15 Single-phase series a.c.

circuits

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• draw phasor diagrams and current and voltage wave- • understand Q-factor and perform
 calculations using
forms for (a) purely resistive (b) purely inductive and

VL (or VC ) ωr L 1 1 L
(c) purely capacitive a.c. circuits or or or
V R ωr CR R C
• perform calculations involving XL = 2πfL and • understand bandwidth and half-power points
1 f
XC =
2πfC • perform calculations involving ( f2 − f1 ) = r
Q
• draw circuit diagrams, phasor diagrams and volt- • understand selectivity and typical values of Q-factor
age and impedance triangles for R–L, R–C and • appreciate that power P in an a.c. circuit is given by
R–L–C series a.c. circuits and perform calculations P = VI cos φ or IR2 R and perform calculations using
using Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometric ratios and these formulae
V • understand true, apparent and reactive power and
Z=
I power factor and perform calculations involving these
• understand resonance quantities
• derive the formula for resonant frequency and use it
in calculations

15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit

In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and applied

voltage VR are in phase. See Figure 15.1.

Figure 15.2

In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of

alternating current is called the inductive reactance, XL

Figure 15.1
VL
XL = = 2πfL 
IL
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit
where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the inductance, in henrys.
applied voltage VL by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads). See Figure 15.2. XL is proportional to f as shown in Figure 15.3.
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 169

Figure 15.3

Problem 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of

inductance 0.32 H when it is connected to a 50 Hz sup-
ply. (b) A coil has a reactance of 124  in a circuit with
a supply of frequency 5 kHz. Determine the inductance
of the coil.

(a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(0.32)

= 100.5  Figure 15.4 PART
XL 124 XC varies with frequency f as shown in Figure 15.5. 2
(b) Since XL = 2πfL, inductance L = = H
2πf 2π(5000)
= 3.95 mH

Problem 2. A coil has an inductance of 40 mH and

negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance
and the resulting current if connected to (a) a 240 V,
50 Hz supply, and (b) a 100 V, 1 kHz supply.

Figure 15.5
(a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(40 × 10−3 )
= 12.57  Problem 3. Determine the capacitive reactance of
V 240 a capacitor of 10 µF when connected to a circuit of
Current, I = = = 19.09 A
XL 12.57 frequency (a) 50 Hz (b) 20 kHz.
(b) Inductive reactance, XL = 2π(1000)(40 × 10−3 )
1
= 251.3  (a) Capacitive reactance XC =
V 100 2πfC
Current, I = = = 0.398 A 1
XL 251.3 =
2π(50)(10 × 10−6 )
106
15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit =
2π(50)(10)
= 318.3 
In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the 1 1
applied voltage VC by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads). See Figure 15.4. (b) XC = = 3
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the 2πfC 2π(20 × 10 )(10 × 10−6 )
flow of alternating current is called the capacitive react- 106
ance, XC =
2π(20 × 103 )(10)
= 0.796 
VC 1
XC = = 
IC 2πfC Hence as the frequency is increased from 50 Hz to 20 kHz,
XC decreases from 318.3  to 0.796  (see Figure 15.5).
where C is the capacitance in farads.
170 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 4. A capacitor has a reactance of 40  when 7. A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of 400 
operated on a 50 Hz supply. Determine the value of its when connected to a 100 V, 25 Hz supply. Deter-
capacitance. mine its capacitance and the current taken from the
supply. [15.92 µF, 0.25 A]
8. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel
1 1
Since XC = , capacitance C = to a 200 V, 1 kHz supply. Find the value of each
2πfC 2πfXC capacitor if the circuit current is 0.628 A.
1 [0.25 µF]
= F
2π(50)(40)
106
= µF
2π(50)(40) 15.4 R–L series a.c. circuit
= 79.58 µF
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R,
the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL (see
Problem 5. Calculate the current taken by a 23 µF Figure 15.6), and thus the current I lags the applied voltage
capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. V by an angle lying between 0◦ and 90◦ (depending on
the values of VR and VL ), shown as angle φ. In any a.c.
series circuit the current is common to each component
and is thus taken as the reference phasor.
V V
Current I = =  = 2πfCV
XC 1
2πfC
= 2π(50)(23 × 10−6 )(240)
= 1.73 A

Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 50 Further problems on purely inductive

and capacitive a.c. circuits
1. Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.2 H
when it is connected to (a) a 50 Hz, (b) a 600 Hz,
and (c) a 40 kHz, supply.
[(a) 62.83  (b) 754  (c) 50.27 k]
2. A coil has a reactance of 120  in a circuit with a Figure 15.6
supply frequency of 4 kHz. Calculate the inductance
of the coil. [4.77 mH] From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.6, the ‘voltage
triangle’ is derived.
3. A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is connected across a
pure inductance and the resulting current is 1.2 A. For the R–L circuit:
Calculate the inductance of the coil. [0.637 H] √
V = (VR2 + VL2 ) (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
4. An e.m.f. of 200 V at a frequency of 2 kHz is applied
VL
to a coil of pure inductance 50 mH. Determine and tan φ = (by trigonometric ratios)
(a) the reactance of the coil, and (b) the current VR
flowing in the coil. [(a) 628  (b) 0.318 A] applied voltage V
5. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of In an a.c. circuit, the ratio is called the
current I
20 µF when connected to an a.c. circuit of frequency impedance Z, i.e.
(a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz, (c) 4 kHz
[(a) 397.9  (b) 15.92  (c) 1.989 ] V
Z= 
6. A capacitor has a reactance of 80  when con- I
nected to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the value of its
capacitance. [39.79 µF] If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 15.6 is divided
by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 171

√ d.c. voltage 12
For the R–L circuit: Z= (R2 + XL2 ) Resistance R = = =6
d.c. current 2
XL XL R
tan φ = , sin φ = and cos φ = a.c. voltage 240
R Z Z Impedance Z = = = 12 
a.c. current 20
√ 2
Problem 6. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the Since Z = (R + XL2 ), inductive reactance,
resistance R is 12 V and the p.d. across the inductance √
L is 5 V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle XL = (Z 2 − R2 )
between current and voltage. √
= (122 − 62 )

