling
and bottling Shower Power to keep up with
demand. OzKleen ditched all other products and
rebuilt the business around Shower Power. This
stage, recalls McDonnell, was very tough. “It
was hand-to-mouth, cashflow was very
difficult,”she says. OzKleen had to pay new-line
fees to supermarket chains, which also
squeezed margins. margin /ˈmɑːdʒɪn/: lãi trên 1 sản phẩm
F OzKleen’s next big break came when the executive /ɪɡˈzekjətɪv/: a person who has an
daughter of a Coles Myer executive 1 used the important job as a manager of a company or an
product while on holidays in Queensland and organization
convinced her father that Shower Power should Synonyms: policymaking, managerial,
be in Coles supermarkets. Despite the product administrative
success, Peter Quinn says the company was
wary of how long the sales would last and wary /ˈweəri/: careful when dealing with
hesitated to spend money on upgrading the somebody/something because you think that there
manufacturing process. As a result, he may be a danger or problem
remembers long periods of working round the Synonyms: watchful, cautious, suspicious, careful
clock to keep up with orders. Small tanks were
still being used, so batches were small and manufacturing /ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ/: the business
bottles were labelled and filled manually. The or industry of producing goods in large quantities
privately owned OzKleen relied on cash flow to in factories, etc.
expand. “The equipment could not keep up with Synonyms: industrial, engineering, trade, business
demand,” Peter Quinn says. Eventually a new
bottling machine was bought for $50,000 in the manually /ˈmænjuəli/: by hand rather than
hope of streamlining production, but he says: automatically or using electricity, etc.
“We got ripped off.” Since then, he has been
developing a new automated bottling machine patent /ˈpætnt/: an official right to be the only
that can control the amount of foam produced in person to make, use or sell a product or an
the liquid, so that bottles can be filled more invention; a document that proves this. (đăng kí
effectively - “I love coming up with new ideas.” bản quyền sáng chế)
The machine is being patented.
Synonyms: copyright, right
G Peter Quinn says OzKleen’s approach to

research and development is open slather. “If I
need it, I get it. It is about doing something
simple that no one else is doing. Most of these
things are just sitting in front of people ... it’s just
seeing the opportunities.” With a tried and tested
product, OzKleen is expanding overseas and
developing more Power-brand household
products. Tom Quinn, who previously ran a real
38
estate agency, says: “We are competing with estate /ɪˈsteɪt/: a large area of land, usually in the
the same market all over the world, the cleaning country, that is owned by one person or family
products are sold everywhere.” Shower Power, Synonyms: plantation, land, area
known as Bath Power in Britain, was launched
four years ago with the help of an export
development grant from the Federal
Government. “We wanted to do it straight away
because we realised we had the same
opportunities worldwide.” OzKleen is already
number three in the British market, and the next
stop is France. The Power range includes
cleaning products for carpets, kitchens and pre-
wash stain removal. The Quinn and Heron
families are still involved. OzKleen has been
approached with offers to buy the company, but
Tom Quinn says he is happy with things as they
are. “We’re having too much fun.”
39
Topic 11: Stress of Workplace
A How busy is too busy? For some it means

having to miss the occasional long lunch; for occasional /əˈkeɪʒənl/: happening or done
others it means missing lunch altogether. For a sometimes but not often
few, it is not being able to take a “sickie” once a Synonyms: infrequent, irregular
month. Then there is a group of people for
whom working every evening and weekend is frantic /ˈfræntɪk/: done quickly and with a lot of
normal, and frantic is the tempo of their lives. activity, but in a way that is not very well
For most senior executives, workloads swing organized
between extremely busy and frenzied. The vice-
president of the management consultancy AT consultancy /kənˈsʌltənsi/: expert advice that a
Kearney and its head of telecommunications for company or person is paid to provide on a
the Asia-Pacific region, Neil Plumridge, says his particular subject
work weeks vary from a “manageable” 45 hours
to 80 hours, but average 60 hours. consecutive /kənˈsekjətɪv/: following one after
another in a series, without interruption
B Three warning signs alert Plumridge about
his workload: sleep, scheduling and family. He Synonyms: successive, following, serial
knows he has too much on when he gets less
than six hours of sleep for three consecutive subjective /səbˈdʒektɪv/: based on your own
nights; when he is constantly having to ideas or opinions rather than facts and therefore
reschedule appointments; “and the third one is sometimes unfair
on the family side”, says Plumridge, the father of
a three-year-old daughter, and expecting a Synonyms: personal, individual, particular
second child in October. “If I happen to miss a
birthday or anniversary, I know things are out of compensation /ˌkɒmpenˈseɪʃn/: something,
control.” Being “too busy” is highly subjective. especially money, that somebody gives you
But for any individual, the perception of being because they have hurt you, or damaged
too busy over a prolonged period can start something that you own; the act of giving this to
showing up as stress: disturbed sleep, and somebody
declining mental and physical health. National Synonyms: recompense, reimbursement
workers’ compensation figures show stress
causes the most lost time of any workplace
injury. Employees suffering stress are off work
an average of 16.6 weeks. The effects of stress
40
are also expensive. Comcare, the Federal
Government insurer, reports that in 2003-04,
claims for psychological injury accounted for 7%
of claims but almost 27% of claim costs. Experts
say the key to dealing with stress is not to focus
on relief – a game of golf or a massage – but to
reassess workloads. Neil Plumridge says he reassess /ˌriːəˈses/: to think again about
makes it a priority to work out what has to something to decide if you need to change your
change; that might mean allocating extra opinion of it
resources to a job, allowing more time or Synonyms: reconsider, review, reexamine
changing expectations. The decision may take
several days. He also relies on the advice of priority /praɪˈɒrəti/: something that you think is
colleagues, saying his peers coach each other more important than other things and should be
with business problems. “Just a fresh pair of dealt with first
eyes over an issue can help,” he says. Synonyms: precedence, urgency, primacy
C Executive stress is not confined to big
organisations. Vanessa Stoykov has been
running her own advertising and public relations
business for seven years, specialising in work
for financial and professional services firms.
Evolution Media has grown so fast that it
debuted on the BRW Fast 100 list of fastest-
growing small enterprises last year – just after thrive /θraɪv/: to become, and continue to be,
Stoykov had her first child. Stoykov thrives on successful, strong, healthy, etc.
the mental stimulation of running her own Synonyms: flourish, prosper
business. “Like everyone, I have the occasional
day when I think my head’s going to blow off,” concentrate /ˈkɒnsntreɪt/: to give all your
she says. Because of the growth phase the attention to something and not think about
business is in, Stoykov has to concentrate on anything else
short-term stress relief – weekends in the Synonyms: focus, give attention to
mountains, the occasional “mental health” day –
rather than delegating more work. She says: delegate /ˈdelɪɡət/: a person who is chosen or
“We’re hiring more people, but you need to train elected to represent the views of a group of
them, teach them about the culture and the people and vote and make decisions for them
clients, so it’s actually more work rather than
less.” Synonyms: representative, ambassador, deputy,
D Identify the causes: Jan Elsnera, Melbourne envoy
psychologist who specialises in executive
coaching, says thriving on a demanding
workload is typical of senior executives and
other high-potential business people. She says
there is no one-size-fits-all approach to stress:
some people work best with high-adrenalin
periods followed by quieter patches, while
others thrive under sustained pressure. “We
could take urine and blood hormonal measures
and pass a judgment of whether someone’s
physiologically stressed or not,” she says. “But
that’s not going to give us an indicator of what indicator /ˈɪndɪkeɪtə(r)/: a sign that shows you
their experience of stress is, and what the what something is like or how a situation is
emotional and cognitive impacts of stress are changing
going to be.”
41
E Eisner’s practice is informed by a
movement known as positive psychology, a
school of thought that argues “positive”
experiences – feeling engaged, challenged, and
that one is making a contribution to something
meaningful – do not balance out negative ones
such as stress; instead, they help people
increase their resilience over time. Good stress, resilience /rɪˈzɪliəns/: the ability of people or
or positive experiences of being challenged and things to feel better quickly after something
rewarded, is thus cumulative in the same way unpleasant, such as shock, injury, etc.
as bad stress. Elsner says many of the senior Synonyms: pliability, flexibility, spirit
business people she coaches are relying more
on regulating bad stress through methods such cumulative /ˈkjuːmjələtɪv/ : having a result that
as meditation and yoga. She points to research increases in strength or importance each time
showing that meditation can alter the more of something is added
biochemistry of the brain and actually help Synonyms: increasing, swelling, growing
people “retrain” the way their brains and bodies
react to stress. “Meditation and yoga enable you
to shift the way that your brain reacts, so if you
get proficient at it you’re in control.”
F The Australian vice-president of AT
Kearney, Neil Plumridge, says: “Often stress is
caused by our setting unrealistic expectations of
ourselves. I’ll promise a client I’ll do something
tomorrow, and then promise another client the
same thing, when I really know it’s not going to
happen. I’ve put stress on myself when I could
have said to the clients: ‘Why don’t I give that to
you in 48 hours?’ The client doesn’t care.” Over-
committing is something people experience as
an individual problem. We explain it as the result
of procrastination or Parkinson’s law: that work
expands to fill the time available. New research
indicates that people may be hard-wired to do it.
G A study in the February issue of the Journal
of Experimental Psychology shows that people
always believe they will be less busy in the
future than now. This is a misapprehension,
according to the authors of the report, Professor misapprehension /ˌmɪsæprɪˈhenʃn/: a wrong
Gal Zauberman, of the University of North idea about something, or something you believe
Carolina, and Professor John Lynch, of Duke to be true that is not true
University. “On average, an individual will be just Synonyms: misunderstanding, misconception,
as busy two weeks or a month from now as he misinterpretstion
or she is today. But that is not how it appears to
be in everyday life,” they wrote. “People often
make commitments long in advance that they
would never make if the same commitments
required immediate action. That is, they discount
future time investments relatively steeply.” Why
do we perceive a greater “surplus” of time in the steeply /ˈstiːpli/: suddenly and by a large amount
future than in the present? The researchers Synonyms: sharply, suddenly, abruptly
suggest that people underestimate completion
times for tasks stretching into the future, and
42
that they are bad at imagining future competition
for their time.
43
Topic 11: The Impact of Wilderness Tourism
A
The market for tourism in remote areas is
booming as never before. Countries across the
world are actively promoting their ‘wilderness’
regions - such as mountains, Arctic lands, fragile /ˈfrædʒaɪl/: weak and uncertain; easily
deserts, small islands and wetlands - to high- destroyed or spoilt
spending tourists. The attraction of these areas Synonyms: delicate, unstable
is obvious.- by definition, wilderness tourism
requires little or no initial investment. But that vulnerable /ˈvʌlnərəbl/: weak and easily hurt
does not mean that there is no cost. As the 1992 physically or emotionally
United Nations Conference on Environment and Synonyms: susceptible, weak, defenseless
Development recognized, these regions are
fragile (i.e. highly vulnerable to abnormal abnormal /æbˈnɔːml/: different from what is
pressures) not just in terms of their ecology, but usual or expected, especially in a way that is
also in terms of the culture of their inhabitants. worrying, harmful or not wanted
The three most significant types of fragile Synonyms: irregular, nonstandard, unusual
environment in these respects, and also in terms
of the proportion of the Earth's surface they seasonality /ˌsiːzəˈnæləti/: the fact of varying
cover, are deserts, mountains and Arctic areas. with the seasons
An important characteristic is their marked
seasonality, with harsh conditions prevailing for indigenous /ɪnˈdɪdʒənəs/: belonging to a
many months each year. Consequently, most particular place rather than coming to it from
human activities, including tourism, are limited to somewhere else
defined parts of the year. Synonyms: native, original, local, ethnic
Tourists are drawn to these regions by their
natural landscape beauty and the unique isolated /ˈaɪsəleɪtɪd/: (of buildings and places)
cultures of their indigenous people. And poor far away from any others
governments in these isolated areas have Synonyms: remote, inaccessible, insulated
welcomed the new breed of ‘adventure tourist’,
grateful for the hard currency they bring. For prime /praɪm/: main; most important; basic
several years now, tourism has been the prime Synonyms: best, premier, main, principal, crucial
source of foreign exchange in Nepal and
44
Bhutan. Tourism is also a key element in the
economies of Arctic zones such as Lapland and
Alaska and in desert areas such as Ayers Rock
in Australia and Arizona’s Monument Valley.
B profound /prəˈfaʊnd/: very great; felt or
Once a location is established as a main tourist experienced very strongly
destination, the effects on the local community Synonyms: deep, thoughtful, reflective
are profound. When hill-farmers, for example,
can make more money in a few weeks working
as porters for foreign trekkers than they can in a
year working in their fields, it is not surprising
that many of them give up their farm-work,
which is thus left to other members of the family.
In some hill-regions, this has led to a serious
decline in farm output and a change in the local irrigation /ˌɪrɪˈɡeɪʃn/: the practice of supplying
diet, because there is insufficient labour to water to an area of land through pipes or
maintain terraces and irrigation systems and channels so that crops will grow
tend to crops. The result has been that many
people in these regions have turned to outside
supplies of rice and other foods. tend: care
In Arctic and desert societies, year-round

survival has traditionally depended on hunting
animals and fish and collecting fruit over a
relatively short season. However, as some
inhabitants become involved in tourism, they no culprit /ˈkʌlprɪt/: a person or thing responsible for
longer have time to collect wild food; this has led causing a problem
to increasing dependence on bought food and Synonyms: offender, criminal, perpetrator
stores. Tourism is not always the culprit behind
such changes. All kinds of wage labour, or undermine /ˌʌndəˈmaɪn/: to make something,
government handouts, tend to undermine especially somebody’s confidence or authority,
traditional survival systems. Whatever the gradually weaker or less effective
cause, the dilemma is always the same: what Synonyms: weaken, dent, damage
happens If these new, external sources of
income dry up?
The physical impact of visitors is another serious
problem associated with the growth in adventure
tourism. Much attention has focused on erosion
along major trails, but perhaps more important
are the deforestation and impacts on water
supplies arising from the need to provide tourists
with cooked food and hot showers. In both
mountains and deserts, slow-growing trees are
often the main sources of fuel and water
supplies may be limited or vulnerable to degradation /ˌdeɡrəˈdeɪʃn/: the process of
degradation through heavy use. something being damaged or made worse
Synonyms: squalor, deprivation, ruin
C
Stories about the problems of tourism have legion /ˈliːdʒən/: a large number of people of one
become legion in the last few years. Yet it does
particular type
not have to be a problem. Although tourism Synonyms: team, crowd, group, mass
inevitably affects the region in which it takes
45
place, the costs to these fragile environments
and their local cultures can be minimized.
Indeed, it can even be a vehicle for
reinvigorating local cultures, as has happened
with the Sherpas of Nepal’s Khumbu Valley and
in some Alpine villages. And a growing number
of adventure tourism operators are trying to
ensure that their activities benefit the local
population and environment over the long term.
In the Swiss Alps, communities have decided
that their future depends on integrating tourism
more effectively with the local economy. Local
concern about the rising number of second renaissance /rɪˈneɪsns/: a situation when there
home developments in the Swiss Pays d'Enhaut is new interest in a particular subject, form of art,
resulted in limits being imposed on their growth. etc. after a period when it was not very popular
There has also been a renaissance in
communal cheese production in the area,
providing the locals with a reliable source of transient /ˈtrænziənt/: continuing for only a short
income that does not depend on outside visitors. time
Many of the Arctic tourist destinations have Synonyms: temporary, brief, momentary,
been exploited by outside companies, who transitory
employ transient workers and repatriate most
of the profits to their home base. But some repatriate /ˌriːˈpætrieɪt/: to send money or profits
Arctic communities are now operating tour back to your own country
businesses themselves, thereby ensuring that Synonyms: send back, deport, expel
the benefits accrue locally. For instance, a
native corporation in Alaska, employing local accrue /əˈkruː/: to increase over a period of time
people. It’s running an air tour from Anchorage
to Kotzebue, where tourists eat Arctic food, walk Synonyms: grow, increase, accumulate
on the tundra and watch local musicians and
dancers.
Native people in the desert regions of the
American Southwest have followed similar
strategies, encouraging tourists to visit their
pueblos and reservations to purchase high-
quality handicrafts and artwork. The Acoma and
San lldefonso pueblos have established highly
profitable pottery businesses, while the Navajo
and Hopi groups have been similarly successful
with jewellery.
Too many people living in fragile environments
have lost control over their economies, their
culture and their environment when tourism has
penetrated their homelands. Merely restricting Penetrated: succeed in forcing a way into or
tourism cannot be the solution to the imbalance, through (a thing).
because people's desire to see new places will
not just disappear. Instead, communities in
fragile environments must achieve greater aspiration /ˌæspəˈreɪʃn/: a strong desire to have
control over tourism ventures in their regions, in or do something
order to balance their needs and aspirations Synonyms: ambition, goal, aim, target, desire
with the demands of tourism. A growing number
46
of communities are demonstrating that, with firm communal /kəˈmjuːnl/: shared by, or for the use
communal decision-making, this is possible. of, a number of people, especially people who
The critical question now is whether this can live together
become the norm, rather than the exception. Synonyms: shared, public, mutual
47
Topic 13: A Workaholic Economy
FOR THE first century or so of the industrial

