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Cells

Eukaryoteic cells
-complex
-all animal and plant cells
-eukaryotes are made of eukaryotic cellS

Prokaryotic cells
-small and simple(eg bacteria cells)
-prokaryote is a single-celled organism

Animal Cells
different parts in cell-subcellular structures

1)Nucleus
-contains genetic material->control activities of cell

2)Mitochondria
-most of the reaction for aerobic respiration

3) Cytoplasm
-gel like substance
-most chemical reaction take place
-contains enzymes-control chemical reaction

4) Cell membrane
-controls what substance goes in and out of cells

5) Ribosomes
-proteins are made

Plant cells
have all features of animal cell and a bit more

1) Cell wall
-rigid
-made of cellulose
-strengthen cell

2) Chloroplasts
-found in green parts
-contain green substance called chlorophyll
-absorb light for photosynthesis

3) Permanent Vacuole
-contain cell sap
-keep cell rigid

Bacterial cell
-prokaryotes
-x nucleus, single circular strand of DNA
-one or more plasmids contain DNA
-only cell membrane, wall and cytoplasm

Microscopy
magnification=image size/object size
1 mm=1000 um
Add a drop of iodine solution(stain)-highlight objects,
easy to see
When placing slip, careful not to get air bubbles-obstruct
view

Cell Differentiation and Specialisation

Differentiation is the process by which a cell changes to

become specialised for its job.

Stem cells- undifferentiated cells

Sperm cells specialised for reproduction

-long tail and streamlined head
-lots of mitochondria
-carries enzymes to digest through the egg

Nerve cells specialised for rapid signalling

-long(cover more distance)
-branched connections(connect other nerve cells and form a
network)

Muscle cells are specialised for contractions

-contract quickly
-long, space to contract(lots of mitochondria)

Root hair cells specialised for absorbing water and minerals

-in tips of growing roots
-big surface area
-large vacuole that speeds by water movement by osmosis

Phloem and xylem cells are specialised for Transporting

subtance
-form phloem and xylem tubes-transport substance such as
food and water around plants
-long and joined end to end
-xylem-hollow in center
-phloem very few subcellular structures

Undifferentiated cells(stem cells) can divide to produce

-lots more undifferentiated cells
-different types of cells

Stem cells
-found in early human embryos-turn into any kind of cell
-adults stem cells only found certain places eg bone marrow
(can't turn into any other cells, only specific)
-can be grown in lab to produce clones

-adult stem cells cure disease-bone marrow replace faulty

blood cells
-insulin-producing cells for diabete, nerve cells for paralysed
-therapeutic cloning-using cell from adult to produce cloned
embryo of themselves

Disadvantages of using stem cells

-stem cells grown may be contaminated
-destroying embryos
-embryos no consent

Advantages
-painless
-treat many disease

Stem cells in plants

-found in meristems(part where growth occurs)
-can differentiate into any type of cell
-produce clone of whole plants quickly n cheaply
-grow rare plants-prevent extinct
-grow crops for farmers

Chromosomes
-contains genetic info
-coiled up
-control variation
-23 pairs

The Cell Cycle

-body cells in multicellular organism divide to produce
new cells called cell cycle
-the stage when cell divides is mitosis
-grow or replace cells that are damanged
-result in two identical cells to original

Growth and DNA replication(stage in cell cycle)

-DNA is all spread out in long strings
-before divivdes-cell increase mito and ribosomes(92))

Mitosis(after duolication)
-the cell divides into two cell(each 46)

Binary Fusion-cell division in prokaryotic cells

1 circular DNAand plasmids replicate
2 cell gets bigger and circular DNA moves to opposite poles
of cell
3 cytoplasm divides, new cell wall forms, two new cells are
formed(one copy of DNA and variable no. of plasmids
Given right condition, divide quickly, unfavorable, die
eventually

Culturing Microorganisms
-give it a culture medium->agar jelly(contains all substance
it need to grow eg vitamins)
-take great care->microorganism mutation
-Don't want to contaminate the microorganism
-sterilise petri dish before growing
-maximum 25 c to incubate cultures->prevent you
to grow harmful pathogens(in school lab)

Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from a higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration(net movement)
-happens in soluion or gas
Factors affecting rate
-bigger concentration gradient, faster diffusion
-higher temp, more energy, faster diffusion

Diffusion and cell membrane

-dissolved and small substance move in and out(glucose,water)
-big cant(starch, protein)
-more particle on one side->net movement
-larger surface area, faster diffusion

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a
partially permeable membrane from a region of higher
water concentration to lower concentration

partially permeable membrane->very small holes,water move

across
-water molecules pass both ways, membrane and outside

Active transport
Active transport allows substance to move substance from an
area of low concentration to high concentration
against the concentration gradient
-needs energy from respiration

Exchanging substance
Organisms exchange substance with their environment

Cells can use diffusion to take in substance and get rid

of waste products

Surface area to volume ratio

-the larger the organism is, the smaller the SA compared to
volume

Single-celled organisms
-large surface area compared to volume
-gas and dissolved substance can diffuse directly into
membrane
-enough substance can be exchanged
Multicellular organisms
-smaller surface area compared to volume
-not enough substance can be diffused to supply cell
-exchange surface to allow enought substance to pass

Exchange surface
-thin membrane-short distance to diffuse
-Large SA-lots substance diffuse at once
-in animals->lots of blood vessels

Gas Exchange in lungs

-contains million of little air sacs called alveoli to
transfer oxygen to blood and remove waste CO2
Aveoli
-enormous SA
-moist lining for dissloving gases
-very thin walls
-good blood supply
Small intestine
-inside coverd in millions of little projections called
Villi
-greatly increase SA-digest food absorbed quickly into blood
-good blood supply

Gas exchange in plants

-adapted for CO2 to diffuse into plant cell
-little holes called stomata to let CO2 diffuse in
-water vapour and oxygen diffuse out
-guard cell close stomata-prevent water diffusing too fast
-flattened shape of leaf-SA increase

Gas exchange in gills

-water enters fish mouth
-oxygen diffuse from water to blood in the gills
-CO2 diffuse out
-gill filaments-SA increase
-lamellae in filaments, SA increase