From the voltage triangle of Figure 15.6, = 10.39 

√
supply voltage V = (122 + 52 ) i.e. V = 13V XL 10.39
(Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not the Since XL = 2πfL, inductance L = =
2πf 2π(50)
arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components. It is, in
fact, the phasor sum.) = 33.1 mH
  This problem indicates a simple method for finding the
VL 5 5 inductance of a coil, i.e. firstly to measure the current when
tan φ = = , from which φ = tan−1
VR 12 12 the coil is connected to a d.c. supply of known voltage, PART
◦ and then to repeat the process with an a.c. supply. 2
= 22.62
◦ ′
= 22 37 lagging
Problem 9. A coil of inductance 318.3 mH and neg-
(‘Lagging’ infers that the current is ‘behind’ the voltage, ligible resistance is connected in series with a 200 
since phasors revolve anticlockwise.) resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the
inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of the
circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) the p.d. across
Problem 7. A coil has a resistance of 4  and an each component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate (a) the reactance,
(b) the impedance, and (c) the current taken from a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine also the phase angle L = 318.3 mH = 0.3183 H; R = 200 ;
between the supply voltage and current. V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz
The circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 15.6.
R = 4 ; L = 9.55 mH = 9.55 × 10−3 H;
(a) Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(0.3183)
f = 50 Hz; V = 240 V
= 100 
√ 2 2 √
(a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL (b) Impedance Z = (R + XL ) = [(200)2 + (100)2 ]
= 2π(50)(9.55 ×10−3) = 3  = 223.6 
√ 2 √ V 240
(b) Impedance, Z = (R + XL2 ) = (43 + 32 ) = 5  (c) Current I = = = 1.073 A
V 240 Z 223.6
(c) Current, I = = = 48 A (d) The p.d. across the coil, VL = IXL = 1.073 × 100
Z 5
= 107.3 V
The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and
The p.d. across the resistor, VR = IR = 1.073 × 200
impedance triangles are as shown in Figure 15.6.
= 214.6 V
XL XL 3
Since tan φ = , φ = tan−1 = tan−1 √ √
R R 4 [Check: (VR2 + VL2 ) = [(214.6)2 + (107.3)2 ] = 240 V,
= 36.87◦ the supply voltage]
= 36◦ 52′ lagging
XL
(e) From the impedance triangle, angle φ = tan−1
Problem 8. A coil takes a current of 2 A from a R 
12 V d.c. supply. When connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz −1 100
= tan
supply the current is 20 A. Calculate the resistance, 200
impedance, inductive reactance and inductance of the Hence the phase angle φ = 26.57◦ = 26◦ 34′ lagging
coil.
172 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Supply voltage, V = IZ
Problem 10. A coil consists of a resistance of 100 
and an inductance of 200 mH. If an alternating voltage, VR 6
Current I = = = 0.20 A
v, given by v = 200 sin 500t volts is applied across the R 30
coil, calculate (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL
flowing, (c) the p.d. across the resistance, (d) the p.d. = 2π(5 × 103 )(1.273 × 10−3 )
across the inductance and (e) the phase angle between = 40 
voltage and current. √ 2 √
Impedance, Z = (R + XL2 ) = (302 + 402 ) = 50 
Supply voltage V = IZ = (0.20)(50) = 10 V
Since v = 200 sin 500t volts then Vm = 200 V and
Voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance, VL = IX L
ω = 2πf = 500 rad/s
= (0.2)(40)
Hence rms voltage V = 0.707 × 200 = 141.4 V
= 8V
Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = ωL
= 500 × 200 × 10−3 = 100  The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.7(b).
√ (Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not the
(a) Impedance Z = (R2 + XL2 ) arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components but the
√ phasor sum.)
= (1002 + 1002 ) = 141.4 
V 141.4
(b) Current I = = = 1A Problem 12. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and
Z 141.4
(c) p.d. across the resistance VR = IR = 1 × 100 = 100 V resistance 20  is connected in series with a 60 
resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the
p.d. across the inductance VL= IX L= 1 × 100 = 100 V impedance of the circuit, (b) the current in the circuit,
(e) Phase angle
 between
 voltage and current is given by: (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the p.d. across the 60 
XL resistor and (e) the p.d. across the coil. (f) Draw the
tan φ =
R circuit phasor diagram showing all voltages.
from which, φ = tan−1 (100/100), hence φ = 45◦ or
π The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.8(a). When
rads
4 impedances are connected in series the individual resist-
ances may be added to give the total circuit resistance. The
Problem 11. A pure inductance of 1.273 mH is con- equivalent circuit is thus shown in Figure 15.8(b).
nected in series with a pure resistance of 30 . If the
frequency of the sinusoidal supply is 5 kHz and the p.d.
across the 30  resistor is 6 V, determine the value of
the supply voltage and the voltage across the 1.273 mH
inductance. Draw the phasor diagram.

The circuit is shown in Figure 15.7(a).

Figure 15.8

Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(159.2 × 10−3 )

= 50 
√ 2 √
(a) Circuit impedance, Z = (RT + XL2 ) = (802 + 502 )
Figure 15.7 = 94.34 
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 173

V 240
(b) Circuit current, I = = = 2.544 A 4. A coil takes a current of 5 A from a 20 V d.c. sup-
Z 94.34  ply. When connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply
XL the current is 25 A. Calculate the (a) resistance,
(c) Circuit phase angle φ = tan−1
R (b) impedance, and (c) inductance of the coil.
= tan−1 (50/80) [(a) 4  (b) 8  (c) 22.05 mH]
= 32◦ lagging 5. A coil of inductance 636.6 mH and negligible resis-
tance is connected in series with a 100  resistor to
From Figure 15.8(a): a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the inductive
reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of the cir-
(d) VR = IR = (2.544)(60) = 152.6 V cuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) the p.d. across
√ each component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
(e) VCOIL = IZ COIL , where ZCOIL = (RC2 + XL2 )
√ [(a) 200  (b) 223.6  (c) 1.118 A
= (202 + 502 ) (d) 223.6 V, 111.8 V (e) 63.43◦ lagging]
= 53.85 
Hence VCOIL = (2.544)(53.85) = 137.0 V
(f) For the phasor diagram, shown in Figure 15.9,
15.5 R–C series a.c. circuit
PART
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and 2
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
and VC (see Figure 15.10) and thus the current I leads the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0◦ and 90◦
(depending on the values of VR and VC ), shown as angle α.
Figure 15.9

