·CHAPTER3 12083CH03

s @HUMAN REPf~ODUCTION · - ::l

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3.1 TheMaleReproduc"ve
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•system
Reproductive As you are a& hwnans are sexuallyceproduc!np
viviparous. The repro~ tive events in humans include
1
t -
formation o_fgametes ~ etogenesi~). i.e., sperms in males _
3.3 Gametogenesis and ovu~ males, transfer of sperms into the femal
3.4 _ Menstrual Cycle genitaj ~ c · semination) and fusion of male and female t.
gamete~ ertilisation) leading to formation ofzygote. Thi• "'lla.. 1.
3.5 Fertilisation wid - ·
is followed by formation and developI_B~ of blastocyst · I
Implantation · and its attachment to~ '1t. terine wa'l~ plantatib_n ) . - .
3.6 Pregnancyand emb~ ·c development ( tation) _and delivery of thea__ I
Embryonic Development baby ( urition). You have learnt that these reproductive~
3. 7 Parturition and Lactation
events occur after puberty. There are remarkabl1L....L
differences between the reproductive everits in fr.e male~ /
and in the female, for example, sperm formation cc!'ltinue~
even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases in ~ome.. L
around the age of fifty years. Let us examine the male anu "'111111111111
female reproductive systems in human. ·

3.1 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

11le male reproductive system is located in the pelvis ~egio~

(Figure 3 ..la). It includes a pair of testes alongwith
accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.

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 . . ...~:;,.sinq ncdJzi~i k s
6r/..n,{}lo1,t;,4 ~',,,,
MAN REPRODUCTION _., ~h r
J . · . ~:~, . , - l •-1.
rl'1.nllotfe.nes.1s Ls~ ...._,rnaL<.cy--, 5
,&Jncfif ll·al.dl, (iU?,P
"------'-' o ~)
( e X '- ~~cu:,cu,mt naL ~eu.i--hm/ _ ,4,d, 0

The testesaresituatedoutsidethe ,Pl, : <!.n~, . · \

,A,,;b' 7 n ~ / J !I
~ -fl).bdominal cavity within a pouch ~TT {AM/1) ,
called scrotum. The scrotum helps Ureter . : ·
~•ammaintaining the low temperature Seminal vesicle ---1- -::~-;~~ D \_
11:!!1-lfiaof the testes (2- 2 .5° C lower than Urinary bladder _ ..1..--P-./61
t he normal internal body Vas deferens ,l Ejaculatm.Y,,
. d uct
11!!!!!-lllat emperature) necessary for Prostate - -4-t ;:.::.~j,¾,
. SQermatogenesis. In adults, each Penis
1'!!!1-lia)estis is oval in shape, with a length Urethra
of about 4 to 5 cm and a width of
,....Iii_ •ca.bout 2 · to 3 cm. The testis i~ . Glans penis_
by a dense covering. Each Foreskin Testis
Scrotum Bulbourethral gland
testis has about 250 compartments@
testic'!!~!_ · lobules Figure 3.l(•l Diagrammatic sectional view of male pelvis
li1 (Figure 3 . lb) . . showing reproductive system
lJ : .. Each lobule contains one to
three highly coiled seminiferous
· t q ~_'!! e~ in whic h s perms - ~."r e Ureter _ ___, ~ - - Urinary
bladder
Pig .9; uduced. Eachserniniferoustubule
tr · l'm e d. on its inside by two types ._
IS lll(°
Vas deferens Seminal
vesicle
- Q Jf cells called male germ cells Prostate
IF ;_ _ ( ~permatogonia) andyertoll cells
,.,-_,?----,,H,-

•
~ -++- Bulbourethral
"'tFigure 3.2 ). The male germ cells
:wnd~rgo meiotic divisio~s fln~y t Epididymis
gland