revolution, increased productivity led to decreases
in working hours. Employees who had been
putting in 12-hour days, six days a week, found
their time on the job shrinking to 10 hours daily,
then, finally, to eight hours, five days a week. Only
a generation ago social planners worried about
what people would do with all this new-found free
time. In the US, at least, it seems they need not
have bothered.
Although the output per hour of work has more
than doubled since 1945, leisure seems reserved
largely for the unemployed and underemployed.
Those who work full-time spend as much time on stagnate /stæɡˈneɪt/: to stop developing or
the job as they did at the end of World War II. In making progress
fact, working hours have increased noticeably Synonyms: stand still, languish, decline
since 1970 — perhaps because real wages have
stagnated since that year. Bookstores now abound with: have in large numbers or
abound with manuals describing how to manage amounts
time and cope with stress.
There are several reasons for lost leisure. Since
1979, companies have responded to
improvements in the business climate by having
employees work overtime rather than by hiring
extra personnel, says economist Juliet B. Schor of
Harvard University. Indeed, the current economic notoriety /ˌnəʊtəˈraɪəti/: fame for being bad in
recovery has gained a certain amount of some way
notoriety for its “jobless” nature: increased Synonyms: disrepute, infamy, dishonor
production has been almost entirely decoupled
48
from employment. Some firms are even
downsizing as their profits climb. “All things being
equal, we’d be better off spreading around the
work,’ observes labour economist Ronald G.
Ehrenberg of Cornell University. compel /kəmˈpel/: to force somebody to do
something; to make something necessary
Yet a host of factors pushes employers to hire Synonyms: force, induce, require, oblige
fewer workers for more hours and, at the same
time, compels workers to spend more time on the incentive /ɪnˈsentɪv/: something that
job. Most of those incentives involve what encourages you to do something
Ehrenberg calls the structure of compensation: Synonyms: inducement, enticement, motivatin,
quirks in the way salaries and benefits are encouragement
organised that make it more profitable to ask 40
employees to labour an extra hour each than to
hire one more worker to do the same 40-hour job.
Professional and managerial employees supply
the most obvious lesson along these lines. Once
people are on salary, their cost to a firm is the
same whether they spend 35 hours a week in the arable pastures /ˈærəbl/: chỗ khác ngon hơn
office or 70. Diminishing returns may eventually
set in as overworked employees lose efficiency or
leave for more arable pastures. But in the short
run, the employer’s incentive is clear.
Even hourly employees receive benefits - such as
pension contributions and medical insurance - that proxy /ˈprɒksi/: the authority that you give to
are not tied to the number of hours they work. somebody to do something for you, when you
Therefore, it is more profitable for employers to cannot do it yourself
work their existing employees harder.
For all that employees complain about long hours, accordingly /əˈkɔːdɪŋli/: in a way that is
they, too, have reasons not to trade money for appropriate to what has been done or said in a
leisure. “People who work reduced hours pay a particular situation
huge penalty in career terms,” Schor maintains. Synonyms: appropriately, suitably,
“It’s taken as a negative signal’ about their correspondingly
commitment to the firm.’ [Lotte] Bailyn [of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology] adds that quantitative /ˈkwɒntɪtətɪv/: connected with the
many corporate managers find it difficult to amount or number of something rather than with
measure the contribution of their underlings to a how good it is
firm’s well-being, so they use the number of hours Synonyms: measurable, numerical, calculable,
worked as a proxy for output. “Employees know assessable
this,” she says, and they adjust their behavior
accordingly. succumb to:
to lose the determination to oppose something,
“Although the image of the good worker is the one or to give up and acceptsomething that you
whose life belongs to the company,” Bailyn says, first opposed
“it doesn't fit the facts.’ She cites both
quantitative and qualitative studies that show fatigue: extreme tiredness
increased productivity for part-time workers: they
make better use of the time they have, and they asserts: believe, think
are less likely to succumb to fatigue in stressful
jobs. Companies that employ more workers for contingencies: something that
less time also gain from the resulting redundancy, might possibly happen in the future,
she asserts. “The extra people can cover the usually causing problemsor
contingencies that you know are going to making further arrangements necessary
49
happen, such as when crises take people away
from the workplace.’ Positive experiences with
reduced hours have begun to change the more-is-
better culture at some companies, Schor reports.
Larger firms, in particular, appear to be more
willing to experiment with flexible working
arrangements...
It may take even more than changes in the
financial and cultural structures of employment for Skewed: not accurate or exact
workers successfully to trade increased
productivity and money for leisure time, Schor assumption /əˈsʌmpʃn/: a belief or feeling that
contends. She says the U.S. market for goods has something is true or that something will happen,
become skewed by the assumption of full-time, although there is no proof
two-career households. Automobile makers no Synonyms: supposition, statement, theory,
longer manufacture cheap models, and guess
developers do not build the tiny bungalows that
served the first postwar generation of home curious /ˈkjʊəriəs/: having a strong desire to
buyers. Not even the humblest household object know about something
is made without a microprocessor. As Schor Synonyms: inquisitive, inquiring, interested
notes, the situation is a curious inversion of the
“appropriate technology” vision that designers Inversion: a situation in which something
have had for developing countries: U.S. goods are is changed so that it is the opposite of what it
appropriate only for high incomes and long hours. was before, or in which something
is turned upside down
50
Topic 14: Delivering The Goods
The vast expansion in international trade owes

much to a revolution in the business of moving
freight
A
International trade is growing at a startling startling /ˈstɑːtlɪŋ/: extremely unusual and
pace. While the global economy has been surprising
expanding at a bit over 3% a year, the volume Synonyms: surprising, astonishing, amazing,
of trade has been rising at a compound annual shocking
rate of about twice that. Foreign products, from
meat to machinery, play a more important role
in almost every economy in the world, and International trade = international commerce
foreign markets now tempt businesses that
never much worried about sales beyond their trade barriers: something such as an import tax or
nation's borders. a limit on the amount of goods that can
beimported that
B makes international trade more difficult or expensive
What lies behind this explosion in international collocation: reduce/end/lift/break/knock/tear down/
commerce? The general worldwide decline in falling/high/low / trade barrier.
trade barriers, such as customs duties and trade barriers on/to sth
import quotas, is surely one explanation.
The economic opening of countries that have theoretically /ˌθɪəˈretɪkli/ : in a way that is
traditionally been minor players is another. But concerned with the ideas and principles on which a
one force behind the import-export boom has particular subject is based, rather than with practice
passed all but unnoticed: the rapidly falling cost and experiment. (về mặt lý thuyết)
of getting goods to market. Theoretically, in Synonyms: hypothetically, in theory, supposedly,
the world of trade, shipping costs do not ideally
matter. Goods, once they have been made, are
assumed to move instantly and at no cost friction /ˈfrɪkʃn/: the action of one object or surface
from place to place. The real world, however, is moving against another
full of frictions. Cheap labour may make Synonyms: conflict, disagreement
51
Chinese clothing competitive in America, but if
delays in shipment lie up working capital and
cause winter coats to arrive in spring, trade
may lose its advantages.
C
At the turn of the 20th century, agriculture and
manufacturing were the two most important
sectors almost everywhere, accounting for
about 70% of total output in Germany, Italy
and France, and 40-50% in America, Britain
and Japan. International commerce was
therefore dominated by raw materials, such as
wheat, wood and iron ore, or processed
commodities, such as meat and steel. But bulky /ˈbʌlki/: large and difficult to move or carry
these sorts of products are heavy and bulky Synonyms: large, huge, massive
and the cost of transporting them relatively
high. relatively /ˈrelətɪvli/: to a fairly large degree,
especially in comparison to something else
D Synonyms: comparatively, moderately, rather
Countries still trade disproportionately with
their geographic neighbours. Over time, disproportionately /ˌdɪsprəˈpɔːʃənətli/: in a way
however, world output has shifted into goods that is too large or too small when compared with
whose worth is unrelated to their size and something else
weight. Today, it is finished manufactured Synonyms: excessively, unreasonably, extremely
products that dominate the flow of trade, and,
thanks to technological advances such as dominate /ˈdɒmɪneɪt/: to be the most important or
lightweight components, manufactured goods noticeable feature of something
themselves have tended to become lighter and Synonyms: rule, dictate, take over
less bulky. As a result, less transportation is
required for every dollar's worth of imports or
exports.
E
To see how this influences trade, consider the
business of making disk drives for computers.
Most of the world's disk-drive manufacturing is
concentrated in South-east Asia. This
is possible only because disk drives, while
valuable, are small and light and so cost little
to ship. Computer manufacturers in Japan or
Texas will not face hugely bigger freight bills
if they import drives from Singapore rather than obstacle /ˈɒbstəkl/: a situation, an event, etc. that
purchasing them on the domestic makes it difficult for you to do or achieve something
market. Distance therefore poses no obstacle
Synonyms: problem, difficulty
to the globalisation of the disk-drive industry.
F
This is even more true of the fast-growing
information industries. Films and compact discs
cost little to transport, even by aeroplane.
Computer software can be 'exported' without
ever loading it onto a ship, simply by
52
transmitting it over telephone lines from one
country to another, so freight rates and cargo-
handling schedules become insignificant
factors in deciding where to make the product.
Businesses can locate based on other
considerations, such as the availability of
labour, while worrying less about the cost of
delivering their output. deregulation /ˌdiːˌreɡjuˈleɪʃn/: the process of
making a trade, business activity, etc. free from
G rules and controls
In many countries deregulation has helped to
drive the process along. But, behind the
scenes, a series of technological innovations
known broadly as containerisation and
intermodal transportation has led to swift
productivity improvements in cargo-handling.
Forty years ago, the process of exporting or
importing involved a great many stages of
handling, which risked portions of the shipment crane /kreɪn/: a tall machine with a long arm, used
being damaged or stolen along the way. The to lift and move building materials and other heavy
invention of the container crane made it objects
possible to load and unload containers without
capsizing the ship and the adoption of capsizing: to
standard container sizes allowed almost any (cause a boat or ship to) turn upside down while
box to be transported on any ship. By 1967, on water
dual-purpose ships, carrying loose cargo in the
hold* and containers on the deck, were giving
way to all-container vessels that moved
thousands of boxes at a time.
H
The shipping container transformed ocean
shipping into a highly efficient, intensely
competitive business. But getting the cargo to
and from the dock was a different
story. National governments, by and large, kept
a much firmer hand on truck and railroad
tariffs than on charges for ocean freight. This
started changing, however, in the mid-1970s,
when America began to deregulate its
transportation industry. First airlines, then road
hauliers and railways, were freed from
restrictions on what they could carry, where
they could haul it and what price they could haul /hɔːl/:
charge. Big productivity gains resulted. to pull something heavy or transport something
Between 1985 and 1996, for example, over long distances
America's freight railways dramatically reduced
their employment, trackage, and their fleets of locomotive /ˌləʊkəˈməʊtɪv/: a railway engine that
locomotives - while increasing the amount of pulls a train
cargo they hauled. Europe's railways have also
shown marked, albeit smaller, productivity
improvements. albeit: however
53
I
In America the period of huge productivity gains
in transportation may be almost over, but in
most countries the process still has far to go.
State ownership of railways and
airlines, regulation of freight rates and toleration /ˌtɒləˈreɪʃn/: a willingness to allow
toleration of anti-competitive practices, such something that you do not like or agree with to
as cargo-handling monopolies, all keep the happen or continue
cost of shipping unnecessarily high and Synonyms: acceptance, patience, lenience
deter international trade. Bringing these
barriers down would help the world’s Monopolies: (an organization or group that
economies grow even closer. has) complete control of
* hold: ship's storage area below deck something,especially an area of business, so
that others have no share
54
Topic 15: Measuring Organisational
Performance
There is clear-cut evidence that, for a period of

at least one year, supervision which increases clear-cut:
the direct pressure for productivity can achieve clear or obvious without needing any proof
significant increases in production. However,
such short-term increases are obtained only at a
substantial and serious cost to the organisation.
To what extent can a manager make an
impressive earnings record over a short period of
one to three years by exploiting the company’s
investment in the human organisation in his investment /ɪnˈvestmənt/: the act of investing
plant or division? To what extent will the quality money in something
of his organisation suffer if he does so? The Synonyms: asset, speculation, venture
following is a description of an important study
conducted by the Institute for Social Research
designed to answer these questions.
The study covered 500 clerical employees in four
parallel divisions. Each division was organised in
exactly the same way, used the same
technology, did exactly the same kind of work,
and had employees of comparable aptitudes. comparable /ˈkɒmpərəbl/: similar to
somebody/something else and able to be compared
Productivity in all four of the divisions depended Synonyms: similar, equal, equivalent
on the number of clerks involved. The work
entailed the processing of accounts and aptitude /ˈæptɪtjuːd/: natural ability or skill at doing
generating of invoices. Although the volume of something
work was considerable, the nature of the Synonyms: ability, skill, talent, gift
business was such that it could only be
processed as it came along. Consequently, the considerable /kənˈsɪdərəbl/: great in amount, size,
only way in which productivity could be increased importance, etc.
was to change the size of the workgroup. Synonyms: significant, substantial, great, extensive
The four divisions were assigned to two
experimental programmes on a random basis.
55
Each programme was assigned at random a
division that had been historically high in
productivity and a division that had been below
average in productivity. No attempt was made to
place a division in the programme that would
best fit its habitual methods of supervision used attempt /əˈtempt/: an act of trying to do something,
by the manager, assistant managers, supervisors especially something difficult, often with no success
and assistant supervisors. Synonyms: effort, try, have a shot, endeavor
The experiment at the clerical level lasted for one
year. Beforehand, several months were devoted assistant /əˈsɪstənt/: a person who helps or
to planning, and there was also a training period supports somebody, usually in their job
of approximately six months. Productivity was Synonyms: helper, supporter, subordinate
measured continuously and computed weekly
throughout the year. The attitudes of employees
and supervisory staff towards their work were compute /kəmˈpjuːt/: to calculate something
measured just before and after the period. Synonyms: calculate, work out
Turning now to the heart of the study, in two
divisions an attempt was made to change the
supervision so that the decision levels were
pushed down and detailed supervision of the
workers reduced. More general supervision of
the clerks and their supervisors was introduced.
In addition, the managers, assistant managers,
supervisors and assistant supervisors of these
two divisions were trained in group methods of
leadership, which they endeavoured to use as
much as their skill would permit during the
experimental year. For easy reference, the endeavour /ɪnˈdevə(r)/: an attempt to do
experimental changes in these two divisions will something, especially something new or difficult
be labelled the ‘participative programme! Synonyms: attempt, effort, try
In the other two divisions, by contrast, the permit /pəˈmɪt/: to allow somebody to do something
programme called for modifying the supervision or to allow something to happen
so as to increase the closeness of supervision Synonyms: allow, let, approve, agree to
and move the decision levels upwards. This will
be labelled the ‘hierarchically controlled
programme’. These changes were accomplished
by a further extension of the scientific
management approach. For example, one of the
major changes made was to have the jobs timed
and to have standard times computed. This
showed that these divisions were overstaffed by
about 30%. The general manager then ordered
the managers of these two divisions to cut staff
by 25%. This was done by transfers without
replacing the persons who left; no one was to be
dismissed.
Results of the Experiment
Changes in Productivity
Figure 1 shows the changes in salary costs per
unit of work, which reflect the change in
56
productivity that occurred in the divisions. As will
be observed, the hierarchically controlled
programmes increased productivity by about
25%. This was a result of the direct orders from
the general manager to reduce staff by that
amount. Direct pressure produced a substantial
increase in production.
substantial /səbˈstænʃl/: large in amount, value or
A significant increase in productivity of 2O% was importance
also achieved in the participative programme, but
this was not as great an increase as in the Synonyms: considerable, large, extensive,
hierarchically controlled programme. To bring significant, generous
about this improvement, the clerks themselves
participated in the decision to reduce the size of
the work group. (They were aware of course that
productivity increases were sought by
management in conducting these experiments.)
Obviously, deciding to reduce the size of a work
group by eliminating some of its members is
probably one of the most difficult decisions for a
work group to make. Yet the clerks made it. In
fact, one division in the participative programme
increased its productivity by about the same
amount as each of the two divisions in the
hierarchically controlled programme. The other
participative division, which historically had been
the poorest of all the divisions, did not do so well
and increased productivity by only 15%.
Changes in Attitudes
Although both programmes had similar effects on
productivity, they had significantly different
results in other respects. The productivity
increases in the hierarchically controlled
programme were accompanied by shifts in an
adverse direction in such factors as loyalty,
attitudes, interest, and involvement in the work.
But just the opposite was true in the participative
programme.
For example, Figure 2 shows that when more
general supervision and increased participation
were provided, the employees’ feeling of
responsibility to see that the work got done
increased. Again, when the supervisor was away,
they kept on working. In the hierarchically
controlled programme, however, the feeling of
responsibility decreased, and when the
supervisor was absent, work tended to stop.
As Figure 3 shows, the employees in the
participative programme at the end of the year
felt that their manager and assistant manager
were ‘closer to them’ than at the beginning of the
year. The opposite was true in the hierarchical
57
programme. Moreover, as Figure 4 shows,
employees in the participative programme felt
that their supervisors were more likely to ‘pull’ for solely /ˈsəʊlli/: only; not involving
them, or for the company and them, and not be somebody/something else
solely interested in the company, while in the
hierarchically controlled programme, the opposite Synonyms: exclusively, only, merely, just
trend occurred
58
Topic 16: Advantages of public transport
A new study conducted for the World Bank by