VL = IX L = (2.544)(50) = 127.2 V
VR COIL = IRC = (2.544)(20) = 50.88 V
The 240 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of VCOIL
and VR

Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 51 Further problems on R–L series a.c.

circuits
1. Determine the impedance of a coil which has a
resistance of 12  and a reactance of 16 . Figure 15.10
[20 ] From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.10, the ‘voltage
triangle’ is derived. For the R–C circuit:
2. A coil of inductance 80 mH and resistance 60 
is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate √
the circuit impedance and the current taken from V= (VR2 + VC2 ) (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
the supply. Find also the phase angle between the
current and the supply voltage. VC
[78.27 , 2.555 A, 39.95◦ lagging] and tan α = (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
3. An alternating voltage given by v = 100 sin 240t As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the ratio
volts is applied across a coil of resistance 32  (applied voltage V )/(current I) is called the impedance
V
and inductance 100 mH. Determine (a) the circuit Z, i.e. Z = 
impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d. I
across the resistance, and (d) the p.d. across the If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 15.10 is
inductance. divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is
[(a) 40  (b) 1.77 A (c) 56.64 V (d) 42.48 V] derived.
√
For the R–C circuit: Z = (R2 + XC2 )
174 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

XC XC R (d) P.d. across resistor, VR = IR = (3)(40) = 120 V

tan α = , sin α = and cos α =
R Z Z (e) P.d. across capacitor, VC = IX C = (3)(30) = 90 V

Problem 13. A resistor of 25  is connected in series The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.11, where the
with a capacitor of 45 µF. Calculate (a) the impedance, supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VC .
and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
Find also the phase angle between the supply voltage
and the current.

R = 25 ; C = 45 µF = 45×10−6 F; V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz
The circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 15.10
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC = = Figure 15.11
2πfC 2π(50)(45 × 10−6 )
= 70.74 
Now try the following exercise.
√ √
(a) Impedance Z = (R2 + XC2 ) = [(25)2 + (70.74)2 ] Exercise 52 Further problem on R–C series a.c.
= 75.03  circuits
V 240
(b) Current I = = = 3.20 A 1. A voltage of 35 V is applied across a C–R series
Z 75.03
circuit. If the voltage across the resistor is 21 V,
Phase angle between
 the supply voltage and current, find the voltage across the capacitor. [28 V]
−1 XC
α = tan 2. A resistance of 50  is connected in series with a
R capacitance of 20 µF. If a supply of 200 V, 100 Hz
 
−1 70.74 is connected across the arrangement find (a) the cir-
hence α = tan = 70.54◦ = 70◦ 32′ leading cuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, and (c) the
25
(‘Leading’ infers that the current is ‘ahead’ of the voltage, phase angle between voltage and current.
since phasors revolve anticlockwise.) [(a) 93.98  (b) 2.128 A (c) 57.86◦ leading]
3. An alternating voltage v = 250 sin 800t volts is
Problem 14. A capacitor C is connected in series with applied across a series circuit containing a 30 
a 40  resistor across a supply of frequency 60 Hz. resistor and 50 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the cir-
A current of 3 A flows and the circuit impedance is cuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d.
50 . Calculate: (a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the across the resistor, (d) the p.d. across the capaci-
supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between the supply tor, and (e) the phase angle between voltage and
voltage and current, (d) the p.d. across the resistor, current.
and (e) the p.d. across the capacitor. Draw the phasor [(a) 39.05  (b) 4.526 A (c) 135.8 V
diagram. (d) 113.2 V (e) 39.81◦ leading]
4. A 400  resistor is connected in series with a
√ 2358 pF capacitor across a 12 V a.c. supply. Deter-
(a) Impedance Z = (R2 + XC2 ) mine the supply frequency if the current flowing in
the circuit is 24 mA. [225 kHz]
√ √
Hence XC = (Z 2 − R2 ) = (502 − 402 ) = 30 
1 1 1
XC = hence C = = F
2πfC 2πfXC 2π(60)30
15.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit
= 88.42 µF
V In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance
(b) Since Z = then V = IZ = (3)(50) = 150 V L and capacitance C, the applied voltage V is the phasor
I
sum of VR , VL and VC (see Figure 15.12). VL and VC are
 