*
-++-+---+----- Urethra
•

....,_ leading to sperm formation, while Vasa efferentia

~ ?i,rt~ee~ rovide !!.,Utrition to the Rete testis
11:.........__germ cells. The regions outside the .
~ _,eininife rous tubules call~d Testicular lobules Testis
. . . . .inters titial spaces, con~n small
L olood vessels and interstitial cells @ Glans penis
oreski.n(P:ne.puce.)
~')rLeydig cells (Fil}rre 3.2). Leydig ·
l )l c ells synthesi <: e and sec r ete .
Z 8 -~sticular hormones called Figure 3 .l(b) Diagramma~c _view of male reproductive system
ltr)l · _andro,11ens. Other rmmuno • 1 g· all
o IC . Y
(part of testis is open to show inner details)
. Re.fr ~LS · . ..
ll)l • ..;ompeten t ce~s are also present. ifqs. ~ -
Z -• The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia; .......,....___ _ E p,"cjs¼mld ,
111 epididymls and vas deferens (Figure 3. lb) . The seminiferous tubules of
Z . • .h ~ testis ol?en into the vasa: effeientia through rete testis. The vasa efferentia
: leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the posterior surface
t} • A each testis. _The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends fo the
b p · abdomen and loop~ over the urinary bladder. It receives a ~uct from seminal [ohu./v, , -•• r
ti' • vesicle and opensmto urethra as the ejaculatory duct (Figure 3 . la). These {.2-!lo) ~t,ou.&
IJ • i ucts s tore and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through TIU>!{ te.s.

~
urethra. Uie urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends
Jrrough the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus-(an.. ej>
/Jt1SSafl€- of S.p enm.s : ,
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•

. a can. dfi- •
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'j S Jn:,p,,,;;; ,-{,j,,,J,j_ &11. ;,st ,s Vos ::J_f
.,,,;Ji,,.~ Ej,• J,
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.=:=-fJ ~'1)~._J[
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 Spermatogonla

Spermatozoa

sra.w~ of s1oimciµ,~ 5

- S j>ll rnd-o?-071.J lUY) •

- Pn./. s mci1.o b.s ·
-~- s;u-i medo o/ hs · . Sertoll cells -

- sj>e7Jmcdt.'J_s · Figure 3 .2 Diagrammatic sectl~-n al view of semlniferous tubule •

sj>um~2.04 (s)ums)
The penis is the male external genitalia (Figure 3 . la. b) . It is ~ a de u p~
of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemin~tion.
(D Lo-rid'm.. The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fol ~
{?-ocm) CIY> ) of skin called foreskin . (Pre.j,t.J.CGJ -·~
The male accessory glands (Figure 3. l a, b) include paired semin~
(i)Hq.s ..3 ot t·a vesicles. a prostate and paired bulbourethral glands. Secretions of thes~
~ ·o ns • glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose . calcium
P~l~., and certain enzymes. The secretions of_bulbouret.i;iral glands also h el p ~
(0 e.mbra noe,lJ..., tn the lubrtcatton of the penl_s. ( """"/en: 'jta.nd)
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3.2 THE FE~ REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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The female reproductive system consists ofa.pair of ovaries alongwtth a pair
of oviducts, uterus, cerviz, yagtna and the external genitalia loqated
pelvic region (Figu.re 3.3a). These parts of the system alongwtth a pair-of th~
it---
ellii
mammary glands are integrated structurally and functionally \O s u ppor~
the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy. birth and child care.