Murdoch University's Institute for Science and demonstrate /ˈdemənstreɪt/: to show something
Technology Policy (ISTP) has demonstrated clearly by giving proof or evidence
that public transport is more efficient than cars.
The study compared the proportion of wealth Synonyms: explain, display, show, instruct
poured into transport by thirty-seven cities
around the world. This included both the public
and private costs of building, maintaining and
using a transport system.
The study found that the Western Australian
city of Perth is a good example of a city with
minimal public transport. As a result, 17% of
its wealth went into transport costs.
Some European and Asian cities, on the other
hand, spent as little as 5%. Professor Peter
Newman, ISTP Director, pointed out that these
more efficient cities were able to put the
difference into attracting industry and jobs or
creating a better place to live.
According to Professor Newman, the larger
Australian city of Melbourne is a rather unusual
city in this sort of comparison. He describes it as
two cities: 'A European city surrounded by a car-
dependent one'. Melbourne's large tram network
has made car use in the inner city much lower,
but the outer suburbs have the same car-based
structure as most other Australian cities. The
explosion in demand for accommodation in the
inner suburbs of Melbourne suggests a recent
59
change in many people's preferences as to
where they live.
Newman says this is a new, broader way of
considering public transport issues. In the past,
the case for public transport has been made on
the basis of environmental and social grossly /ˈɡrəʊsli/: (used to describe unpleasant
justice considerations rather than economics. qualities) extremely
Newman, however, believes the study Synonyms: totally, completely, extremely
demonstrates that 'the auto-dependent city model
is inefficient and grossly inadequate in inadequate /ɪnˈædɪkwət/: not enough; not good
economic as well as environmental terms'. enough
Bicycle use was not included in the study but Synonyms: insufficient, scarce, lacking, ineffective
Newman noted that the two most 'bicycle friendly'
cities considered - Amsterdam and Copenhagen
- were very efficient, even though their
public transport systems were 'reasonable but
not special'. reject /rɪˈdʒekt/: to refuse to accept or consider
something
It is common for supporters of road networks to Synonyms: refuse, discard
reject the models of cities with good public
transport by arguing that such systems would not
work in their particular city. One objection
is climate. Some people say their city could not
make more use of public transport because it
is either too hot or too cold. Newman rejects this,
pointing out that public transport has
been successful in both Toronto and Singapore
and, in fact, he has checked the use of cars
against climate and found 'zero correlation'.
When it comes to other physical features, road
lobbies are on stronger ground. For example,
Newman accepts it would be hard for a city as
hilly as Auckland to develop a really good
rail network. However, he points out that both
Hong Kong and Zurich have managed to make
a success of their rail systems, heavy and light
respectively, though there are few cities in
the world as hilly.
A
In fact, Newman believes the main reason for democratic /ˌdeməˈkrætɪk/: controlled by
adopting one sort of transport over another is
representatives who are elected by the people of a
politics: 'The more democratic the process, the
country; connected with this system
more public transport is favored.' He
Synonyms: independent, autonomous, self-
considers Portland, Oregon, a perfect example of
governing
this. Some years ago, federal money was
granted to build a new road. However, local federal /ˈfedərəl/: liên bang
pressure groups forced a referendum over
whether to spend the money on light rail instead. referendum /ˌrefəˈrendəm/: an occasion when all
The rail proposal won and the railway worked
the people of a country can vote on an important
spectacularly well. In the years that have issue
followed, more and more rail systems have been
60
put in, dramatically changing the nature of the
city. Newman notes that Portland has about the
same population as Perth and had a similar
population density at the time.
B
In the UK, travel times to work had been stable stable /ˈsteɪbl/: firmly fixed; not likely to move,
for at least six centuries, with people avoiding change or fail
situations that required them to spend more than Synonyms: steady, unchanging, constant
half an hour travelling to work. Trains and
cars initially allowed people to live at greater
distances without taking longer to reach
their destination. However, public infrastructure
did not keep pace with urban sprawl,
causing massive congestion problems which congestion /kənˈdʒestʃən/: the state of being
now make commuting times far higher. crowded and full of traffic
Synonyms: cramming, overcrowding, blocking
C
There is a widespread belief that increasing
wealth encourages people to live farther out
where cars are the only viable transport. The
example of European cities refutes that. They are
often wealthier than their American counterparts
but have not generated the same level of car
use. In Stockholm, car use has actually fallen in
recent years as the city has become larger
and wealthier. A new study makes this point even
more starkly. Developing cities in Asia, such starkly /ˈstɑːkli/: in a way that is easy to see
as Jakarta and Bangkok, make more use of the because it is very different
car than wealthy Asian cities such as Tokyo Synonyms: obviously, clearly
and Singapore. In cities that developed later, the
World Bank and Asian Development
Bank discouraged the building of public transport
and people have been forced to rely on cars -
creating the massive traffic jams that
characterize those cities.
D
Newman believes one of the best studies on how
cities built for cars might be converted to rail use
is The Urban Village report, which used
Melbourne as an example. It found that
pushing everyone into the city centre was not the
best approach. Instead, the proposal advocated
the creation of urban villages at hundreds of
sites, mostly around railway stations.
E
It was once assumed that improvements in dispersal /dɪˈspɜːsl/: the process of sending
telecommunications would lead to more somebody/something in different directions; the
dispersal in the population as people were no process of spreading something over a wide area
longer forced into cities. However, the ISTP Synonyms: dispersion, spreading, diffusion,
team's research demonstrates that the population distribution
61
and job density of cities rose or remained
constant in the 1980s after decades of decline.
The explanation for this seems to be that it is flourish /ˈflʌrɪʃ/: to develop quickly and be
valuable to place people working in related fields successful or common
together. 'The new world will largely depend on
human creativity, and creativity flourishes where
people come together face-to-face.'
62
Topic 17: Makete Integrated Rural Transport
Project
Section A
The disappointing results of many conventional /kənˈvenʃənl/: tending to follow what
conventional road transport projects in Africa is done or considered acceptable by society in
led some experts to rethink the strategy by general; normal and ordinary, and perhaps not very
which rural transport problems were to be interesting
tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A
request for help in improving the availability of Synonyms: usual, standard, normal, typical, regular
transport within the remote Makete District of
southwestern Tanzania presented the
opportunity to try a new approach.
The concept of 'integrated rural transport' was
adopted in the task of examining the transport
needs of the rural households in the district.
The objective was to reduce the time and effort
needed to obtain access to essential goods
and services through an improved rural
transport system. The underlying assumption assumption /əˈsʌmpʃn/: a belief or feeling that
was that the time saved would be used instead something is true or that something will happen,
for activities that would improve the social although there is no proof
and economic development of the Synonyms: supposition, statement, hypothesis
communities. The Makete Integrated Rural
Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with
financial support from the Swiss Development
Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help
of the Tanzanian government.
63
Section B
When the project began, Makete District was virtually /ˈvɜːtʃuəli/: almost or very nearly, so that
virtually totally isolated during the rainy any slight difference is not important
season.The regional road was in such bad Synonyms: almost, nearly
shape that access to the main towns was
impossible for about three months of the year.
Road traffic was extremely rare within the
district, and alternative means of transport were
restricted to donkeys in the north of the district.
People relied primarily on the paths, which
were slippery and dangerous during the rains.
Before solutions could be proposed, the
problems had to be understood. Little was
known about the transport demands of the rural
households, so Phase I, between December
1985 and December 1987, focused on
research.The socio-economic survey of more
than 400 households in the district indicated
that a household in Makete spent, on average,
seven hours a day on transporting themselves
and their goods, a figure which seemed
extreme but which has also been obtained in
surveys in other rural areas in
Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport
were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within
the locality; and 70% was related to the
collection of water and firewood and travelling
to grinding mills.
Section C
Having determined the main transport needs,
possible solutions were identified which might
reduce the time and burden. During Phase II,
from January to February 1991, a number of burden /ˈbɜːdn/: a duty, responsibility, etc. that
approaches were implemented in an effort to causes worry, difficulty or hard work
improve mobility and access to transport. Synonyms: problem, trouble, duty
An improvement of the road network was

considered necessary to ensure the import and
export of goods to the district.These
improvements were carried out using methods
that were heavily dependent on labour in
addition to the improvement of roads, these
methods provided training in the operation of a
mechanical workshop and bus and truck
services. However, the difference from the
conventional approach was that this time
consideration was given to local transport
needs outside the road network.
Most goods were transported along the paths
that provide short-cuts up and down the
hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk
64
and made the journey on foot even more
arduous. It made sense to improve the paths
by building steps, handrails and footbridges. arduous /ˈɑːdjuəs/: involving a lot of effort and
energy, especially over a period of time
It was uncommon to find means of transport Synonyms: difficult, hard, laborious
that were more efficient than walking but less
technologically advanced than motor vehicles.
The use of bicycles was constrained by their constrain /kənˈstreɪn/: to restrict or limit
high cost and the lack of available spare parts. somebody/something
Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were
used by a few households in the northern part Synonyms: oblige, force, restrict, restrain, limit
of the district. MIRTP focused on what would
be most appropriate for the inhabitants
of Makete in terms of what was available, how
much they could afford and what they were
willing to accept.
After careful consideration, the project chose
the promotion of donkeys - a donkey costs less
than a bicycle - and the introduction of a locally
manufacturable wheelbarrow.
Section D
At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the
selected approaches to Makete’s transport
problems had had different degrees of success.
Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993,
focused on the refinement
and institutionalisation of these activities.
The road improvements and accompanying institutionalisation /ˌɪnstɪˌtjuːʃənəlaɪˈzeɪʃn/: the
maintenance system had helped make the act of making something become part of an
district centre accessible throughout the year. organized system, society or culture, so that it is
Essential goods from outside the district had considered normal (tiêu chuẩn hóa)
become more readily available at the market,
and prices did not fluctuate as much as they
had done before. readily /ˈredɪli/: quickly and without difficulty
Synonyms: willingly, unhesitatingly, promptly,
Paths and secondary roads were improved immediately
only at the request of communities who were
willing to participate in construction and
maintenance. However the improved paths
impressed the inhabitants, and requests for
assistance greatly increased soon after only a
few improvements had been completed.
The efforts to improve the efficiency of the
existing transport services were not very
successful because most of the motorised
vehicles in the district broke down and there
were no resources to repair them. Even the
introduction of low-cost means of transport was
difficult because of the general poverty of modification /ˌmɒdɪfɪˈkeɪʃn/: the act or process of
the district.The locally manufactured changing something in order to improve it or make
wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all it more acceptable; a change that is made.
but a few of the households. Modifications to Synonyms: alteration, adjustment, adaption
65
the original design by local carpenters cut
production time and costs. Other
local carpenters have been trained in the new
design so that they can respond to requests.
Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden
wheelbarrow which costs around 5000
Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20)
in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of
a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for
most people.
Donkeys, which were imported to the district,
have become more common and contribute, in
particular, to the transportation of crops and
goods to market. Those who have bought
donkeys are mainly from richer households but,
with an increased supply through local
breeding, donkeys should become
more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are
promoting the renting out of the existing
donkeys.
It should be noted, however, that a donkey,
which at 20,000 Tanzanian shillings costs less
than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an supplementary /ˌsʌplɪˈmentri/: provided in
average household's income over half a year addition to something else in order to improve or
This clearly illustrates the need for complete it
supplementary measures if one wants to
assist the rural poor Synonyms: extra, additional, complementary
Section E
It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP
for using in the early phases a 'top-down'
approach, in which decisions were made by
experts and officials before being handed down
to communities, but it was necessary to start
the process from the level of the governmental
authorities of the district. It would have been
difficult to respond to the requests of villagers
and other rural inhabitants without the support
and understanding of district authorities.
dedicated /ˈdedɪkeɪtɪd/: working hard at something
Section F because it is very important to you
Today, nobody in the district argues about the
Synonyms: devoted, enthusiastic, keen, committed
importance of improved paths and inexpensive
means of transport. But this is the result of
dedicated work over a long period, particularly
from the officers in charge of community
development. They played an essential role in
raising awareness and interest among the
rural communities.
The concept of integrated rural transport is now
well established in Tanzania, where a major
program of rural transport is just about to
66
start.The experiences from Makete will help in
this initiative, and Makete District will act as a
reference for future work.
67
Topic 18: Roller coaster
A 600 years ago, roller coaster pioneers pioneers /ˌpaɪəˈnɪə(r)/: a person who is among the
never would have imagined the advancements first to explore or settle a new country or area.
that have been made to create the roller Synonyms: settler, colonist, colonizer, explorer
coasters of today. The tallest and fastest roller
coaster in the world is the Kingda Ka, a coaster advancement /ədˈvɑːnsmənt/: development or
in New Jersey that launches its passengers improvement
from zero to 128 miles per hour in 3.5 seconds Synonyms: development, progress, evolution,
(most sports cars take over four seconds to get growth, improvement, advance
to just 60 miles per hour). It then heaves its
riders skyward at a 90-degree angle (straight launch /lɔːntʃ/: to start an activity, especially an
up) until it reaches a height of 456 feet, over one organized one
and a half football fields, above the ground,
before dropping another 418 feet (Coaster heave /hiːv/: lift or haul (a heavy thing) with great
Grotto “Kingda Ka”). With that said, roller effort
coasters are about more than just speed and Synonyms: haul, pull, drag, draw, tug, lift, raise
height, they are about the creativity of the
designers that build them, each coaster having unique /juˈniːk/: being the only one of its kind;
its own unique way of producing intense thrills unlike anything else
at a lesser risk than the average car ride. Roller Synonyms: distinctive, individual, special, especial,
coasters have evolved drastically over the odd, strange
years, from their primitive beginnings as
Russian ice slides, to the metal monsters of intense /ɪnˈtens/: serious and often involving a lot of
today. Their combination of creativity and action in a short period of time
structural elements make them one of the Synonyms: great, acute, enormous, fierce, severe,
purest forms of architecture. extreme
B At first glance, a roller coaster is something thrill /θrɪl/: a strong feeling of excitement or
like a passenger train. It consists of a series of pleasure; an experience that gives you this feeling
connected cars that move on tracks. But unlike Synonyms: fun, enjoyment, amusement, delight,
a passenger train, a roller coaster has no engine joy, pleasure, adventure
or power source of its own. For most of the ride,
the train is moved by gravity and momentum. risk /rɪsk/: the possibility of something bad
To build up this momentum, you need to get the happening at some time in the future; a situation
train to the top of the first hill or give it a powerful that could be dangerous or have a bad result
launch. The traditional lifting mechanism is a Synonyms: possibility, chance, probability,
long length of chain running up the hill under the likelihood, danger
track. The chain is fastened in a loop, which is
68
wound around a gear at the top of the hill and drastically /ˈdræstɪkli/: in an extreme way that has
another one at the bottom of the hill. The gear at a sudden, serious or violent effect on something
the bottom of the hill is turned by a simple
motor. This turns the chain loop so that it primitive /ˈprɪmətɪv/: belonging to a very simple
continually moves up the hill like a long society with no industry, etc.
conveyer belt. The coaster cars grip onto the Synonyms: ancient, earliest, first
chain with several chain dogs, sturdy hinged
hooks. When the train rolls to the bottom of the element /ˈelɪmənt/: a necessary or typical part of
hill, the dogs catches onto the chain links. Once something
the chain dog is hooked, the chain simply pulls Synonyms: component, constituent, part, section,
the train to the top of the hill. At the summit, the
chain dog is released and the train starts its momentum /məˈmentəm/: the ability to keep
descent down the hill. increasing or developing
C Roller coasters have a long, fascinating wound /wuːnd/: inflict an injury on (someone)
history. The direct ancestors of roller coasters Synonyms: injure, hurt, damage, harm, maim
were monumental ice slides – long, steep
wooden-slides covered in ice, some as high as continually /kənˈtɪnjuəli/: in a way that continues
70 feet – that were popular in Russia in the 16th without interruption
and 17th centuries. Riders shot down the slope Synonyms: constantly, continuously, persistently,
in sleds made out of wood or blocks of ice, endlessly
crash-landing in a sand pile. Coaster historians
diverge on the exact evolution of these ice sturdy /ˈstɜːdi/: (of an object) strong and not easily
slides into actual rolling carts. The most damaged
widespread account is that a few Synonyms: strong, robust, vigorous, solid, tough
entrepreneurial Frenchmen imported the ice
slide idea to France. The warmer climate of summit /ˈsʌmɪt/: the highest point of something,
France tended to melt the ice, so the French especially the top of a mountain
started building waxed slides instead, eventually Synonyms: top, peak, mountaintop, crest, crown,
adding wheels to the sleds. In 1817, the Russes apex
a Belleville (Russian Mountains of Belleville)
became the first roller coaster where the train descent /dɪˈsent/: an action of moving downward,
was attached to the track (in this case, the train dropping, or falling
axle fit into a carved groove). The French Synonyms: going down, coming down, drop, fall,
continued to expand on this idea, coming up sinking, subsiding, dive
with more complex track layouts, with multiple
cars and all sorts of twists and turns. fascinating /ˈfæsɪneɪtɪŋ/: extremely interesting and
D In comparison to the world’s first roller attractive
coaster, there is perhaps an even greater Synonyms: interesting, fascinating compelling
debate over what was America’s first true stimulating gripping absorbing
coaster. Many will say that it is Pennsylvania’s
own Maunch Chunk- Summit Hill and Switch ancestor /ˈænsestə(r)/: an early form of a machine
Back Railroad. The Maunch Chunk Summit which later became more developed
Hill and Switch Back Railroad was originally
America’s second railroad, and considered my diverge /daɪˈvɜːdʒ/: (of opinions, views, etc.) to be
many to be the greatest coaster of all time. different
Located in the Lehigh valley, it was originally Synonyms: differ, disagree, conflict
used to transport coal from the top of Mount
Pisgah to the bottom of Mount Jefferson, until evolution /ˌiːvəˈluːʃn/: the gradual development of
Josiah White, a mining entrepreneur, had the something
idea of turning it into a part-time thrill ride. Synonyms: development, advancement, progress,
Because of its immediate popularity, it soon progression
became strictly a passenger train. A steam
engine would haul passengers to the top of the
69
mountain, before letting them coast back down, widespread /ˈwaɪdspred/: existing or happening
with speeds rumored to reach 100 miles per over a large area or among many people
hour! The reason that it was called a switch Synonyms: well-known, common, extensive,
back railroad, a switch back track was located at prevalent, pervasive
the top – where the steam engine would let the
riders coast back down. This type of track entrepreneurial /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːriəl/: connected with
featured a dead end where the steam engine making money by starting or running businesses,
would detach its cars, allowing riders to coast especially when this involves taking financial risks
down backwards. The railway went through a
couple of minor track changes and name debate /dɪˈbeɪt/: an argument or a discussion
changes over the years, but managed to last expressing different opinions
from 1829 to 1937, over 100 years. Synonyms: discussion, argument, dispute,
deliberation
E The coaster craze in America was just
starting to build. The creation of the Switch Back detach /dɪˈtætʃ/: to remove something from
Railway, by La Marcus Thompson, gave roller something larger; to become separated from
coasters national attention. Originally built at something
New York’s Coney Island in 1884, Switch Back Synonyms: unfasten, disconnect, disengage, part,
Railways began popping up all over the country. separate, uncouple, remove, loose, loosen, untie
The popularity of these rides may puzzle the
modern-day thrill seeker, due to the mild ride originally /əˈrɪdʒənəli/: at the beginning of a
they gave in comparison to the modern-day particular period or activity, especially before
roller coaster. Guests would pay a nickel to wait something was changed
in line up to five hours just to go down a pair of
side-by-side tracks with gradual hills that
vehicles coasted down at a top speed around gradual /ˈɡrædʒuəl/: happening slowly over a long
six miles per hour. Regardless, Switchback period; not sudden
Railways were very popular, and sparked many Synonyms: unhurried, leisurely, measured,
people, including Thompson, to design coasters moderate, deliberate, steady, sedate, slow-moving
that were bigger and better.
F The 1910s and 1920s were probably the regardless /rɪˈɡɑːdləs/: paying no attention, even if
best decade that the roller coaster has ever the situation is bad or there are difficulties
seen. The new wave of technology, such as the Synonyms: anyway, nevertheless, in any case,
“unstop wheels”, an arrangement that kept a
coaster’s wheels to its tracks by resisted high realm /relm/: an area of activity, interest, or
gravitational forces, showed coasters a realm of knowledge
possibilities that has never been seen before. In Synonyms: range, field, area, domain, sphere
1919, North America alone had about 1,500
roller coasters, a number that was rising rampantly /ˈræmpəntli/: in a way that exists or
rampantly. Then, the Great Depression gave a spreads everywhere and cannot be controlled
crushing blow to amusement parks all over Synonyms: uncontrollably, unrestrainedly, profusely
America. As bad as it was, amusement parks
had an optimistic look on the future in the late amusement /əˈmjuːzmənt/: a game, an activity, etc.
1930s. But, in 1942 roller coasters could already that provides entertainment and pleasure
feel the effects of World War Two, as they were Synonyms: mirth, merriment, light-heartedness,
forced into a shadow of neglect. Most, nearly all hilarity, glee, delight, fun, enjoyment, pleasure
of America’s roller coasters were shut down. To
this very day, the number of roller coaster in neglect /nɪˈɡlekt/: to not give enough attention to
America is just a very tiny fraction of the something
amount of roller coasters in the 1920s. Synonyms: disrepair, dilapidation, deterioration,
disuse, abandonment, desuetude
fraction /ˈfrækʃn/: a small part or amount of