XC 30
(c) Phase angle, α = tan−1 = tan−1 = 36.87◦ anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180◦ , and there are three pha-
R 40
sor diagrams possible — each depending on the relative
= 36◦ 52′ leading values of VL and VC .
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 175

When XL > XC (Figure 15.12(b)): Problem 15. A coil of resistance 5  and inductance
120 mH in series with a 100 µF capacitor, is connected
√
Z= [R2 + (XL − XC )2 ] to a 300 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current
flowing, (b) the phase difference between the supply
(XL − XC ) voltage and current, (c) the voltage across the coil and
and tan φ =
R (d) the voltage across the capacitor.

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.13

Figure 15.13
PART
2
−3
XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 × 10 ) = 37.70 
1 1
XC = = = 31.83 
2πfC 2π(50)(100 × 10−6 )

Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive.

XL − XC = 37.70 − 31.83 = 5.87 
√ √
Impedance Z = [R2 + (XL − XC )2 ] = [(5)2 + (5.87)2 ]
= 7.71 
V 300
(a) Current I = = = 38.91 A
Z 7.71
 
X L − XC 5.87
(b) Phase angle φ = tan−1 = tan−1
R 5
= 49.58◦
= 49◦ 35′
(c) Impedance of coil, ZCOIL
√ √
= (R2 + XL2 ) = [(5)2 + (37.70)2 ] = 38.03 
Voltage across coil VCOIL = IZ COIL = (38.91)(38.03)
Figure 15.12
= 1480 V
 
When XC > XL (Figure 15.12(c)): XL 37.70
Phase angle of coil = tan−1 = tan−1
R 5
√
Z= [R2 + (XC − XL )2 ] = 82.45◦
(XC − XL ) = 82◦ 27′ lagging
and tan α = (d) Voltage across capacitor VC = IX C = (38.91)(31.83)
R
= 1239 V
When X L = X C (Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage V
and the current I are in phase. This effect is called series The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.14. The supply
resonance (see Section 15.7). voltage V is the phasor sum of VCOIL and VC
176 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 16. The following three impedances are

connected in series across a 40 V, 20 kHz supply: (i) a
resistance of 8 , (ii) a coil of inductance 130 µH and
5  resistance, and (iii) a 10  resistor in series with a
0.25 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the circuit current, (b)
the circuit phase angle and (c) the voltage drop across
each impedance.

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.16(a). Since

the total circuit resistance is 8 + 5 + 10, i.e. 23 , an
equivalent circuit diagram may be drawn as shown in
Figure 15.16(b)

Figure 15.14

Series connected impedances

For series connected impedances the total circuit
impedance can be represented as a single L–C–R circuit by
combining all values of resistance together, all values of
inductance together and all values of capacitance together,

(remembering that for series connected capacitors

1 1 1 Figure 15.16
= + + · · · ).
C C1 C2

For example, the circuit of Figure 15.15(a) showing three Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL
impedances has an equivalent circuit of Figure 15.15(b).
= 2π(20 × 103 )(130 × 10−6 )
= 16.34 

1
Capacitive reactance, XC =
2πfC
1
=
2π(20 × 103 )(0.25 × 10−6 )
= 31.83 

Since XC > XL , the circuit is capacitive (see phasor

diagram in Figure 15.12(c)).
XC − XL = 31.83 − 16.34 = 15.49 .
√
(a) Circuit impedance, Z = [R2 + (XC − XL )2 ]
√
= [232 + 15.492 ]
= 27.73 
Figure 15.15 V 40
Circuit current, I = = = 1.442 A
Z 27.73
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 177