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(D. Ovades are the primary female sex organs that produce the fema le
gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovaria n hormones'
The ovaries a re located one on each sl1c of t he lowe r a bdom e~
(Figure 3.3b). Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected t~
the pelvic wall and uterus by liga ments. Each ovary ts covered by . thi
epithelium which encloses the ovartan stroma The st 1 1la...
two zones - a peripheral cortex a nd a n Inner · d ll·roma 1s divided int~
111
e U d. -

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_.,.. ·~- ' .:.~ . • .'; . ,,,.r - ··-. ------.-,-_ · :· - - - ,. -- - -·~-:----~ 9 .....__. • -

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·- -- -- -
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- -- - - ... - - - -
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.
. - -

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' UMAN REPRODUCTfON

Cervix

!"" Uterus--+--\\-
Rectum

~ Urtnary Bladder- - - +- ~

hie symphysis----\.__
~ - -1-- - - - f -Vagtna

Urethra:-------L

Clitolis-----
Labium mJnora - - - - -
Labium majora - - - - - ,

Vaginal o r i f i c e - - - - - - jl"<-'~~~ - .:./

Figure 3.3 (a) Diagrammatic sectional view of female pelvis showing

reproductive system
_(y .
The oviducts (fallopian tubes). uterus and vagma con stitute the female
accessory ducts. Each fallopian tube fs about 10-12 cm long and extends
~ om the periphery of each ovary to the uterus (Figure 3.3b), the part closer
._.!o_the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibul~ . The edges of the
~ d i b u l u m possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help in ()

..
~ ollc:ction of the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum leads to a wider

l'tertne fundus
• Uterine cavity
. / ----- Isthmus ]

::1~crv
liilllt Enciome~um
Myometrium
--
·-
,
ff
Ampulla

Infundibulum

Fimbriae
Fallopian
tube

-: Pertmetr1um r-]-';---1-- Cervix

Cervical canal

Vagina

•
-
• Figure 3 .3 (b) Diagrammatic sectional view of the female reproductive _system

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part of the oviduct called ampulla. The last part ofth e OVI·duct • isthmus
•
h as
1-/'flst<,-,q__ ~ h ~arrowlumen and itjoins the u terus. fth t
W. .b r @ The u terus is single and it is also called womb. The shape O e u e~ s
o rn Is like -
an - - pear. It is ~ ported by ligamen
inverted . ts a ttached to the p elvic
·wall. The uterus opens into gina through a narrow · cervtx · The. .cavity. of
the cervix is called cervical canal (Figure 3.3b) which alongwith vagma
·-le forms the birth can . The wall of the u terus h as three layers of tissu e . The
external thin· membranous. perlmetrl~, ~ddle thick layer of smooth
muscle, myometrlum an.d inner glandular layer called endometrium tha
lines the uterine cavity. The endometrjum undergoes cyclical changes during
menstrual cycle while the myometriuni exhibits strong contraction durin
deliverybfthebaby. ~ I . (J) @ . (3) .
The fe~e-extem al genitalia include mons pubis, _labia m aJora ,'Fabia,
minora, hyfilen and clitori ·gure 3 .3 a). Mons pubis is a cu s hion of fat
tissue covered by skin an ubic hair. The labia majora are flesh y folds of
tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and s urround the vagin
opening. The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia m ajora.
The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called
hymen. The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the uppe
junction of the two labia minora above the urethral op ening. The hymen is
ofteri tom during the first coitus (intercourse). However; it can also be broke
by a suddenfall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active participation
. -/J~ · . in some sports iike horseback riding, cycling, etc. In some women the hymen
E;,,; t - (;g m 't_g_/,(J · ) persists even after coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of hymen is no
#'1\lll!'{l!IJ/~ : , Mons a reliable indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
@). . @ P<d.!.S . {.
.JClitnx;s = _...,,'.!;,..
. 15 -2.o ) . · Fat
1• i • --'lP'- ~ <Jt°'- • Mammary lobe - - ~
l'-11' nO-'f(l. •
Mammary alveolus----,
li'dl'Y'ien. •
f\11;/YJIY}M# }~
Mammary duct