something
70
Topic 19: Martin Luther King
A separate /ˈsɛprɪt/: forming or viewed as a unit

apart or by itself
Martin Luther King was born on January 15, Synonyms: unconnected, unrelated, different,
1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. He was the son of the discrete
Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta
Williams King. He had an older sister, Willie humiliating /hju(ː)ˈmɪlɪeɪtɪŋ/ : causing someone
Christine King, and a younger brother Alfred to feel ashamed and foolish by injuring their
Daniel Williams King. Growing up in Atlanta, King dignity and self-respect
attended Booker T. Washington High School. He Synonyms: chastening, humbling, embarrassing,
skipped ninth and twelfth grade, and entered shameful, demeaning, degrading
Morehouse College at age fifteen without
formally graduating from high school. From the endure /ɪnˈdjʊə/: suffer (something painful or
time that Martin was born, he knew that black difficult) patiently
people and white people had different rights in Synonyms: bear, tolerate, suffer, undergo,
certain parts of America. If a black family wanted withstand, put up with, go through, sustain
to eat at a restaurant, they had to sit in a
separate section of the restaurant. They had to indignity /ɪnˈdɪgnɪti/: a situation that makes you
sit at the back of the cinema, and even use feel embarrassed or ashamed because you are
separate toilets. Worse, and perhaps even more not treated with respect; an act that causes these
humiliating still, in many southern states, if a feelings
black man was on a bus and all the seats were Synonyms: humiliation, shame, disgrace,
taken, he would have to endure the indignity of mortification, embarrassment, dishonor, ignominy
relinquishing his own seat to a white man. King
could never understand the terrible injustice of relinquishing /rɪˈlɪŋkwɪʃɪŋ/: to stop having
this. something, especially when this happens
In 1948, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts unwillingly
degree in sociology. Later, King began doctoral Synonyms: give up, hand over, renounce, resign
studies in systematic theology at Boston
University and received his Doctor of Philosophy
71
on June 5, 1955. King married Coretta Scott, on
June 18, 1953 and they had four children.
B
Returning to the South to become pastor of a
Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, King
first achieved national renown when he helped
mobilise the black boycott of the Montgomery
bus system in 1955. This was organised after
Rosa Parks, a black woman, refused to give up Boycott: bài trừ
her seat on the bus to a white man – in the
segregated south, black people could only sit at segregation /ˌsɛgrɪˈgeɪʃən/ : the action or state
the back of the bus. The 382-day boycott led the of setting someone or something apart from other
bus company to change its regulations, and the people or things or being set apart
Supreme Court declared such segregation Synonyms: separation, isolation, exclusion, set
unconstitutional. apart, seclusion, discrimination
C unconstitutional /ˌʌnˌkɒnstɪˈtjuːʃənl/: not

In 1957 King was active in the organisation of the allowed by the constitution of a country, a
Southern Leadership Christian Conference political system or an organization
(SCLC), formed to co-ordinate protests against
discrimination. He advocated non-violent direct protests /ˈprəʊtɛsts/ : a statement or action
action based on the methods of Gandhi, who led expressing disapproval of or objection to
protests against British rule in India culminating something
in India’s independence in 1947. In 1963, King Synonyms: objection, exception, complaint,
led mass protests against discriminatory disapproval, disagreement, opposition,
practices in Birmingham, Alabama, where the challenge, dissent, demurral
white population were violently resisting
desegregation. The city was dubbed
‘Bombingham’ as attacks against civil rights
protesters increased, and King was arrested and
jailed for his part in the protests.
D enormous /ɪˈnɔːməs/: very large in size,
quantity, or extent
After his release, King participated in the
Synonyms: huge, vast, massive, giant, gigantic,
enormous civil rights march, in Washington, in
immense, considerable, great
August 1963, and delivered his famous ‘I have a
dream’ speech, predicting a day when the
promise of freedom and equality for all would
become a reality in America. In 1964 he was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1965, he led
a campaign to register blacks to vote. The same
year the US Congress passed the Voting Rights
Act outlawing the discriminatory practices that
had barred blacks from voting in the south.
E
As the civil rights movement became increasingly
radicalised, King found that his message of
peaceful protest was not shared by many in the
younger generation. King began to protest
against the Vietnam War and poverty levels in
the US. On March 29, 1968, King went to
72
Memphis, Tennessee, in support of the black incident /ˈɪnsɪdənt/: something that happens,
sanitary public works employees who had been especially something unusual or unpleasant
on strike since March 12 for higher wages and Synonyms: event, occurrence, occasion,
better treatment. In one incident, black street episode, experience
repairmen had received pay for two hours when
they were sent home because of bad weather, patent /ˈpeɪtənt/ : easily recognizable; obvious
but white employees had been paid for the full
day. King could not bear to stand by and let such Synonyms: obvious, clear, plain, evident,
patent acts of racism go unnoticed. He moved to apparent, manifest, distinct, definite, transparent,
unite his people, and all the peoples of America visible, flagrant
on the receiving end of discriminatory practices,
to protest for their rights, peacefully but unite /juːˈnaɪt/: come or bring together for a
steadfastly. common purpose or action
Synonyms: unify, join, link, connect, bond, join
F forces, combine, associate, band together, club
On his trip to Memphis, King was booked into together, ally, cooperate, collaborate
room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter
Bailey. King was shot at 6:01 p.m. April 4, 1968 steadfastly /ˈstɛdfəstli/: without changing in your
while he was standing on the motel’s second- attitudes or aims
floor balcony. King was rushed to St. Joseph’s
Hospital, where doctors opened his chest and Synonyms: firmly, persistently, consistently,
performed manual heart massage. He was unwaveringly, constantly
pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m. King’s autopsy
revealed that although he was only 39 years old, autopsy /ˈɔːtəpsi/ : an official examination of a
he had the heart of a 60-year-old man. dead body by a doctor in order to discover the
cause of death
73
Topic 20: Beyond the blue horizon
(1) archaeological /ˌɑrkiəˈlɑʤɪkəl/: liên quan đến khảo