(b) From Figure 15.12(c),circuit phase angle The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.18.
−1 XC − X L
φ = tan
R
 
15.49
i.e, φ = tan−1 = 33.96◦ = 33◦ 58′ leading
23

(c) From Figure 15.16(a), V1 = IR1 = (1.442)(8)

= 11.54 V
√ 2 2
V2 = IZ 2 = I (5 + 16.34 ) = (1.442)(17.09)
= 24.64 V
√ 2
V3 = IZ 3 = I (10 + 31.832 ) = (1.442)(33.36)
= 48.11 V
The 40 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of V1 , V2 Figure 15.18
and V3
The phasor sum of V1 and V2 gives the supply voltage V
Problem 17. Determine the p.d.’s V1 and V2 for of 100 V at a phase angle of 53◦ 8′ leading. These values PART
the circuit shown in Figure 15.17 if the frequency of may be determined by drawing or by calculation — either
the supply is 5 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and
2
by resolving into horizontal and vertical components or
hence determine the supply voltage V and the circuit by the cosine and sine rules.
phase angle.
Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 53 Further problems on R–L–C series

a.c. circuits

1. A 40 µF capacitor in series with a coil of resistance

8  and inductance 80 mH is connected to a 200 V,
100 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
Figure 15.17 (b) the current flowing, (c) the phase angle between
voltage and current, (d) the voltage across the coil,
For impedance Z1 : and (e) the voltage across the capacitor.
[(a) 13.18  (b) 15.17 A (c) 52.63◦ lagging
R1 = 4 and XL = 2πfL = 2π(5 × 103 )(0.286 × 10−3 )
(d) 772.1 V (e) 603.6 V]
= 8.985 
√ √ 2. Find the values of resistance R and inductance L in
2
V1 = IZ1 = I (R + XL2 ) = 5 (42 + 8.9852 ) = 49.18 V the circuit of Figure 15.19.
[R = 131 , L = 0.545 H]
 
XL
Phase angle φ1 = tan−1
R R L 40 µF
 
8.985
= tan−1 = 66◦ 0′ lagging
4 I = 1.5∠−35° A
For impedance Z2 :
1 1 240 V, 50 Hz
R2 = 8  and XC = = 3
2πfC 2π(5 × 10 )(1.273 × 10−6 )
Figure 15.19
= 25.0 
√ 2 √
2
V2 = IZ2 = I (R + XC ) = 5 (82 + 25.02 ) = 131.2 V 3. Three impedances are connected in series across a
  100 V, 2 kHz supply. The impedances comprise:
XC
Phase angle φ2 = tan−1 (i) an inductance of 0.45 mH and 2  resistance,
R
  (ii) an inductance of 570 µH and 5  resistance,
−1 25.0
= tan = 72◦ 15′ leading and
8
178 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(iii) a capacitor of capacitance 10 µF and resis- (vi) Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against
tance 3 . frequency are shown in Figure 15.21.
Assuming no mutual inductive effects between the
two inductances calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the circuit current, (c) the circuit phase angle and
(d) the voltage across each impedance.
[(a) 11.12  (b) 8.99 A (c) 25.92◦ lagging
(d) 53.92 V, 78.53 V, 76.46 V]
4. For the circuit shown in Figure 15.20 determine the
voltages V1 and V2 if the supply frequency is 1 kHz.
Draw the phasor diagram and hence determine the
supply voltage V and the circuit phase angle.
[V1 = 26.0 V, V2 = 67.05 V, V = 50 V,
53.14◦ leading]

Figure 15.21

Problem 18. A coil having a resistance of 10  and

an inductance of 125 mH is connected in series with
a 60 µF capacitor across a 120 V supply. At what fre-
quency does resonance occur? Find the current flowing
Figure 15.20 at the resonant frequency.