Lactiferous duct

Nipple -
' .. '----~ Pectoralis
major muscle

Figure 3 .4 A diagrammatic section al view of M ·

· amma ry gland
.,...._...
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
.
. .
m o ~ ~c,,Je_cd, y&,rd,,.+f'l.ocn'-ne... ·
A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
The mamma ry glands are pa ired structures (breasts) that contain
, ,... .ill,, glandular tissue and variable amount of fat. The glandular tissue of each
breast is divided into 15-20 mammary.lobes containing clusters of cells
:'."l•llllfl~ called alveoli (Figure 3.4). The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored
· in the cavities Oumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
The tubules of each lobe joL.'l to form a mammary duct. Several manunary
ducts Join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connectep to
lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out. ·

3.3 GAMEToGENESIS

The primary sex organs - the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
-----~ females - produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
process called gametogenesis. In testis, the immature ~ale germ cells
,,..._,.. (spermatogonia) produce sperms by spermatogenesis that begins at
puberty. The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the
_inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and .
increase in numbers. Each s permatogonium is diploid and .contains 46
chromosom es . Some of the spermatogonia called primary
spermatocyte s periodically undergo meiosis. A primary spermatocyte

lliL
completes the first meiotic division (reduction, division) leading to

10 ··
formation of two equal, haploid cells called
secondary spermatocytes , which have only Spermatozoa ( 'Y'lt) .• -
23 chromosomes each. The secondary
spermatocytes undergo the second meiot~c , Spermatid (:))
. division t o produce four equa l, h a ploid · @ Secondary -T.M-Jr
I ' lt,;permat iifds h(Figure 3.5) .. Whthat would bteidth~ : 0 0 () . ·. . spermatocyte [ 11f)
number.a c romosome in e sperma s . ..· · 0;· :· O . ('1 - l:
I .....Jfhe
....,... s permatid s are transformed into 0• .._'M.. '. ·. .. sperma
•.: ··__. .(?
· Primaryt
ocyte ( ...." · ~)
Q . ·; . . . :ri

a O .:_.-/- .· _. '.: Sertol~ cell r.

spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called \. '/i)
8spermi o genesis . After spermiogenesis, al'\ ' ~ I
sperm heads become embedded in the Q ·· Q
SsertoU ~e~s. and are finally released from Q O Q .0
# ' e semm1ferous tubules by the process c;::::s . Spermatogonium( ~n)
called s permiation. . ~"" -~ ~- -
Spermatogen esis starts a t th e age of Figure 3 .5 Diagrammatic sectional view of a
uberty due to significant increase in the · seminiferous tubule (enlarged)
secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone ·
GnRH) . This. if you recall, is a hypothalamic hormone. The filcceased
levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates .
H~J,1«l,, , ,.,
.

L
ecretion of two gonadotropins - luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle r"RI-\ Gi
stimuiating hormone (FSH) . LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates ~ 1+ •~ .
:synthesis and secretion of androgens . Androgens, in tum. stimulate the r..l)..LU..
process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates LH 2 {i'on~½,
11.:
~-•
F~ -~
.
Te~tt5
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 BIOLOGY