cổ
An important archaeological discovery on the
island of Efate in the Pacific archipelago of distant /ˈdɪstənt/: far away in space or time
Vanuatu has revealed traces of an ancient Synonyms: faraway, far off, far
seafaring people, the distant ancestors of
todays, Polynesians. The site came to light derelict /ˈdɛrəˌlɪkt/: (especially of land or buildings)
only by chance. An agricultural worker, digging not used or cared for and in bad condition
in the grounds of a derelict plantation,
scraped open a grave – the first of dozens in a burial /ˈbɛriəl/: the act or ceremony of burying a dead
burial ground some 3,000 years old. It is the body
oldest cemetery ever found in the Pacific
islands, and it harbors the remains of an cemetery /ˈsɛməˌtɛri/ : a burial ground; a graveyard
ancient people archaeologists call the Lapita.
(2) stretched /strɛʧt/: stretch (something) to make
something longer, wider or looser, for example by
They were daring blue-water adventurers who pulling it; to become longer, etc. in this way
used basic canoes to rove across the ocean.
But they were not just explorers. They were remains: hài cốt
also pioneers who carried with them
everything they would need to build new lives
– their livestock, taro seedlings and stone
tools. Within the span of several centuries, the
Lapita stretched the boundaries of their world
from the jungle-clad volcanoes of Papua New precious /ˈprɛʃəs/ : (of an object, substance, or
Guinea to the loneliest coral outliers of Tonga. resource) of great value; not to be wasted or treated
carelessly
74
(3) Synonyms: valuable, costly, expensive, high-priced,
dear, invaluable, priceless, exquisite
The Lapita left precious few clues about
themselves, but Efate expands the volume of expands /ɪkˈspændz/: become or make larger or
data available to researchers dramatically. more extensive
The remains of 62 individuals have been Synonyms: enlarge, swell, inflate, lengthen, stretch,
uncovered so far, and archaeologists were grow, extend, augment, broaden, widen, develop,
also thrilled to find six complete Lapita pots. diversify, spread
Other items included a Lapita burial urn with
modeled birds arranged on the rim as though available /əˈveɪləbəl/: able to be used or obtained; at
peering down at the human remains sealed someone's disposal
inside. ‘It’s an important discovery,’ says Synonyms: obtainable, accessible, to be had, at hand,
Matthew Spriggs, professor of archaeology at in stock, gettable, procurable
the Australian National University and head of
the international team digging up the site, ‘for dramatically /drəˈmætɪkli/ : very suddenly and to a
it conclusively identifies the remains as very great and often surprising degree
Lapita.’ Synonyms: intensely, vividly, noticeably, radically,
(4) severely, considerably, significantly
DNA teased from these human remains may urn /ɜrn/: a tall decorated container, especially one
help answer one of the most puzzling used for holding the ashes of a dead person
questions in Pacific anthropology: did all
Pacific islanders spring from one source or conclusively /kənˈklusɪvli/: in a way that proves
many? Was there only one outward migration something, and that allows no doubt or confusion
from a single point in Asia, or several from Synonyms: decisively, convincingly, overwhelmingly
different points? ‘This represents the best
opportunity we’ve had yet,’ says Spriggs, ‘to puzzling /ˈpʌzəlɪŋ/: making somebody feel confused
find out who the Lapita actually were, where because they do not understand something
they came from, and who their closest Synonyms: mystifying, confusing, bewildering,
descendants are today.’ perplexing
(5)
outward /ˈaʊtwərd/: of, on, or from the outside
There is one stubborn question for which Synonyms: external, outside, out, away
archaeology has yet to provide any answers:
how did the Lapita accomplish the ancient descendants /dɪˈsɛndənts/: a person’s descendants
equivalent of a moon landing, many times are their children, their children’s children, and all the
over? No-one has found one of their canoes or people who live after them who are related to them
any rigging, which could reveal how the
canoes were sailed. Nor do the oral histories accomplish /əˈkɑmplɪʃ/: to succeed in doing or
and traditions of later Polynesians offer any completing something
insights, for they turn into myths long before Synonyms: achieve, comlete, finish, carry out
they reach as far back in time as the Lapita.
equivalent /ɪˈkwɪvələnt/: equal in value, amount,
(6)
function, meaning, etc
‘All we can say for certain is that the Lapita Synonyms: equal, corresponding, alike, same,
had canoes that were capable of ocean comparable
voyages, and they had the ability to sail
them,’ says Geoff Irwin, a professor of
archaeology at the University of Auckland. reveal /rɪˈvil/: make (previously unknown or secret
Those sailing skills, he says, were developed information) known to others
and passed down over thousands of years by Synonyms: divulge, disclose, tell, let out, release,
earlier mariners who worked their way through publicize, publish, impart, unfold, vouchsafe, confess,
the archipelagoes of the western Pacific, admit, discover
making short crossings to nearby islands. The
75
real adventure didn’t begin, however, until myths /mɪθs/:truyền thuyết
their Lapita descendants sailed out of sight of Synonyms: folk tale, story, folk story, legend, tale,
land, with empty horizons on every side. This fable, saga, allegory
must have been as difficult for them as landing
on the moon is for us today. Certainly it ability /əˈbɪləti/: the fact that somebody/something
distinguished them from their ancestors, but can do something
what gave them the courage to launch out on Synonyms: capacity, capability, potential, potentiality,
such risky voyages? power
(7) distinguished from /dɪˈstɪŋgwɪʃt/: to be a
The Lap it as thrust into the Pacific was characteristic that makes two people, animals or
eastward, against the prevailing trade winds, things different
Irwin notes. Those nagging headwinds, he
argues, may have been the key to their courage /ˈkɜrəʤ/: the ability to do something
success. ‘They could sail out for days into the dangerous, or to face pain or opposition, without
unknown and assess the area, secure in the showing fear
knowledge that if they didn’t find anything, Synonyms: bravery, nerve, daring, audacity,
they could turn about and catch a swift ride resolution
back on the trade winds. This is what would
have made the whole thing work.’ Once out risky /ˈrɪski/: full of the possibility of danger, failure, or
there, skilled seafarers would have detected loss
abundant leads to follow to land: seabirds, Synonyms: dangerous, hazardous, unsafe, precarious
coconuts and twigs carried out to sea by the
tides, and the afternoon pile-up of clouds on swift /swɪft/: happening quickly or promptly
the horizon which often indicates an island in Synonyms: prompt, rapid, sudden, immediate, instant,
the distance. instantaneous, ready, punctual, abrupt, unhesitating,
hasty, hurried
(8)
For returning explorers, successful or not, the abundant /əˈbʌndənt/: existing or available in large
geography of their own archipelagoes would quantities; plentiful
have provided a safety net. Without this to go Synonyms: plentiful, rich, profuse, lavish
by, overshooting their home ports, getting lost
and sailing off into eternity would have been eternity /ɪˈtɜrnəti/: time without end, especially life
all too easy. Vanuatu, for example, stretches continuing without end after death
more than 500 miles in a northwest-southeast Synonyms: ever, all time, perpetuity
trend, its scores of inrervisible islands forming
a backstop for mariners riding the trade winds
home.
(9)
presupposes /ˌprisəˈpoʊzɪz/: to accept something as
All this presupposes one essential detail,
true or existing and act on that basis, before it has
says Atholl Anderson, professor of prehistory been proved to be true
at the Australian National University: the
Lapita had mastered the advanced art of
sailing against the wind. ‘And there’s no proof
they could do any such thing,’ Anderson says. assumption /əˈsʌmpʃən/: a thing that is accepted as
‘There has been this assumption they did,
true or as certain to happen, without proof
and people have built canoes to re-create
Synonyms: supposition, presupposition, presumption,
those early voyages based on that belief, expectation, conjecture, speculation, surmise,
assumption. But nobody has any idea what
guess, theory, hypothesis
their canoes looked like or how they were
rigged.’
76
(10) invokes /ɪnˈvoʊks/: to mention a person, a theory, an
example, etc. to support your opinions or ideas, or as
Rather than give all the credit to human skill, a reason for something
Anderson invokes the winds of chance. El
Nino, the same climate disruption that affects disruption /dɪsˈrʌpʃən/:the act of stopping something
the Pacific today, may have helped scatter the from continuing in the normal way
Lapita, Anderson suggests. He points out that Synonyms: disturbance, commotion, interruption,
climate data obtained from slow-growing distraction, interference
corals around the Pacific indicate a series of
unusually frequent El Ninos around the time of
the Lapita expansion. By reversing the regular
east-to-west flow of the trade winds for weeks
at a time, these super El Ninos might have
taken the Lapita on long unplanned voyages.
(11)
However they did it, the Lapita spread
themselves a third of the way across the
Pacific, then called it quits for reasons known venture /ˈvɛnʧər/: dare to do something or go
only to them. Ahead lay the vast emptiness of somewhere that may be dangerous or unpleasant
the central Pacific and perhaps they were too Synonyms: travel, journey, go, move, proceed,
thinly stretched to venture farther. They wander, stray, drift
probably never numbered more than a few
thousand in total, and in their rapid migration rapid /ˈræpəd/: happening in a short time or at a fast
eastward they encountered hundreds of pace
islands – more than 300 in Fiji alone. Synonyms: fast, quick, speedy, swift, hurried, prompt
77
Topic 21: The Motor Car
A
There are now over 700 million motor
vehicles in the world - and the number is
rising by more than 40 million each year.
The average distance driven by car users is
growing too - from 8 km a day per person in
western Europe in 1965 to 25 km a day in
1995. This dependence on motor vehicles has depletion /dɪˈpliʃən/: reduction in the number or
given rise to major problems, including quantity of something
environmental pollution, depletion of oil Synonyms: reduction, exhaustion, lessening,
resources, traffic congestion and safety. diminution
B
congestion /kənˈʤɛsʧən/: the state of being
While emissions from new cars are far less crowded and full of traffic
harmful than they used to be, city streets and Synonyms: cramming, overcrowding, crowding,
motorways are becoming more crowded than jamming
ever, often with older trucks, buses and taxis,
which emit excessive levels of smoke and emit /ɪˈmɪt/: to send out something such as light,
fumes. This concentration of vehicles makes air heat, sound, gas, etc
quality in urban areas unpleasant and Synonyms: discharge, release, effuse, leak, exhale,
sometimes dangerous to breathe. Even exude, eruct
Moscow has joined the list of capitals afflicted
by congestion and traffic fumes. In Mexico City, Afflicted: If a problem or illness afflicts a person or
vehicle pollution is a major health hazard. thing, they suffer from it
C
hazard /ˈhæzərd/: a thing that can be dangerous or
Until a hundred years ago, most journeys were cause damage
in the 20 km range, the distance conveniently Synonyms: danger, risk, threat, menace, difficulty,
accessible by horse. Heavy freight could only problem, jeopardy, endangerment
be carried by water or rail. The invention of the
78
motor vehicle brought personal mobility to the
masses and made rapid freight delivery conveniently /kənˈvinjəntli/: in a way that is useful,
possible over a much wider area. Today about easy or quick to do; in a way that does not cause
90 per cent of inland freight in the United problems
Kingdom is carried by road. Clearly the world Synonyms: suitably, expediently, handily, accessibly,
cannot revert to the horse-drawn wagon. Can it appropriately
avoid being locked into congested and polluting
ways of transporting people and goods? accessible /ækˈsɛsəbəl/: (of a place) able to be
reached or entered
D Synonyms: reachable, attainable, approachable,
In Europe most cities are still designed for the within reach, available, on hand, obtainable, nearby,
old modes of transport. Adaptation to the motor ready
car has involved adding ring roads, one-way
systems and parking lots. In the United States,
more land is assigned to car use than to sprawl /sprɔl/: to sit or lie with your arms and legs
housing. Urban sprawl means that life without spread out in a relaxed or awkward way
a car is next to impossible. Mass use of motor
vehicles has also killed or injured millions of alienation /ˌeɪliəˈneɪʃən/: the state or experience of
people. Other social effects have been blamed being isolated from a group or an activity to which
on the car such as alienation and aggressive one should belong or in which one should be
human behaviour. involved
Synonyms: isolation, detachment, estrangement,
E distance, separation, severance, parting
A 1993 study by the European Federation for
Transport and Environment found that car aggressive /əˈgrɛsɪv/: angry, and behaving in a
transport is seven times as costly as rail travel threatening way; ready to attack
in terms of the external social costs it entails Synonyms: violent, hostile, destructive, belligerent
such as congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of
cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil
resources, and so on. Yet cars easily surpass Entail: to make something necessary, or
trains or buses as a flexible and convenient to involve something
mode of personal transport. It is unrealistic to
expect people to give up private cars in favour
of mass transit. flexible /ˈflɛksəbəl/: able to change to suit new
conditions or situations
F Synonyms: adaptable, accommodating, variable,
complient
Technical solutions can reduce the pollution
problem and increase the fuel efficiency of
engines. But fuel consumption and exhaust
emissions depend on which cars are preferred
by customers and how they are driven. Many consumption /kənˈsʌmpʃən/: the act of using
people buy larger cars than they need for daily energy, food or materials; the amount used
purposes or waste fuel by driving aggressively.
Synonyms: using up, use, utilization, expending,
Besides, global car use is increasing at a faster expenditure, depletion, exhaustion
rate than the improvement in emissions and
fuel efficiency which technology is now making
possible.
G
One solution that has been put forward is the efficiency /ɪˈfɪʃənsi/: the quality of doing something
long-term solution of designing cities and well with no waste of time or money
neighbourhoods so that car journeys are not Synonyms: productivity, effectiveness, competence,
necessary - all essential services being located capability, ability, proficiency
79
within walking distance or easily accessible by
public transport. Not only would this save
energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions, it
would also enhance the quality of community enhance /ɛnˈhæns/: to increase or further improve
life, putting the emphasis on people instead of the good quality, value or status of
cars. Good local government is already somebody/something
bringing this about in some places. But few Synonyms: improve, increase, boost, develop, enrich
democratic communities are blessed with the
vision - and the capital - to make such profound
changes in modern lifestyles.
H
A more likely scenario seems to be a
combination of mass transit systems for travel
into and around cities, with small 'low emission'
cars for urban use and larger hybrid or lean
burn cars for use elsewhere. Electronically desirable /dɪˈzaɪrəbəl/: that you would like to have
tolled highways might be used to ensure that or do; worth having or doing
drivers pay charges geared to actual road use. Synonyms: wanted, needed, necessary, required,
Better integration of transport systems is also desired, advantageous
highly desirable - and made more feasible by
modern computers. But these are solutions for predominate /prɪˈdɑməˌneɪt/: to be greater in
countries which can afford them. In most amount or number than something/somebody else in
developing countries, old cars and old a place, group, etc.
technologies continue to predominate. Synonyms: prevail, dominate, outweigh
80
Topic 22: Keep a Watchful Eye on the
Bridges
A Most road and rail bridges are only

inspected visually, if at all. Every few months,
engineers have to clamber over the structure in
an attempt to find problems before the bridge obvious /ˈɑbviəs/: easy to see or understand
shows obvious signs of damage. Technologies Synonyms: clear, understandable, noticeable,
developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory, apparent, evident, observable
New Mexico, and Texas A&M University may
replace these surveys with microwave sensors constantly /ˈkɑnstəntli/: continuously over a period
that constantly monitor the condition of of time; always
bridges. Synonyms: continually, continuously, repetitively,
frequently, persistently, endlessly
B “The device uses microwaves to measure
the distance between the sensor and the bridge, monitor /ˈmɑnətər/: observe and check the
much like radar does,” says Albert Migliori, a progress or quality of (something) over a period of
Los Alamos physicist “Any load on the bridge – time
such as traffic induces displacements, which
change that distance as the bridge moves up induces /ɪnˈdusɪz/: to cause something
and down.” By monitoring these movements Synonyms: bring about, cause, be the cause of,
over several minutes, the researchers can find effect, create, give rise to, lead to, result in
out how the bridge resonates. Changes in its
behaviour can give an early warning of damage. resonates /ˈrɛzəˌneɪts/: to be filled with sound; to
C The Interstate 40 bridge over the Rio make a sound continue longer
Grande river in Albuquerque provided the
researchers with a rare opportunity to text their raze /reɪz/: completely destroy (a building, town, or
ideas. Chuck Farrar, an engineer at Los Alamos, other site)
explains: “The New Mexico authorities decided Synonyms: destroy, demolish, wreck, ruin, flatten,
to raze this bridge and replace it. We were able devastate, knock down
to mount instruments on it, test it under various
load conditions and even inflict damage just inflict /ɪnˈflɪkt/: to make somebody/something
before it was demolished.” In the 1960s and suffer something unpleasant
81
1970s, 2500 similar bridges were built in the US.
They have two steel girders supporting the load demolished /dɪˈmɑlɪʃt/: pull or knock down (a
in each section. Highway experts know that this building)
design is “fracture critical” because a failure in Synonyms: knock down, pull down, tear down,
either girder would cause the bridge to fail. bring down, destroy, flatten, raze
D After setting up the microwave dish on the
ground below the bridge, the Los Alamos team conventional /kənˈvɛnʃənəl/: tending to follow
installed conventional accelerometers at what is done or considered acceptable by society
several points along the span to measure its in general; normal and ordinary, and perhaps not
motion. They then tested the bridge while traffic very interesting
roared across it and while subjecting it to Synonyms: normal, standard, regular, ordinary,
pounding from a “shaker”, which delivered usual, traditional, typical, common
precise punches to a specific point on the road.
E “We then created damage that we hoped motion /ˈmoʊʃən/: the act or process of moving or
would simulate fatigue cracks that can occur in the way something moves
steel girders,” says Farrar. They first cut a slot Synonyms: movement, moving, locomotion,
about 60 centimetres long in the middle of one shifting, progress, passing, transit, course, flow,
girder. They then extended the cut until it motility, mobility
reached the bottom of the girder and finally they
cut across the flange – the bottom of the girder’s simulate /ˈsɪmjələt/: to create particular conditions
“I” shape. that exist in real life using computers, models, etc.,
usually for study or training purposes
F The initial, crude analysis of the bridge’s Synonyms: imitate, reproduce, replicate, duplicate,
behaviour, based on the frequency at which the mimic, parallel
bridge resonates, did not indicate that anything
was wrong until the flange was damaged. But fatigue /fəˈtig/: weakness in metal or wood caused
later the data were reanalysed with algorithms by repeated bending or stretching
that took into account changes in the mode
shapes of the structure – shapes that the sophisticated /səˈfɪstəˌkeɪtɪd/: (of a machine,
structure takes on when excited at a particular system, or technique) developed to a high degree
frequency. These more sophisticated of complexity
algorithms, which were developed by Norris Synonyms: advanced, highly developed
Stubbs at Texas A&M University, successfully
identified and located the damage caused by the
initial cut.
G “When any structure vibrates, the energy is
distributed throughout with some points not
moving, while others vibrate strongly at various
frequencies,” says Stubbs. “My algorithms use
pattern recognition to detect changes in the
distribution of this energy.” NASA already uses
Stubbs’ method to check the behaviour of the
body flap that slows space shuttles down after
they land.
H A commercial system based on the Los
Alamos hardware is now available, complete
with the Stubbs algorithms, from the Quatro
Corporation in Albuquerque for about $100,000.
Tim Darling, another Los Alamos physicist
working on the microwave interferometer with
Migliori, says that as the electronics become
cheaper, a microwave inspection system will
82
eventually be applied to most large bridges in eventually /ɪˈvɛnʧəwəli/: at the end of a period of
the US. “In a decade I would like to see a time or a series of events
battery or solar-powered package mounted
under each bridge, scanning it every day to detect /dɪˈtɛkt/: to discover or notice something,
detect changes,” he says. especially something that is not easy to see, hear,
etc.
Synonyms: catch, disclose, identify, find, notice,
observe, recognize, reveal, spot
83
Topic 23: BAKELITE - The birth of modem
plastics
In 1907, Leo Hendrick Baekeland, a Belgian