1
Resonant frequency, fr = √ Hz
2π (LC)
15.7 Series resonance 1
=
   Hz
125 60
As stated in Section 15.6, for an R–L–C series circuit, 2π
when XL = XC (Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage V 103 106
and the current I are in phase. This effect is called series 1
resonance. At resonance: =
 
125 × 6
2π
(i) VL = VC 108
(ii) Z = R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible 1
= √
in an L–C–R circuit) [(125)(6)]
V 2π
(iii) I = (i.e. the maximum current possible in an 104
R 104
L–C–R circuit) = √ = 58.12 Hz
1 2π [(125)(6)]
(iv) Since XL = XC , then 2πfr L =
2πfr C
1 At resonance, XL = XC and impedance Z = R
from which, fr2 = V 120
(2π)2 LC Hence current, I = = = 12 A
R 10

1 Problem 19. The current at resonance in a series L–

and, fr = √ Hz C–R circuit is 100 µA. If the applied voltage is 2 mV
2π (LC)
at a frequency of 200 kHz, and the circuit inductance is
50 µH, find (a) the circuit resistance, and (b) the circuit
capacitance.
where fr is the resonant frequency.
(v) The series resonant circuit is often described as an
acceptor circuit since it has its minimum impedance, (a) I = 100 µA = 100 × 10−6 A; V = 2 mV = 2 × 10−3 V
and thus maximum current, at the resonant frequency. At resonance, impedance Z = resistance R
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 179

V 20 × 10−3 2 × 106 (a) Resonant frequency fr

Hence R = = = = 20 
I 100 × 10−6 100 × 103
1 1
(b) At resonance XL = XC =
   =
 
80 0.25 (8)(0.25)
2π 2π
1 103 106 108
i.e. 2πfL =
2πfC
104
= √
Hence capacitance 2π 2

1 = 1125.4 Hz = 1.1254 kHz

C=
(2πf )2 L
V 100
1 (b) Current at resonance I = = = 8A
= F R 12.5
(2π × 200 × 103 )2 (50 × 10−6 ) Voltage across inductance, at resonance,
(106 )(106 ) VL = IXL = (I)(2πfL)
= µF
(4π)2 (1010 )(50)
= (8)(2π)(1125.4)(80 × 10−3 )
= 0.0127 µF or 12.7 nF PART
= 4525.5 V 2
15.8 Q-factor (Also, voltage across capacitor,

I 8
At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC , it VC = IXC = =
is possible for VL and VC to have voltages many times 2πfC 2π(1125.4)(0.25 × 10−6 )
greater than the supply voltage (see Figure 15.12(d)). = 4525.5 V )

Voltage magnification at resonance VL Vc

Voltage magnification at resonance = or
V V
voltage across L (or C)
= 4525.5
supply voltage V =
100
= 45.255 V
This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a
resonator or tuning device) and is called the Q-factor. i.e. at resonance, the voltage across the reactances are
VL IXL XL 2πfr L 45.255 times greater than the supply voltage. Hence
Hence Q-factor = = = = Q-factor of circuit is 45.255.
V IR R R
VC IXC XC 1
Alternatively, Q-factor = = = =
V IR R 2πfr CR Problem 21. A series circuit comprises a coil of
1 1 resistance 2  and inductance 60 mH, and a 30 µF
At resonance fr = √ i.e. 2πfr = √ capacitor. Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at
2π (LC) (LC) resonance.
 
 
2πfr L 1 L 1 L
Hence Q-factor = =√ =
R (LC) R R C 1

 
L 1


60 × 10−3

(Q-factor is explained more fully in Chapter 28, page 349) At resonance, Q-factor = =
R C 2 30 × 10−6