Plasma secretion of some factors which help in the

membrane process of spermiogenesls. It
Let us examine the structure of a sperm.
Acrosome ·
Is a microscopic structure co mposed o( a head,
G)Head Nucleus containing neck, a middle piece and a tail (Figure 3.6). A
chromosomal material
plas~a membrane envelops the whole body of
sperm. The sperm head contains elonga~ed
L<.< r - -- Neck @ haploid nucleus , the anterior portion of which
Is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome .
®
k~<:lt - - - Middle piece The acrosome Is filled with enzymes tha t h elp
:"-!:'Ill-----'~ Mitochondria fertilisatlo~ of the ovum . The middle pie ce
(energy source for swimming)
possesses numerous mitochondria, which
produce energy for the movement of tail that
Tail@ facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilisation.
"/( The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300
million sperms during a coitus of which, for
normal fertility , at -least 60 per c·e nt sperms
,r must have normal shape and size and at.least
40 per cent of them must show vigor<?u~
motility.
Figure 3.6 Strncture of a sperm Sperms released from the seminiferous
tubules·, are transported by the accessory ,
ducts . Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and
prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The seminal
-k plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The functions o~
male sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the testicular
· hormones (androgens).
The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis
r which is markedly different from spermatogenesis. Oogenesis is initiated
ro Uiw.Jo en 'l 2 Sis during the embryonic development'stage when a couple of million gamete
Ci) . 1T mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no more oogonia
Pwm<lf1.<IPoP.M_ t are formed and addea after birth. These cells start division and enterintocar..ilZt
- -Pm'~ .;:r_)
0 ~ ( a.t- P..-o prophase-1 of the !Ileiotic division and gettemporarily arrested at that stage,
@ A of ~:J.as::q_ cd(!.,.5. . called primary oocytes. Each plimary oocyte then gets surrounded by
s¥£ . f,,( lr'c l~ ': layer of granulosa cells and is called the primary follicle (Figure 3.7). A
- P?U
r<./ Ooo.di
o_([.~/1
ff
/'_ rqn~tC,J.<"t~
1_ _,n. large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth ta
- . ore ~,.s: 0 1:
.
puberty. Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 plimary follicles are
- 'The.ca.. J..lw~vpS · left in each ovary. The plimary follicles get surrounded by more layers ot_..__.•••
granulosa cells and a new theca and are called secondary follicles.
The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is
characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer L
organised into an inner theca intema and an outer thc;:ca extema. It is
·i-;; important to draw your attention that it is at this stage that the primary
_ -A-ntr<,i:m.. ~J.ap..1 tv)n~ oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes its first meiotic
_ .kirm> f},c.la... e'f. division. It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large
,-. ' 1-e,." 'LY'/ '<... .
5!. -Mt. lll. Inv rt\ k,b; l'{-.l haploi~ seco~dary oocyte ~d a tiny first polar body (Figure 3.8b). Th
- p,911·. eo~li C£>, g0 c..~:t11.. 9~ar fu\~·ct ! - 2onct p~ tfrYN.d .Iv
t _k.Js. S IG O~~""Tr\ * ·oo~ui-Q. . -J
O-A~fdc a1 !'AJµ_~e~} . - -a'-'
6 J - ...ti''fs i Pulal
 .
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+f\lort
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f
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HUM AN REPRODUCTION
·Gf.,;,ooCJilc, ) tTh , tt . . ~ -

secondary oocyte retains bulk of the -+A~~ . Tertiary follicle

"""ll• A .nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary Blood ToiITcie .-.J~~,.. Showing antrum
- Graafian
oocyte. Can you think of any advantage folllcle
for this? Does the first polar.body born
out of first meiotic division divide further ,'

i '
~r .degenerate? At present we are not
""'"'- -'ilJl,very certain about this . The tertiary .
follicle further changes into the mature
111111111111• .afollicle or Graafian follicle (Figure 3. 7). ~-
The second ary oocyte forms a new '<l-';"'-'?·
'I(•',· -. . ~,.,:;.,
', :-;.- ,-,~,?.-t•
, _. ,,,.-~ 3·~
membrane called zona pellucida ,. ,.:,e,.:~;-/:.'/4 ,
surrounding it. The Graafian follicle now
Corpus
ruptures to release the secondary oocyte luteum
(ov u m) from the ovary by th~
process called ovulation . Can you Figure 3. 7 Diagrammatic Section view of ovary
iden_tify major differences between
spermatogenesis and oogenesis? A diagrammatic representation of
spermatogenesis and o~geriesis is given below (Figu_re 3.8).
CHROMOSOME Oogonia
NUMBER

- -
PERCELL
!Mitosis'

! AA• l' '