scientist working in New York, discovered and patented /ˈpætəntəd/: công nhận, cấp bằng sáng
patented a revolutionary new synthetic chế
material. His invention, which he named
'Bakelite', was of enormous technological synthetic /sɪnˈθɛtɪk/: artificial; made by combining
importance, and effectively launched the chemical substances rather than being produced
modern plastics industry. naturally by plants or animals
Synonyms: man-made, manufactured, fabricated
The term 'plastic' comes from the Greek
plassein, meaning 'to mould'. Some plastics are entirely /ɪnˈtaɪərli/: in every way possible;
derived from natural sources, some are semi- completely
synthetic (the result of chemical action on a Synonyms: absolutely, completely, totally, fully,
natural substance), and some are entirely wholly, exclusively, thoroughly, utterly
synthetic, that is, chemically engineered from
the constituents of coal or oil. Some are revert /rɪˈvɜrt/: return to (a previous state, practice,
'thermoplastic', which means that, like topic, etc.)
candlewax, they melt when heated and can then Synonyms: return, go back, come back, change
be reshaped. Others are 'thermosetting': like back, retrogress, regress, default, fall back into
eggs, they cannot revert to their original
viscous state, and their shape is thus fixed for viscous /ˈvɪskəs/: having a thick, sticky
ever Bakelite had the distinction of being the first consistency between solid and liquid
totally synthetic thermosetting plastic.
The history of today's plastics begins with the
discovery of a series of semi-synthetic
thermoplastic materials in the mid-nineteenth
century. The impetus behind the development
of these early plastics was generated by a impetus /ˈɪmpətəs/: the force or energy with which
number of factors - immense technological a body moves
progress in the domain of chemistry, coupled Synonyms: momentum, propulsion, impulsion
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with wider cultural changes, and the pragmatic
need to find acceptable substitutes for dwindling immense /ɪˈmɛns/: extremely large or great,
supplies of 'luxury' materials such as especially in scale or degree
tortoiseshell and ivory. Synonyms: boundless, colossal, endless,
enormous, extensive, great, huge, massive
Baekeland's interest in plastics began in 1885
when, as a young chemistry student in Belgium, pragmatic /prægˈmætɪk/: solving problems in a
he embarked on research into phenolic resins, practical and sensible way rather than by having
the group of sticky substances produced when fixed ideas or theories
phenol (carbolic acid) combines with an Synonyms: efficient, practical, logical, realistic
aldehyde (a volatile fluid similar to alcohol). He
soon abandoned the subject, however, only abandoned /əˈbændənd/: abandon something to
returning to it some years later. By 1905 he was stop doing something, especially before it is
a wealthy New Yorker, having recently made finished; to stop having something
his fortune with the invention of a new Synonyms: desert, discard, discontinue, drop out,
photographic paper. While Baekeland had been quit, stop, vacate
busily amassing dollars, some advances had
been made in the development of plastics. The wealthy /ˈwɛlθi/: having a great deal of money,
years 1899 and 1900 had seen the patenting of resources, or assets; rich
the first semi-synthetic thermosetting material Synonyms: affluent, prosperous, rich, well-off
that could be manufactured on an industrial
scale. In purely scientific terms, Baekeland's fortune /ˈfɔrʧən/: a large amount of money
major contribution to the field is not so much the Synonyms: wealth, riches, substance, property,
actual discovery of the material to which he assets, resources, means, possessions, treasure,
gave his name, but rather the method by which estate, affluence, prosperity
a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde
could be controlled, thus making possible its
preparation on a commercial basis. On 13 July
1907, Baekeland took out his famous patent
describing this preparation, the essential
features of which are still in use today.
The original patent outlined a three-stage
process, in which phenol and formaldehyde
(from wood or coal) were initially combined
under vacuum inside a large egg-shaped kettle.
The result was a resin known as Novalak, which
became soluble and malleable when heated.
The resin was allowed to cool in shallow trays soluble /ˈsɑljəbəl/: (of a substance) able to be
until it hardened, and then broken up and dissolved, especially in water
ground into powder. Other substances were Synonym: dissolved
then introduced: including fillers, such as
woodflour, asbestos or cotton, which increase malleable /ˈmæliəbəl/: (of metal, etc.) that can be
strength and moisture resistance, catalysts hit or pressed into different shapes easily without
(substances to speed up the reaction between breaking or cracking
two chemicals without joining to either) and Synonyms: adaptable, flexible, workable, supple
hexa, a compound of ammonia and
formaldehyde which supplied the additional
formaldehyde necessary to form a thermosetting
resin. This resin was then left to cool and
harden, and ground up a second time. The
resulting granular powder was raw Bakelite,
ready to be made into a vast range of
manufactured objects. In the last stage, the
heated Bakelite was poured into a hollow mould
85
of the required shape and subjected to extreme
heat and pressure, thereby 'setting' its form for
life.
The design of Bakelite objects, everything from
earrings to television sets, was governed to a
large extent by the technical requirements of the
moulding process. The object could not be
designed so that it was locked into the mould
and therefore difficult to extract. A common
general rule was that objects should taper
towards the deepest part of the mould, and if
necessary the product was moulded in separate
pieces. Moulds had to be carefully designed so
that the molten Bakelite would flow evenly and
completely into the mould. Sharp corners proved
impractical and were thus avoided, giving rise to
the smooth, 'streamlined' style popular in the
1930s. The thickness of the walls of the mould
was also crucial’ thick walls took longer to cool
and harden, a factor which had to be considered
by the designer in order to make the most
efficient use of machines.
Baekeland's invention, although treated with
disdain in its early years, went on to enjoy an
unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout
the first half of the twentieth century. It became disdain /dɪsˈdeɪn/: the feeling that someone or
the wonder product of the new world of industrial something is unworthy of one's consideration or
expansion - 'the material of a thousand uses'. respect; contempt
Being both non-porous and heat-resistant, Synonyms: antipathy, arrogance, aversion,
Bakelite kitchen goods were promoted as being contempt
germ-free and sterilisable. Electrical
manufacturers seized on its insulating
properties, and consumers everywhere relished
its dazzling array of shades, delighted that they
were now, at last, no longer restricted to the
wood tones and drab browns of the preplastic
era. It then fell from favour again during the despised /dɪˈspaɪzd/: to dislike and have no
1950s, and was despised and destroyed in vast respect for somebody/something
quantities. Recently, however, it has been Synonyms: deride, detest, disdain, hate, neglect,
experiencing something of a renaissance, with reject, repudiate
renewed demand for original Bakelite objects in
the collectors' marketplace, and museums, renaissance /ˌrɛnəˈsɑns/: a situation when there is
societies and dedicated individuals once again new interest in a particular subject, form of art, etc.
appreciating the style and originality of this after a period when it was not very popular
innovative material.
86
Topic 24: The Problem of Scarce Resources
Section A efficient /ɪˈfɪʃənt/: doing something well and

thoroughly with no waste of time, money or energy
The problem of how health-care resources Synonyms: streamlined, productive, effective,
should be allocated or apportioned, so that labor-saving, cost-effective
they are distributed in both, the most just and
most efficient way, is not a new one. Every priority /praɪˈɔrəti/: something that you think is
health system in an economically developed more important than other things and should be
society is faced with the need to decide (either dealt with first
formally or informally) what proportion of the Synonyms: prime concern, first concern, most
community’s total resources should be spent important consideration, most pressing matter
on health-care; how resources are to be
apportioned; what diseases and disabilities consideration /kənˌsɪdəˈreɪʃən/: careful thought,
and which forms of treatment are to be given typically over a period of time
priority; which members of the community are Synonyms: thought, deliberation, reflection,
to be given special consideration in respect contemplation, cogitation, rumination, attention
of their health needs; and which forms of
treatment are the most cost-effective. cost-effective /kɑst/-/ɪˈfɛktɪv/: giving the best
Section B possible profit or benefits in comparison with the
money that is spent
What is new is that, from the 1950s onwards,
there have been certain general changes in clientele /ˌklaɪənˈtɛl/: all the customers or clients of
outlook about the finitude of resources as a a shop/store, restaurant, organization, etc
whole and of health-care resources in
particular, as well as more specific changes awareness /əˈwɛrnəs/: knowing that something
regarding the clientele of health-care exists and is important; being interested in
resources and the cost to the community of something
those resources. Thus, in the 1950s and Synonyms: alertness, attention, realization,
1960s, there emerged an awareness in recognition, understanding
87
Western societies that resources for the
provision of fossil fuel energy were finite and finite /ˈfaɪˌnaɪt/: having a definite limit or fixed size
exhaustible and that the capacity of nature or
the environment to sustain economic sustain /səˈsteɪn/: to experience something bad
development and population was also finite. In Synonyms: undergo, experience, go through,
other words, we became aware of the obvious suffer, endure
fact that there were ‘limits to growth’. The new
consciousness that there were also severe
limits to health-care resources was part of this
general revelation of the obvious. Looking
back, it now seems quite incredible that in the
national health systems that emerged in many
countries in the years immediately after the
1939-45 World War, it was assumed without
question that all the basic health needs of any
community could be satisfied, at least in
principle; the ‘invisible hand’ of economic
progress would provide.
Section C
However, at exactly the same time as this new
realisation of the finite character of health-care
resources was sinking in, an awareness of a
contrary kind was developing in Western contrary /ˈkɑntrɛri/: opposite in nature, direction, or
societies: that people have a basic right to meaning
health-care as a necessary condition of a Synonyms: opposite, opposing, opposed,
proper human life. Like education, political and contradictory, clashing, conflicting, antithetical,
legal processes and institutions, public order, incompatible, irreconcilable, different
communication, transport and money supply,
health-care came to be seen as one of the
fundamental social facilities necessary for fundamental /ˌfʌndəˈmɛntəl/: serious and very
people to exercise their other rights as important; affecting the most central and important
autonomous human beings. People are not in parts of something
a position to exercise personal liberty and to Synonyms: central, constitutional, elemental,
be self-determining if they are poverty- major, principal, vital, necessary
stricken, or deprived of basic education, or do
not live within a context of law and order. In liberty /ˈlɪbərti/: freedom to live as you choose
the same way, basic health-care is a condition without too many restrictions from government or
of the exercise of autonomy. authority
Synonyms: independence, freedom, autonomy,
Section D sovereignty
Although the language of ‘rights’ sometimes
leads to confusion, by the late 1970s it was ensure /ɛnˈʃʊr/: to make sure that something
recognised in most societies that people have happens or is definite
a right to health-care (though there has been Synonyms: make sure, make certain, secure,
considerable resistance in the United States to guarantee, warrant, certify, clinch, confirm
the idea that there is a formal right to health-
care). It is also accepted that this right adequate /ˈædəkwət/: enough in quantity, or good
generates an obligation or duty for the state to enough in quality, for a particular purpose or need
ensure that adequate health-care resources Synonyms: sufficient, enough, ample, requisite,
are provided out of the public purse. The state apposite
has no obligation to provide a health-care
system itself, but to ensure that such a system
88
is provided. Put another way, basic health-
care is now recognised as a ‘public good’,
rather than a ‘private good’ that one is
expected to buy for oneself. As the 1976
declaration of the World Health Organisation
put it: ‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable /əˈteɪnəbəl/: that you can achieve
attainable standard of health is one of the Synonyms: obtainable, available, feasible,
fundamental rights of every human being reachable, practicable
without distinction of race, religion, political
belief, economic or social condition.’ As has
just been remarked, in a liberal society basic indispensable /ˌɪndɪˈspɛnsəbəl/: absolutely
health is seen as one of the indispensable necessary
conditions for the exercise of personal Synonyms: basic, crucial, essential, fundamental,
autonomy. imperative, vital
Section E
Just at the time when it became obvious that
health-care resources could not possibly meet
the demands being made upon them, people
were demanding that their fundamental right to
health-care be satisfied by the state. The
second set of more specific changes that have
led to the present concern about the
distribution of health-care resources stems
from the dramatic rise in health costs in most
OECD1 countries, accompanied by large- accompanied /əˈkʌmpənid/: to happen or appear
scale demographic and social changes which with something else
have meant, to take one example, that elderly
people are now major (and relatively very
expensive) consumers of health-care
resources. Thus in OECD countries as a
whole, health costs increased from 3.8% of
GDP in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it
has been predicted that the proportion of
health costs to GDP will continue to increase.
(In the US the current figure is about 12% consequence /ˈkɑnsəkwəns/: a result or effect of
of GDP, and in Australia about 7.8% of an action or condition
GDP) Synonyms: result, upshot, outcome, outturn,
sequel, effect
As a consequence, during the 1980s a kind
of doomsday scenario (analogous to similar analogous /əˈnæləgəs/: similar in some way to
doomsday extrapolations about energy another thing or situation and therefore able to be
needs and fossil fuels or about population compared with it
increases) was projected by health
administrators, economists and politicians, i In extrapolations /ɛkˌstræpəˈleɪʃənz/: the act or
this scenario, ever-rising health costs were process of estimating something or forming an
matched against static or declining resources. opinion about something, using the facts that you
have now and that are valid for one situation and
supposing that they will be valid for the new one.
89
Topic 25: Trends in the Indian fashion and
textile industries
During the 1950s, the Indian fashion scene was

exciting, stylish and very graceful. There were no
celebrity designers or models, nor were there any
labels that were widely recognised. The value of a garment /ˈgɑrmənt/: an item of clothing
garment was judged by its style and fabric rather
than by who made it. It was regarded as perfectly
acceptable, even for high-society women, to
approach an unknown tailor who could make a
garment for a few rupees, providing the perfect fit, bargain /ˈbɑrgən/: an agreement between two
finish and style. They were proud of getting a or more people or groups, to do something for
bargain, and of giving their own name to the end each other
result. Synonyms: agreement, arrangement,
understanding, deal
The 1960s was an era full of mischievousness
and celebration in the arts, music and cinema.
The period was characterised by freedom from innovative /ˈɪnəˌveɪtɪv/: introducing or using
restrictions and, in the fashion world, an new ideas, ways of doing something, etc.
acceptance of innovative types of material such Synonyms: contemporary, ingenious, inventive,
as plastic and coated polyester. Tight- new
fitting kurtas[1] and churidars[2] and high
coiffures were a trend among women.
The following decade witnessed an increase in

the export of traditional materials, and the arrival
in India of international fashion. Synthetics
became trendy, and the disco culture affected the
fashion scene.
90
It was in the early 80s when the first fashion store
‘Ravissant’ opened in Mumbai. At that time
garments were retailed for a four-figure price tag.
American designers like Calvin Klein became
popular. In India too, contours became more
masculine, and even the salwar kameez[3] was
designed with shoulder pads.
hefty /ˈhɛfti/: large, heavy, and powerful
With the evolution of designer stores came the
culture of designer fashion, along with its hefty Synonyms: burly, heavy, sturdy, strapping,
price tags. Whatever a garment was like, bulky, brawny, husky, strong, muscular, large,
consumers were convinced that a higher price tag big, massive, weighty, solid
signified elegant designer fashion, so garments
were sold at unbelievable prices. Meanwhile,
designers decided to get themselves noticed by
making showy outfits and associating with the
right celebrities. Soon, fashion shows became
competitive, each designer attempting to out-do
the other in theme, guest list and media coverage.
In the last decade of the millennium, the market

shrank and ethnic wear made a comeback. During
the recession, there was a push to sell at any
cost. With fierce competition the inevitable
occurred: the once hefty price tags began their fierce /fɪrs/: khốc liệt
downward journey, and the fashion-show industry
followed suit. However, the liveliness of the Indian
fashion scene had not ended - it had merely
reached a stable level. merely /ˈmɪrli/ : just; only
At the beginning of the 21st century, with new

designers and models, and more sensible accelerated /ækˈsɛləˌreɪtɪd/: begin to move
designs, the fashion industry accelerated once more quickly
again. As far as the global fashion industry is Synonyms: advance, expedite, further, hasten,
concerned, Indian ethnic designs and materials quicken, stimulate
are currently in demand from fashion houses and
garment manufacturers. India is the third largest
producer of cotton, the second largest
producer of silk, and the fifth largest producer
of man-made fibres in the world.
The Indian garment and fabric industries have

many fundamental advantages, in terms of a
cheaper, skilled work force, cost-effective
production, raw materials, flexibility, and a wide
range of designs with sequins, beadwork, and
embroidery. In addition, that India provides default source /dɪˈfɔlt/: nguồn chính
garments to international fashion houses at
competitive prices, with a shorter lead time, and segment /ˈsɛgmənt/: a part of something that is
an effective monopoly on certain designs, separate from the other parts or can be
is accepted the whole world over. India has considered separately
always been regarded as the default source in Synonyms: piece, part, bit, section, chunk,
the embroidered garments segment, but changes division, portion, slice, fragment
in the rate of exchange between the rupee and
91
the dollar has further depressed prices, thereby
attracting more buyers. So the international
fashion houses walk away with customised goods,
and craftwork is sold at very low rates.
As far as the fabric market is concerned, the

range available in India can attract as well as
confuse the buyer. Much of the production takes belie /bɪˈlaɪ/: to show that something cannot be
place in the small town of Chapa in the eastern true or correct
state of Bihar, a name one might never have Synonyms: contradict, call into question, give
heard of. Here fabric-making is a family industry; the lie to, show/prove to be false, disprove,
the range and quality of raw silks churned out debunk
here belie the crude production methods and
equipment. Surat in Gujarat, is the supplier of an crude /krud/: in a natural or raw state; not yet
amazing set of jacquards, moss crepes and processed or refined
georgette sheers - all fabrics in high demand. Synonyms: unrefined, unpurified, unprocessed,
Another Indian fabric design that has been untreated, unmilled, unworked, unpolished,
adopted by the fashion industry is the ‘Madras coarse, unprepared, raw, natural, plain
check’, originally utilised for the universal lungi, a
simple lower-body wrap worn in southern India. accessory /ækˈsɛsəri/: a thing that you can
This design has now found its way on to wear or carry that matches your clothes, for
bandannas, blouses, home furnishings and almost example a belt or a bag
anything one can think of.
haute couture /hoʊt/- /kuˈtʊr/: the business of
Ethnic Indian designs with batik and hand- making fashionable and expensive clothes for
embroidered motifs have also become popular women; the clothes made in this business
across the world. Decorative bead work is another
product in demand in the international market.
Beads are used to prepare accessory items like
belts and bags, and beadwork is now available for
haute couture evening wear too.
[1] knee-length tunics