,.
Spermatogonia
I Mitosis
,!, differentiation
46
r
Fetal life
differentiation

Primary oocyte
• Primary spermatocytes
meiotic

•
division
t I 1st meiotic Birth (completed

- --
division Childhood prior to
I fj, 3econdary spermatocytes 23
Puberty .. : . • . . . . . . . . ovulation)
First Secondary oocyte
8
I 2nd meiotic t polar body
!
! !! ! - -
,!, division Adult
I Spermatids Ovum

!
23 reproductive
life
1 i1 i
'
Differentiation
8 Spermatozoa ) ) ) )
(a) (bl

Figure 3.8 Sc~ematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis ; (q) Oogenesis

~ 3.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

~ f h.:: reproductive cycie in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and
uman beings) is called menstrual
« cycle.
. The first menstruation
. begins
at puberty and is called menarche . In human females, menstruation
·s repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days, and the cycle of
events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the •
enstrual cycle. One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle
 en
v
- CU
·5 § FSH
f E 0
:r:

-en
~ -
>
cu
Developing follicle Mature follicle
Developing
corpus luteum

@
·a
c
en
v>
@~
·a~
. 0
o..,
> 6
0
:r: Progesterone

- en
C:
cu
>
cu
cu
C:
·.:
.....cu
;:J
Days
1 3 5 7 9 15 17 19 21 23 25 29/1
Menstruation Follicular phase
Luteal phase Next cycle
(Proliferatjve phase) (Secretory phase) begins

Fi~e _3.9 Diagrammatic presentation of various events during a menstrual cycle

. of each menstrµal cycle. The major ev~nts of ~enstrual cycle ar~

shown in Figure 3 .9. The cycle starts with the ~strual phase, \\'.:hen. .a- ••1'11111!1
menstrual flow· occurs and it lasts for _3-5 days. The menstrual flow
results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and it
blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina.
Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised. Lack o
menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also bn
• • caused due to some othe~ underl~ng causes like ~ss, poor health etc."'- -• ·
The menstrual phase 1s followed ~y the foll~ar phase. Durin
this phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a
fully mature Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometriu.nl'III~ ..
of uterus regenerates through proliferation. These changes in the
ovary and the uterus are induced' 'by changes in the levels
0
pituitary and ovarian hormones (Figure 3. 9) . The secretion
~.:J,~HUMAN REPRODUCTION .

~ ~ nadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the fol1ic~lar

phase. and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion· of Menstrual Hygiene
es trogens by the growing follicles . Both LH and FSH attain a peak.level Maintenance of . .
in the middle of cycle (about 14th dai )- Rapid secretion of LH leading to hygiene and sanit<;1.Uon
1·£ · during menstruation Is ·
" s m axunum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces rupture . very Important. Take
raafian follicle and thereb}' the release of ovum (ovulation). Th~ ath and clean yourself
ation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during whic~ ~egulary. Use sanitary
th! . . ·t·h napkins or clean
remairun~ parts ot the Graafian follicle transform as e corpus homemade pads.
pr luteum (Figure 3 .9).. The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of Change sanitary
· ,' 1· ia1,irogesterone which is essential for maintenance of the endometrium. napkins or homemade
Z · £?>S. uch an .e ndometrium is necessary fo implant.ation of the fertilised pads ~ther everyir4-5 hrts
, - l ,..- · · • as per e requ emen .
Ii ovum and other events of pregnancy. Durin re n anc all events of Dispose of the used
Jr 9the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation)In the absence sanitary napkins
J~ of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegratior, properly wrapp1n15 it
Jr. 111 4 0f th e· endometrium leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle. In with a used paper. Do
not throw the used
11 human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is napkins 1n the
ermed as menopause. Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal drainpipe of toilets or
reproductive phase and extends between menarche and menopause. In the open area ..kin:After ·
1 handling the nap t:
..
If' . '3.5
· ·
l<~ RTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION .
wash hands with soap. _,:.,·
.,~f
1

J___
..........During copulation (coitus1 semen is released by the penis into the vagina
~insemination). The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass throu~ the ceIVix,
i ~nter into the uterus and finally reach the ampullary region of the
!:!L____ :I ~ fallopian tube (Figure 3.1 lb) . The ovum released by the ov~ is also
. . . , . . . .ransported to the ampullary region
EillL I ~ ;.here fertilisation takes place. +:
~ e r t i l i s a t i o n can only occur it the ·. ·
ovum and· sperms are transported
Sperm
imultaneously to the ampullary
ft I 1
-e~on. This is the reason_ wh~ not all
I :: . 1
copulations lead to fertilisation and
.a,,egnancy.
The process of fusion of a sperm
th an ovum is called fertilisation.
uring fertilisation, a sperm comes in :,,....;1---,,0,.-- Cells of the
L j contact with the ~zona pellucid.a layer corona radiata
..._ ti ,f_the ovum (Figure 3.10) and induces pellucida
L! _ changes in the membrane that block P9<-wenil
i&he_>Ptry of additional sperms. Tfius, Po
l,
11

it ensures that only one s~erm can ~~:,:.:....:__,;fi

t!f!liertilise an ovum. The secretion~ of the
LI
' M
?crosome help the sperm enter into ~e
L l1 ~cytoplasm of the ovum through the Perivitelllne space
~ o n a pellucida and the plasma
Figure 3.10 Ovum su nounded ·by few sperms

i
 membrane. This induces the completion of the meiotic division of th
secoridruy oocyte. The second meiotic division is also unequal and results
in the formation of a second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootld). Soor:
the haploid riucleus of the sperms and that of the ovum fuse together to
.2.n form a diploid zygote. Hoi.y man..u. chromosome~ will be there in the zygote.
( 0 One has to remember that the sex ofthe baby has been decided at thi
. stage itself. Let _u s ~eehow? As you know the chromosome pattern in the
human female is XX and that in the male is XY. Therefore, all the haploi
gametes (ova) produced by the female have the sex chromosome X whereas
in the male gametes (sperms) the sex chromosome could be either X or Y,
hence, 50 per cent of sperms carry the Xchromosome while the other 50 per.
cent carry the Y. After fusion of the mal~ and female gametes the zygote ·
would carry either XX or XY depending on whether the sperm carrying }:i
or Y fertilised the ovum. The zygot~ canyingXX would develop into a female
baby and XY would form a male (you will learn more about the chromosom
patterns in Chapter 5) .. That is why, scientifically it is correct to say that the
sex' ofthe baby is determined by the father and not bu the mothert
The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the isthmu.
of the oviduct called cleavage towards the uterus (Figure 3.11) and foims

/
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 daughter cells called blastomeres. The embryo with 8 to 1

(a)
©8 @ (cl (dl , -:
(Morulal
(el

Blastocyst
Implantation

(0 (Blastocyst) ·
(g)
Ffg';llll!'f. 5 , i l Transport of ovurc., fertilisation and passage of growing embryo th,:\lu gb.
 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
. ~+ .
- ~ s called a~ (Figure 3.1 le) . The morula continues to
divide and transforms into blastocyst (Figure 3 . 1 lg) as it moves further
. .
into the uterus. The blas tomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an
outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to
trophoblast called the inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer then gets
attached to the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets differentiated
as the embryo. After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers .
the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocys:t becomes embedded. in the
endometrium ofthe uterus (Figure 3 . 1 lh) . This is called implantation f:>lasto t ~/qs~
and itleads to pregnancy. £i1i_ T,:ophoblqsf; 'IYYl~Lantcdtor.i .

3.6 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPl\r:::·-:.