[2] trousers
[3] trouser suit
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Topic 26: Sustainable growth at Didcot
A
The UK Government’s South East Plan proposes
additional housing growth in the town of Didcot,
which has been a designated growth area since potential /pəˈtɛnʃəl/: that can develop into
1979. We in South Oxfordshire District Council something or be developed in the future
consider that, although Didcot does have Synonyms: hidden, possible, likely, probable
potential for further growth, such development
should be sustainable, well-planned, and
supported by adequate infrastructure and adequate /ˈædəkwət/: enough in quantity, or good
community services. enough in quality, for a particular purpose or need
B Synonyms: sufficient, enough, ample, requisite,
Recent experience in Didcot has demonstrated apposite, appropriate, suitable, acceptable,
that large greenfield [1]developments cannot passable, reasonable, satisfactory, tolerable, fair
resource all the necessary infrastructure and low-
cost housing requirements. The ensuing legacy /ˈlɛgəsi/: an amount of money or property
compromises create a legacy of local transport, left to someone in a will
infrastructure and community services deficits, Synonyms: bequest, inheritance, heritage,
with no obvious means of correction. We wish to
ensure that there is greater recognition of the deficits /ˈdɛfɪsɪts/: the amount by which something,
cost attached to housing growth, and that a especially a sum of money, is too small
means is found to resource the establishment of
sustainable communities in growth areas. spur /spɜr/: a fact or an event that makes you want
C to do something better or more quickly
Until the 1950s, the development of job Synonyms: stimulus, incentive, encouragement,
opportunities in the railway industry, and in a stimulant, stimulation, inducement, impetus, prod,
large, military ordnance depot, was the spur to prompt, incitement, goad, fillip, motive, motivation
Didcot’s expansion. Development at that time
was geared to providing homes for the railway
and depot workers, with limited investment in
shopping and other services for the local
population. Didcot failed to develop Broadway as
a compact town centre, and achieved only a strip
of shops along one side of the main street
93
hemmed in by low density housing and service
trade uses.
D
From the 1970s, strategic planning policies strategic /strəˈtiʤɪk/: done as part of a plan that is
directed significant new housing development to meant to achieve a particular purpose or to gain an
Didcot. Planners recognised Didcot’s potential, advantage
with rapid growth in local job opportunities and Synonyms: planned, calculated, deliberate, tactical,
good rail connections for those choosing to work politic, judicious, prudent, clever, shrewd
farther afield. However, the town is bisected by
the east-west railway, and people living in extension /ɪkˈstɛnʃən/: a part that is added to
Ladygrove, the urban extension to the north something to enlarge or prolong it; a continuation
which has been built since the 1980s, felt, and Synonyms: addition, add-on, adjunct, addendum,
still feel, cut off from the town and its community. augmentation, supplement, appendage
E
Population growth in the new housing areas farther afield; a long/longer distance away
failed to spark adequate private-sector
investment in town centre uses, and the limited
investment which did take place - Didcot Market
Place development in 1982, for instance - did not
succeed in delivering the number and range of
town centre uses needed by the growing
population. In 1990, public-sector finance was
used to buy the land required for the Orchard
Centre development, comprising a superstore,
parking and a new street of stores running
parallel to Broadway. The development took 13
years to complete.
F
The idea that, by obliging developers of new
housing to contribute to the cost of infrastructure
and service requirements, all the necessary
finance could be raised, has proved substantial /səbˈstænʧəl/: large in amount, value or
unachievable. Substantial public finance was importance
still needed to deliver major projects such as the Synonyms: considerable, real, material, weighty,
new link road to the A34 on the outskirts of the solid, sizeable, meaningful, significant, important,
town at Milton, the improved railway crossing at notable, major, marked, valuable, useful, worthwhile
Marsh Bridge and new schools. Such projects
were delayed due to difficulties in securing public
finance. The same problem also held back
expansion of health and social services in the
town.
G
In recent years, government policy, in particular
the requirement for developers that forty percent impact /ˈɪmpækt/: the powerful effect that
of the units in a new housing development should something has on somebody/something
be low cost homes, has had a major impact on Synonyms: affect, influence, exert influence,
the economics of such development, as it has change, alter, modify, transform, shape, control,
limited the developers’ contribution to the costs of govern, determine
infrastructure. The planning authorities are facing
difficult choices in prioritising the items of
infrastructure which must be funded by
development, and this, in turn, means that from
now on public finance will need to provide a
greater proportion of infrastructure project costs.
94
H
The Government’s Sustainable Communities
Plan seeks a holistic approach to new urban holistic /hoʊˈlɪstɪk/: considering a whole thing or
development in which housing, employment, being to be more than a collection of parts
services and infrastructure of all kinds are Synonyms: complete, whole, comprehensive,
carefully planned and delivered in a way which intergrated
avoids the infrastructure deficits that have
occurred in places like Didcot in the past. This baseline /ˈbeɪˌslaɪn/: a line or measurement that is
report, therefore, is structured around the used as a starting point when comparing facts
individual components of a sustainable
community, and shows the baseline position for evaluate /ɪˈvæljuˌeɪt/: to form an opinion of the
each component. amount, value or quality of something after thinking
I about it carefully
Didcot has been identified as one of the towns Synonyms: appraise, assess, calculate, check,
with which the Government is working to classify, figure out
evaluate whether additional growth will
strengthen the economic potential of the town, aspirations /ˌæspəˈreɪʃənz/: a strong desire to have
deliver the necessary infrastructure and improve or do something
environmental standards. A programme of work, Synonyms: aim, ambition, desire, dream,
including discussions with the local community eagerness, endeavor, passion, wish, inclination
about their aspirations for the town as well as
other stakeholders, will be undertaken over the scarce /skɛrs/: if something is scarce, there is not
coming months, and will lead to the development enough of it and it is only available in small
of a strategic master plan. The challenge will be quantities
in optimising scarce resources to achieve Synonyms: in short supply, short, scant, scanty,
maximum benefits for the town. meager, sparse, insufficient, deficient, inadequate,
lacking
[1] land that has never previously been built on
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Topic 27: Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street
Youth
"I am from a large, poor family and for many

years we have done without breakfast. Ever
since I joined the Street Kids International
program I have been able to buy my family sugar
and buns for breakfast. I have also bought myself
decent second-hand clothes and shoes."
Doreen Soko
'We’ve had business experience. Now I'm
confident to expand what we've been doing.
I've learnt cash management, and the way of
keeping money so we save for re- : investment.
Now business is a part of our lives. As well, we
didn't know each other before - now we've made
new friends.'
Fan Kaoma
Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise
Initiative Program, Zambia
Introduction
Although small-scale business training and credit
programs have become more common relatively /ˈrɛlətɪvli/: to a fairly large degree,
throughout the world, relatively little attention especially in comparison to something else
has been paid to the need to direct such Synonyms: almost, approximately, comparably,
opportunities to young people. Even less comparatively, nearly, rather
attention has been paid to children living on the
street or in difficult circumstances.
Over the past nine years, Street Kids
International (S.K.I.) has been working with
96
partner organisations in Africa, Latin America and
India to support the economic lives of street
children, The purpose of this paper is to share
some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have
learned.
Background
Typically, children do not end up on the streets
due to a single cause, but to a combination of typically /ˈtɪpɪkli/: in most cases; usually
factors: a dearth of adequately funded schools, Synonyms: commonly, consistently, frequently,
the demand for income at home, family generally, mostly, normally, often, regularly
breakdown and violence. The street may be
attractive to children as a place to find
adventurous play and money. However, It is also
a place where some children are exposed, with
little or no protection, to exploitative exposed /ɪkˈspoʊzd/: to put
employment, urban crime, and abuse. somebody/something in a place or situation
where they are not protected from something
harmful or unpleasant
Children who work on the streets are generally
involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks exploitative /ˌɛkˈsplɔɪtətɪv/: treating somebody
which require long hours, such as shining shoes, unfairly in order to gain an advantage or to
carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and make money
informal trading. Some may also earn income
through begging, or through theft and other abuse /əˈbjus/: treat (a person or an animal)
illegal activities. At the same time, there are with cruelty or violence, especially regularly or
street children who take pride in supporting repeatedly
themselves and their families and who often Synonyms: mistreat, maltreat, ill-treat, treat
enjoy their work. Many children may choose badly
entrepreneurship because it allows them a
degree of independence, is less exploitative than illegal /ɪˈligəl/: not allowed by the law
many forms of paid employment, and is flexible
enough to allow them to participate in other Synonyms: unlawful, illicit, illegitimate, against
activities such as education and domestic tasks. the law, criminal, lawbreaking, felonious,
unlicensed, unauthorized, unofficial, outlawed,
banned, forbidden, prohibited, not permitted
Street Business Partnerships
S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in
Latin America, Africa and India to develop
innovative opportunities for street children to
earn income. innovative /ˈɪnəˌveɪtɪv/: introducing or using
• The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started new ideas, ways of doing something, etc.
in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were Synonyms: contemporary, ingenious, inventive,
supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver new
parcels and messages, and which they were
required to pay for gradually from their wages. A parcels /ˈpɑrsəlz/: something that is wrapped in
similar program was taken up in Bangalore, paper or put into a thick envelope so that it can
India. be sent by mail, carried easily, or given as a
present
• Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Synonyms: package, packet, pack, carton,
Collective, was a partnership program with the bundle, box, case, bale, fardel
97
Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this
project, participants were lent money to purchase
shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe
place to store their equipment, and facilities for
individual savings plans.
• The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia
is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and
the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start
their own small business through business
training, life skills training and access to credit.
Lessons learned
The following lessons have emerged from the
programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations
have created.
• Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor
for every street child. Ideally, potential
participants will have been involved in the
organisation's programs for at least six months,
and trust and relationship building will have
already been established.
• The involvement of the participants has been procedures /prəˈsiʤərz/: a way of doing
essential to the development of relevant
something, especially the usual or correct way
programs. When children have had a major role Synonyms: action, form, method, step,
in determining procedures, they are more likely
proceeding, plan, scheme, operation
to abide by and enforce them.
• It is critical for all loans to be linked to training
programs that include the development of basic abide /əˈbaɪd/: accept or act in accordance with
business and life skills. Synonyms: accept, tolerate, stand for
• There are tremendous advantages to involving
parents or guardians in the program, where such enforce /ɛnˈfɔrs/: to make something happen or
relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the force somebody to do something
opportunity to know where the participants live, Synonyms: accomplish, administer, apply,
and to understand more about each individual’s impose, invoke, implement, carry out
situation.
• Small loans are provided initially for purchasing tremendous /trəˈmɛndəs/: very great in amount,
fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits scale, or intensity
and basic building materials for a market stall. As Synonyms: very great, huge, enormous,
the entrepreneurs gain experience, the immense, colossal, massive, prodigious
enterprises can be gradually expanded and
consideration can be given to increasing loan
amounts, The loan amounts in S.K.I. programs
have generally ranged from US$30-$100.
• All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the
loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to
the concept of paying interest on borrowed
98
money. Generally the rates have been modest
(lower than bank rates).
provision /prəˈvɪʒən/: the action of providing or

Conclusion supplying something for use
Synonyms: supplying, supply, providing,
There is a need to recognise the importance of purveying, delivery, furnishing, equipping,
access to credit for impoverished young people giving, donation, allocation, distribution
seeking to fulfil economic needs. The provision
of small loans to support the entrepreneurial ambitions /æmˈbɪʃənz/: something that you
dreams and ambitions of youth can be an want to do or achieve very much
effective means to help them change their lives. Synonyms: aspiration, intention, goal, aim,
However, we believe that credit must be objective, object, purpose, scheme, mission
extended in association with other types of
support that help participants develop critical life productive /prəˈdʌktɪv/: doing or achieving a lot
skills as well as productive businesses. Synonyms: advantageous, fruitful, beneficial,
effective, rewarding, dynamic
99
Topic 28: Reducing electricity consumption
on the Isle of Eigg
Background
The Isle of Eigg is situated off the West Coast of
Scotland, and is reached by ferry from the
mainland. For the island community of about a
hundred residents, it has always been
expensive to import products, materials and import /ˈɪmpɔrt/: bring a product or service into
skilled labour from the mainland, and this has one country from another
encouraged a culture of self-sufficiency and
careful use of resources. Today, although the
island now has most modern conveniences,
CO2 emissions per household are 20 percent
lower than the UK average, and electricity use is
50 percent lower.
When Eigg designed its electricity grid, which
was switched on in February 2008, it quickly
became apparent that in order to keep the apparent /əˈpɛrənt/: easy to see or understand
capital building costs down, it would be Synonyms: evident, plain, obvious, clear,
necessary to manage demand. This would also manifest, visible
allow the island to generate most of its electricity
from renewable sources, mainly water, wind and
solar power. This goal was overseen by the Eigg
Heritage Trust (EHT).
The technology instantaneous /ˌɪnstənˈtæniəs/: happening
immediately
100
Eigg manages electricity demand mainly by Synonyms: rapid, spontaneous, transitory
capping the instantaneous power that can be
used to five kilowatts (kW) for a household and
ten kW for a business. If usage goes over the
limit, the electricity supply is cut off and the
maintenance team must be called to come and
switch it back on again. All households and cumulative /ˈkjumjələtɪv/: having a result that
businesses have energy monitors, which display increases in strength or importance each time
current and cumulative electricity usage, and more of something is added
sound an alarm when consumption reaches a Synonyms: aggregate, increasing
user-defined level, usually set a few hundred
watts below the actual limit. The result is that
Eigg residents have a keen sense of how much
power different electrical appliances use, and
are careful to minimise energy consumption.
Demand is also managed by warning the entire
island when renewable energy generation is
lower than demand, and diesel generators are
operating to back it up - a so-called ‘red light temporarily /ˌtɛmpəˈrɛrəli/: in a way that lasts or
day’, as opposed to ‘green light days’ when is intended to last or be used only for a short time;
there is sufficient renewable energy. Residents in a way that is not permanent
then take steps to temporarily reduce electricity
demand further still, or postpone demand until postpone /poʊstˈpoʊn/: to arrange for an event,
renewable energy generation has increased. etc. to take place at a later time or date
Energy use on the island has also been reduced Synonyms: adjourn, defer, delay
through improved wall and loft insulation in
homes, new boilers, solar water heating,
carsharing and various small, energy-saving
measures in households. New energy supplies
are being developed, including sustainably
harvested forests to supply wood for heating. insulation /ˌɪnsəˈleɪʃən/: the act of protecting
Eigg Heritage Trust has installed insulation in all something with a material that prevents heat,
of its own properties at no cost to the tenants, sound, electricity, etc. from passing through; the
while private properties have paid for their own materials used for this
insulation to be installed. The same applies for
installations of solar water heating, although not
all Trust properties have received this as yet.
The Trust also operates a Green Grants
scheme, where residents can claim 50 percent
of the cost of equipment to reduce carbon
emissions, up to a limit of £300. Purchases
included bikes, solar water heating, secondary
glazing, thicker curtains, and greenhouses to
grow food locally, rather than importing it.
Environmental benefits
Prior to the installation of the new electricity grid
and renewable energy generation, most
households on Eigg used-diesel generators to
supply electricity, resulting in significant carbon
emissions. Homes were also poorly insulated
and had old, inefficient oil-burning boilers, or
used coal for heating.
The work by the Eigg Heritage Trust to reduce
energy use has resulted in significant
101
reductions in carbon emissions from the reductions /riˈdʌkʃənz/: the action or fact of
island’s households and businesses. The making a specified thing smaller or less in
average annual electricity use per household amount, degree, or size
is just 2,160 kilowatt hours (kWh), compared Synonyms: depletion, cut, cutting, cutback,
to a UK average in 2008 of 4,198 kWh. scaling down, trimming, slimming (down), pruning,
Domestic carbon emissions have fallen by 47 axing
percent, from 8.4 to 4.45 tonnes per year. This
compares to average UK household emissions
of 5.5 to 6 tonnes per year. The emissions
should fall even further over the next few years
as the supply of wood for heating increases. dependence /dɪˈpɛndəns/: the state of relying on
Social benefits or being controlled by someone or something else
The completion of Eigg’s electricity grid has
made a significant difference to the island’s affordable /əˈfɔrdəbəl/: cheap enough that people
residents, freeing them from dependence on can afford to buy it or pay it
diesel generators and providing them with a Synonyms: cheap, economical, fair, low-cost,
stable and affordable power supply. A reliable modest
electricity supply has brought improvements in
other areas, for example, better treatment of elimination /ɪˌlɪməˈneɪʃən/: the process of
drinking water in some houses, and the removing or getting rid of something/somebody
elimination of the constant noise of diesel completely
generators. Improved home insulation and Synonyms: destruction, eradication, expulsion,
heating has also yielded benefits, making it withdrawal
more affordable to keep homes at a comfortable
temperature. One of the incentives for capping incentives /ɪnˈsɛntɪvz/: something that
electricity use, rather than charging different encourages you to do something
amounts according to usage, was to Synonyms: encouragement, enticement, impetus,
make access to energy equitable. Every motivation, reason, stimulus
household has the same five kW cap,
irrespective of income, so distributing the equitable /ˈɛkwətəbəl/: fair and reasonable;
available resources equally across the island’s treating everyone in an equal way
population. Synonyms: decent, fair, proper, reasonable,
Economic and employment benefits stable, unbiased
Eigg’s electricity grid supports four part-time
maintenance jobs on the island, and residents Irrespective of /ɪrəˈspɛktɪv/: without considering
have also been employed for building work to something or being influenced by it
improve Trust-owned houses and other
buildings. Likewise, the start of organised likewise /ˈlaɪˌkwaɪz/: the same; in a similar way
harvesting of wood for heating has created Synonyms: besides, too
several forestry jobs for residents. A part-time
‘green project manager’ post has also been
created. A wider economic impact has come
from having a reliable and affordable electricity
supply, which has enabled several new
businesses to start up, including restaurants,
shops, guest houses and self-catering
accommodation. As Eigg has become known for
cutting carbon emissions and protecting the
environment, an increasing number of visitors
have come to the island to learn about its work,
bringing a further economic benefit to the
residents.
102
Topic 29: Pottery production in ancient
Akrotiri
Excavations at the site of prehistoric Akrotiri, on

the coast of the Aegean Sea, have revealed
much about the technical aspects of pottery indisputably /ɪnˈdɪspjuˌtæbli/: in a way that cannot
manufacture, indisputably one of the basic be disagreed with or denied
industries of this Greek city. However, Synonyms: undeniably, actually, completely
considerably less is known about the socio-
economic context and the way production was
organised.
The bulk of pottery found at Akrotiri is locally distinguished /dɪˈstɪŋgwɪʃt/: to be a characteristic

made, and dates from the late fifteenth century that makes two people, animals or things different
BC. It clearly fulfilled a vast range of the Synonyms: analyze, categorize, characterize,
settlement’s requirements: more than fifty determine, identify, recognize
different types of pots can be distinguished. The
pottery found includes a wide variety of functional /ˈfʌŋkʃənəl/: designed to be practical
functional types like storage jars, smaller and useful, rather than attractive
containers, pouring vessels, cooking pots, Synonyms: practical, useful, utilitarian, utility,
drinking vessels and so on, which all relate to workaday
specific activities and which would have been
made and distributed with those activities in standardization /stændərdɪˈzeɪʃən/: tiêu chuẩn
mind. Given the large number of shapes hóa
produced and the relatively high degree of
standardisation, it has generally been assumed excavate /ˈɛkskəˌveɪt/: to dig in the ground to look
that most, if not all, of Akrotiri pottery was for old buildings or objects that have been buried
produced by specialised craftsmen in a for a long time; to find something by digging in this
nondomestic context. Unfortunately neither the way
potters’ workshops nor kilns have been found
within the excavated area. The reason may be
that the ceramic workshops were located on the periphery /pəˈrɪfəri/: the outer limits or edge of an
periphery of the site, which has not yet been area or object
excavated. In any event, the ubiquity of the Synonyms: brink, fringe, perimeter, rim, verge
pottery, and the consistent repetition of the
103
same types in different sizes, suggests ubiquity /juˈbɪkwɪti/: the fact of appearing
production on an industrial scale. everywhere or of being very common
Synonyms: pervasiveness
The Akrotirian potters seem to have responded
to pressures beyond their households, namely to repetition /ˌrɛpəˈtɪʃən/: the action of repeating
the increasing complexity of regional distribution something that has already been said or written
and exchange systems. We can imagine them as
fulltime craftsmen working permanently in a high complexity /kəmˈplɛksəti/: the state of being
production-rate craft such as pottery formed of many parts; the state of being difficult to
manufacture, and supporting themselves entirely understand
from the proceeds of their craft. In view of the Synonyms: complication, intricacy, ramification
above, one can begin to speak in terms of mass-
produced pottery and the existence of organised
workshops of craftsmen during the period 1550-
1500 BC. Yet, how pottery production was
organised at Akrotiri remains an open question,
as there is no real documentary evidence. Our tentative /ˈtɛntətɪv/: not definite or certain because
entire knowledge comes from the ceramic you may want to change it later
material itself, and the tentative conclusions Synonyms: provisional, unconfirmed, unsettled,
which can be drawn from it. indefinite, preliminary
The invention of units of quantity and of a

numerical system to count them was of capital absence /ˈæbsəns/: the nonexistence or lack of.
importance for an exchange-geared society such synonyms: lack, want, nonexistence
as that of Akrotiri. In spite of the absence of any
written records, the archaeological evidence
reveals that concepts of measurements, both of notation /noʊˈteɪʃən/: a system of signs or symbols
weight and number, had been formulated. used to represent information, especially in
Standard measures may already have been in mathematics, science and music
operation, such as those evidenced by a
graduated series of lead weights - made in disc
form - found at the site. The existence of units of
capacity in Late Bronze Age times is also
evidenced by the notation of units of a liquid
measure for wine on excavated containers.
It must be recognised that the function of pottery

vessels plays a very important role in determining
their characteristics. The intended function
affects the choice of clay, the production
technique, and the shape and the size of the
pots. For example, large storage jars (pithoi)
would be needed to store commodities, whereas
smaller containers would be used for transport. In
fact, the length of a man’s arm limits the size of a
smaller pot to a capacity of about twenty litres;
that is also the maximum a man can comfortably
carry.
The various sizes of container would thus

represent standard quantities of a commodity, Commodity: a raw material or primary agricultural
which is a fundamental element in the function of product
exchange. Akrotirian merchants handling a
commodity such as wine would have been able
104
to determine easily the amount of wine they were
transporting from the number of containers they
carried in their ships, since the capacity of each
container was known to be 14-18 litres. (We
could draw a parallel here with the current
practice in Greece of selling oil in 17 kilogram
tins)
We may therefore assume that the shape, assume /əˈsum/: to think or accept that something
capacity, and, sometimes decoration of vessels is true but without having proof of it
are indicative of the commodity contained by
them. Since individual transactions would Synonyms: presume, suppose, take it, take for
normally involve different quantities of a given granted, presuppose, conjecture
commodity, a range of ‘standardised’ types of
vessel would be needed to meet traders’ indicative /ɪnˈdɪkətɪv/: showing or suggesting
requirements. something
Synonyms: emblematic, ominous, suggestive
In trying to reconstruct systems of capacity by
measuring the volume of excavated pottery, a tolerances /ˈtɑlərənsɪz/: the willingness to accept
rather generous range of tolerances must be somebody/something, especially opinions or
allowed. It seems possible that the potters of that behaviour that you may not agree with, or people
time had specific sizes of vessel in mind, and who are not like you
tried to reproduce them using a specific type and Synonyms: forbearance, toleration, sufferance,
amount of clay. However, it would be quite liberality
difficult for them to achieve the exact size
required every time, without any mechanical
means of regulating symmetry and wall
thickness, and some potters would be more
skilled than others. In addition, variations in the
repetition of types and size may also occur unforeseen /ˌʌnfɔrˈsin/: that you did not expect to
because of unforeseen circumstances during happen
the throwing process. For instance, instead of Synonyms: abrupt, startling, sudden, unanticipated,
destroying the entire pot if the clay in the rim unexpected
contained a piece of grit, a potter might produce
a smaller pot by simply cutting off the rim. Even
where there is no noticeable external difference noticeable /ˈnoʊtəsəbəl/: easy to see or notice;
between pots meant to contain the same quantity clear or definite
of a commodity, differences in their capacity can Synonyms: apparent, appreciable, distinct, marked,
actually reach one or two litres. In one case the notable, observable, obvious, remarkable
deviation from the required size appears to be
as much as 10-20 percent. deviation /ˌdiviˈeɪʃən/: the act of moving away from
what is normal or acceptable; a difference from
The establishment of regular trade routes within what is expected or acceptable
the Aegean led to increased movement of goods; Synonyms: aberration, alteration, fluctuation,
consequently a regular exchange of local, luxury modification
and surplus goods, including metals, would have
become feasible as a result of the advances in surplus /ˈsɜrpləs/: an amount that is extra or more
transport technology. The increased demand for than you need
standardised exchanges, inextricably linked to
commercial transactions, might have been one of feasible /ˈfizəbəl/: possible to do easily or
the main factors which led to the standardisation conveniently
of pottery production. Thus, the whole network of Synonyms: achievable, attainable, likely, workable,
ceramic production and exchange would have practical
depended on specific regional economic
105
conditions, and would the socio-economic inextricably /ɪˈnɛkstrɪkəbli/: if two things are
structure of prehistoric Akrotiri. inextricably linked, etc., it is impossible to separate
them
106
Topic 30: A Theory of Shopping
For a one-year period I attempted to conduct an

ethnography of shopping on and around a street
in North London. This was carried out in
association with Alison Clarke. I say ‘attempted’
because, given the absence of community and
the intensely private nature of London intensely /ɪnˈtɛnsli/: in a very great or very strong
households, this could not be an ethnography in way
the conventional sense. Nevertheless, through Synonyms: extremely, fiercely, profoundly, strongly,
conversation, being present in the home and very, vehemently
accompanying householders during their
shopping, I tried to reach an understanding of nevertheless /ˌnɛvərðəˈlɛs/: despite something that
the nature of shopping through greater or lesser you have just mentioned
exposure to 76 households. Synonyms: still, however, yet, though, nonetheless
My part of the ethnography concentrated upon
shopping itself. Alison Clarke has since been
working with the same households, but focusing
upon other forms of provisioning such as the
use of catalogues (see Clarke 1997). We
generally first met these households together,
but most of the material that is used within this
particular essay derived from my own
subsequent fieldwork. Following the completion subsequent /ˈsʌbsəkwənt/: coming after something
of this essay, and a study of some related in time; following
shopping centres, we hope to write a more Synonyms: after, consecutive, consequent, ensuing,
general ethnography of provisioning. This will following, successive
also examine other issues, such as the nature of
community and the implications for retail and for
the wider political economy. None of this,
however, forms part of the present essay, which
is primarily concerned with establishing the
cosmological foundations of shopping.
To state that a household has been included
within the study is to gloss over a wide
diversity of degrees of involvement. The
minimum requirement is simply that a
107
householder has agreed to be interviewed about gloss /glɔs/: try to conceal or disguise
their shopping, which would include the local Synonyms: conceal, cover up, hide, camouflage,
shopping parade, shopping centres and disguise
supermarkets. At the other extreme are families
that we have come to know well during the diversity /dɪˈvɜrsəti/: a range of many people or
course of the year. Interaction would include things that are very different from each other
formal interviews, and a less formal presence Synonyms: variety, diversification
within their homes, usually with a cup of tea. It
also meant accompanying them on one or
several ‘events’, which might comprise comprise /kəmˈpraɪz/: consist of; be made up of
shopping trips or participation in activities Synonyms: consist of, be made up of, be composed
associated with the area of Clarke’s study, such of, contain
as the meeting of a group supplying products for
the home. relativism /ˈrɛlətɪˌvɪzəm/: the belief that truth is not
always and generally valid, but can be judged only
In analysing and writing up the experience of an in relation to other things, such as your personal
ethnography of shopping in North London, I am situation
led in two opposed directions. The tradition of
anthropological relativism leads to an emphasis
upon difference, and there are many ways in elucidate /ɪˈlusəˌdeɪt/: make (something) clear;
which shopping can help us elucidate explain
differences. For example, there are differences Synonyms: clear up, decode, enlighten, explicate,
in the experience of shopping based on gender, expound
age, ethnicity and class. There are also
differences based on the various genres of
shopping experience, from a mall to a corner comparative /kəmˈpɛrətɪv/: measured or judged by
shop. By contrast, there is the tradition of how similar or different it is to something else
anthropological generalisation about ‘peoples’ Synonyms: provisional, approaching, contingent,
and comparative theory. This leads to the relative, equivalent
question as to whether there are any
fundamental aspects of shopping which suggest robust /roʊˈbʌst/: strong and healthy
a robust normativity that comes through the Synonyms: strong, vigorous, sturdy, tough, powerful
research and is not entirely dissipated by
relativism. In this essay I want to emphasize the dissipated /ˈdɪsəˌpeɪtɪd/: to gradually become or
latter approach and argue that if not all, then make something become weaker until it disappears
most acts of shopping on this street exhibit a Synonyms: deplete, use up, blow
normative form which needs to be addressed. In
the later discussion of the discourse of shopping
I will defend the possibility that such a homogenous /həˈmɑʤənəs/: consisting of things
heterogenous group of households could be or people that are all the same or all of the same
fairly represented by a series of homogenous type
cultural practices.
The theory that I will propose is certainly at odds
with most of the literature on this topic. My premise /ˈprɛmɪs/: a statement or an idea that
premise, unlike that of most studies of forms the basis for a reasonable line of argument
consumption, whether they arise from Synonyms: assertion, assumption, basis, ground,
economists, business studies or cultural studies, presumption, proposition, thesis
is that for most households in this street the act
of shopping was hardly ever directed towards
the person who was doing the shopping.
Shopping is therefore not best understood as an
individualistic or individualising act related to the
subjectivity of the shopper. Rather, the act of
buying goods is mainly directed at two forms of
108
‘otherness’. The first of these expresses a
relationship between the shopper and a
particular other individual such as a child or
partner, either present in the household, desired transcends /trænˈsɛndz/: to be or go beyond the
or imagined. The second of these is a usual limits of something
relationship to a more general goal which Synonyms: exceed, eclipse, outpace, outstrip,
transcends any immediate utility and is best surpass
understood as cosmological in that it takes the
form of neither subject nor object but of the utility /juˈtɪləti/: the state of being useful, profitable,
values to which people wish to dedicate or beneficial
themselves. Synonyms: service, advantage, benefit,
convenience, efficiency, profit, usefulness
It never occurred to me at any stage when
carrying out the ethnography that I should dedicate /ˈdɛdəˌkeɪt/: to give a lot of your time and
consider the topic of sacrifice as relevant to this effort to a particular activity or purpose because you
research. In no sense then could the think it is important
ethnography be regarded as a testing of the Synonyms: devote, commit, pledge, bind, obligate,
ideas presented here. The Literature that
seemed most relevant in the initial analysis of sacrifice /ˈsækrəˌfaɪs/: the fact of giving up
the London material was that on thrift discussed something important or valuable to you in order to
in chapter 3. The crucial element in opening up get or do something that seems more important;
the potential of sacrifice for understanding something that you give up in this way
shopping came through reading Bataiile.
Bataille, however, was merely the catalyst, since allusion /əˈluʒən/: something that is said or written
I will argue that it is the classic works on that refers to or mentions another person or subject
sacrifice and, in particular, the foundation to its in an indirect way
modern study by Hubert and Mauss (1964) that Synonyms: quotation
has become the primary grounds for my
interpretation. It is important, however, when ritual /ˈrɪʧuəl/: something that is done regularly and
reading the following account to note that when I always in the same way
use the word ‘sacrifice’, I only rarely refer to the Synonyms: habit, routine, practice, rite, procedure
colloquial sense of the term as used in the
concept of the ‘self-sacrificial’ housewife. Mostly sequence /ˈsikwəns/: a set of events, actions,
the allusion is to this Literature on ancient numbers, etc. which have a particular order and
sacrifice and the detailed analysis of the which lead to a particular result
complex ritual sequence involved in traditional
sacrifice. The metaphorical use of the term may Synonyms: succession, order, course, series, chain,
have its place within the subsequent discussion
but this is secondary to an argument at the level
of structure.
109

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Thầy Kiên iFIGHT – Lean Vocabulary Vol.

2 – Business and Economy

Để học tốt cuốn sách:

Nguyễn Đình Hạnh – Khóa 9 - UNETI

Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym

Nguyễn Thu Loan: K58 – NEU

Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym

Hoàng Phương Linh: Du học sinh Úc

Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym

Vũ Thị Ba: K57 - FTU

Nguyễn Thu Phương: K60 - NEU

Hoàn thành highlight từ vựng học thuật, giải thích và synonym

Lời nói đầu: .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 1: The way the brain buys ..................................................................................................... 6

Topic 2: Motivating Employees under Adverse Conditions ................................................... 9

Topic 3: NATURAL CHOICE Coffee and chocolate ................................................................. 13

Topic 4: White mountain, green tourism ................................................................................... 17

Topic 5: Recovering a damaged reputation .............................................................................. 20

Topic 6: IMPLEMENTING THE CYCLE OF SUCCESS: A CASE STUDY .......................... 24

Topic 7: UK companies need more effective boards of directors ..................................... 27

Topic 8: Change in business organisations ................................................................................. 31

Topic 9: Motivating Drives ............................................................................................................... 33

Topic 10: The Sweet Scent of Success ........................................................................................ 37

Topic 11: Stress of Workplace ........................................................................................................ 41

Topic 11: The Impact of Wilderness Tourism........................................................................... 45

Topic 13: A Workaholic Economy ................................................................................................. 49

Topic 14: Delivering The Goods ..................................................................................................... 52

Topic 15: Measuring Organisational Performance ................................................................. 56

Topic 16: Advantages of public transport ................................................................................. 60

Topic 17: Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project ........................................................ 64

Topic 18: Roller coaster .................................................................................................................... 69

Topic 19: Martin Luther King ........................................................................................................ 73

Topic 20: Beyond the blue horizon............................................................................................... 75

Topic 21: The Motor Car .................................................................................................................. 79

Topic 22: Keep a Watchful Eye on the Bridges ....................................................................... 82

Topic 24: The Problem of Scarce Resources ............................................................................. 89

Topic 26: Sustainable growth at Didcot .................................................................................... 95

Topic 27: Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth ............................................................ 98

Topic 29: Pottery production in ancient Akrotiri................................................................ 108

Topic 30: A Theory of Shopping.................................................................................................. 110

Topic 1: The way the brain buys

Supermarkets take great care over the way the

Topic 2: Motivating Employees under Adverse

KEY POINT ONE morale /məˈrɑːl/: the amount of confidence and

KEY POINT FOUR

Topic 3: NATURAL CHOICE Coffee and

What's the connection between your

The loggers have been busy in the Americas

Topic 4: White mountain, green tourism

The French Alpine town of Chamonix has been

Topic 5: Recovering a damaged reputation

Topic 6: IMPLEMENTING THE CYCLE OF

SUCCESS: A CASE STUDY

Within Australia, Australian Hotels Inc (AHI)

Topic 7: UK companies need more effective

A After a number of serious failures of

Topic 8: Change in business organisations

A The forces that operate to bring about change

C This situation prevailed for some time, with

E At the same time, organisations faced more

F Today, in the post-industrial age, most people

G Whether all this will happen is arguable.

Topic 9: Motivating Drives

Scientists have been researching the way to get