-$.- IC.. 1'1 -+f~~v-,,.b~

After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called

chorlonic' villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal
blood. The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with
each other and jointly form a structural and functional unit between )1-
developing embryo (foetus) and maternal bod called placenta (Figure 3.12).
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the
embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory /waste materials
produced by the embryo. The placenta is connected to the embryo through
an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of substances to and from
th_e embryo( ~lacenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces ',t1 .ITI\_R
several hormones like human chorionic onadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, ro estogens, ·etc. n the later
phase of pregna ncy, a hormone called relaxin is a lso secreted by
.
the · OV<¥Y. Let us remember ·
·thathCG, hPL and relaxin Placental villi
· are. produced in women
only during pregnancy. In
addition, during pregnancy
the levels of other hormones Cavity of
uterus
like estrogens, progestogens,
c ortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, cord
1/et:c., a r e increased .several- with its
~ folds in the maternal blood. vessels ·~i~
·~•\
Increased production of these
hormon es is . essential for ~ \

supporting the fetal growth,

"
metabolic changes in the iS:
\ .,
mother and maintenance of
'
pregnancy. ' Plug of mucus
Immediately after r.-~"'1--- in cervix
implantation, the inner cell
mass (embryo) differentiates Figu.n; 3 ol 2 The human foetus within the u terns
 flc:rs{nJ.g_
0(_15 ~ s )
ctp.kt rvct:-
·
. €£Mvin-J r<1Gs.~rn
· - ~c:rivim
into an outer layer called ectoderm and an Inner layer called endoderm. A
mesoderm so~n appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm. The~e
three layers give rise to all tissues {organs) in adults. It needs to be m entioned
here that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which
:;-:f~rr-1'"(-.i.....have the poten cy to give rise to all the tis sues and organs.
_ _ ....,..,....--- --,-'""."'.:r ---"T What are the major f eatures of embryonic development at various
months of pregnancy? t h e Jiu1mui""pregnancy lasts 9 months . Do you
know for how many months pregnancy last in dogs , elephants, cat~:!
_F ind out. In human beings, after one month of pregnancy. the embryo's
heart is formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listenin
to the h eart sound carefully.through the stethos~ope. By the end of the
second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the
3me.nths --. f111.£t-,f-, o,.s.
--fr"? c/ · f rl:' end of 12 weeks {first trimester) , most of the major organ systems are
formed, for example, the limbs and ertemal genital organs are well-
JJtni&!~//v,,bS
developed. The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair o
form~ the head are usually observed daring the fifth month. By the end of about
M fJYlmed of 24 weeks (end qf second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair,
(o~f.4,, H~ ory eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the end of nine months
'1e.att:L of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready f~ ~ v l.
. f att/ J)oj -.59-621 5
3 .7 PAATURIT ION AND LACTATIONb E.le.j,h...,rr! - .22 -w>ont/,_g

The average duration of h uma n pregnancy is about 9 months

which is called th·e gestation period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at
the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/ delivery of the foetus. This process
of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition. Parturition i~
.induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for~
,----- - - - - -~ -- - ~ parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placen ,
which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. Thi
triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary. Oxytocin acts on
the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which iii
tum stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex between
the uterine contraction an~ oxytocin secretion continues resulting iI
stronger and stronger contractions . This leads to eA'µulsion of the babY.
out of the uterus through the birth canal - parturition. Soon after th
infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus. What
yo~ think the doct~rs inject ' to induce delivery? 0 Xi.4- iocih -
The mcµnmary glands of the female undergo differentiation durin~I
pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by"""li
the process called lactation. This h elps the mother in .feeding the n e w ~
born. 1:he milk produced d~ring the initial few days oflactation is callecla..,_:
f
,-s/- ~ w h i c h contains seve"ral antibodies abs_o lutely essential t ~
{ Ir~
. rn~~ develop re1;listance for the. n ew-born babies. Breast-feeding during th..._ _
initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing up""""II
a healthy baby. · , aL°·
c; Pnolacii ri 4' ~ro~ on. a FMI lk: _ -..
2 Ox~ tout, ejulio~ )A,eh._qre j LddovJn., --
. 8/ /VJ, ,lk. --

ci5CZ 11