60 × 106

 
Problem 20. A coil of inductance 80 mH and negli- 1
=
gible resistance is connected in series with a capac- 2 30 × 103
itance of 0.25 µF and a resistor of resistance 12.5 
across a 100 V, variable frequency supply. Determine 1√
= (2000)
(a) the resonant frequency, and (b) the current at reso- 2
nance. How many times greater than the supply voltage = 22.36
is the voltage across the reactances at resonance?
180 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 22. A coil of negligible resistance and Now try the following exercise.
inductance 100 mH is connected in series with a
capacitance of 2 µF and a resistance of 10  across a Exercise 54 Further problems on series resonance
50 V, variable frequency supply. Determine (a) the res- and Q-factor
onant frequency, (b) the current at resonance, (c) the
voltages across the coil and the capacitor at resonance, 1. Find the resonant frequency of a series a.c. circuit
and (d) the Q-factor of the circuit. consisting of a coil of resistance 10  and induc-
tance 50 mH and capacitance 0.05 µF. Find also the
1 current flowing at resonance if the supply voltage
(a) Resonant frequency, fr = √ is 100 V. [3.183 kHz, 10 A]
2π (LC)
1 2. The current at resonance in a series L–C–R circuit
=
   is 0.2 mA. If the applied voltage is 250 mV at a
100 2 frequency of 100 kHz and the circuit capacitance is
2π
103 106 0.04 µF, find the circuit resistance and inductance.
1 1 [1.25 k, 63.3 µH]
= = √  3. A coil of resistance 25  and inductance 100 mH is
2π 20


20
2π connected in series with a capacitance of 0.12 µF
108 104
across a 200 V, variable frequency supply. Calcu-
104 late (a) the resonant frequency, (b) the current at
= √ resonance and (c) the factor by which the volt-
2π 20
age across the reactance is greater than the supply
= 355.9 Hz voltage. [(a) 1.453 kHz (b) 8 A (c) 36.51]
V 50
(b) Current at resonance I = = = 5A 4. Calculate the inductance which must be connected
R 10 in series with a 1000 pF capacitor to give a resonant
(c) Voltage across coil at resonance, frequency of 400 kHz. [0.158 mH]
5. A series circuit comprises a coil of resistance
VL = IXL = I(2πfr L) 20  and inductance 2 mH and a 500 pF capacitor.
Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at resonance.
= (5)(2π × 355.9 × 100 × 10−3 ) If the supply voltage is 1.5 V, what is the voltage
across the capacitor? [100, 150 V]
= 1118 V

Voltage across capacitance at resonance,

I 15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity

VC = IXC =
2πfr C
Figure 15.22 shows how current I varies with frequency
5 in an R–L–C series circuit. At the resonant frequency fr ,
=
2π(355.9)(2 × 10−6 ) current is a maximum value, shown as Ir . Also shown
= 1118 V

(d) Q-factor (i.e. voltage magnification at resonance)

VL VC
= or
V V
1118
= = 22.36
50
2πfr L
Q-factor may also have been determined by or

  R
1 1 L
or
2πfr CR R C
Figure 15.22
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 181

are the points A and B where the current is 0.707 of the

maximum value at frequencies f1 and f2 . The power deliv-
ered to the circuit is I 2 R. At I = 0.707Ir , the power is
(0.707Ir )2 R = 0.5Ir2 R, i.e. half the power that occurs at
frequency fr . The points corresponding to f1 and f2 are
called the half-power points. The distance between these
points, i.e. ( f2 − f1 ), is called the bandwidth.
It may be shown that

fr fr
Q= or ( f2 − f1 ) =
f2 − f1 Q

(This formula is proved in Chapter 28, page 357 and 358)

Problem 23. A filter in the form of a series L–R–C

circuit is designed to operate at a resonant frequency of
5 kHz. Included within the filter is a 20 mH inductance PART
and 10  resistance. Determine the bandwidth of the
filter.
2

Q-factor at resonance is given by

ωr L (2π5000)(20 × 10−3 )
Qr = = = 62.83
R 10

Since Qr = fr /( f2 − f1 )
Figure 15.23
fr 5000
bandwidth, ( f2 − f1 ) = = = 79.6 Hz
Qr 62.83
(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the average power
Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more read- dissipated, P, is given by:
ily to signals of a particular frequency to which it is tuned
than to signals of other frequencies. The response becomes V2
P = VI = I 2 R = watts
progressively weaker as the frequency departs from the R
resonant frequency. The higher the Q-factor, the narrower (V and I being rms values).
the bandwidth and the more selective is the circuit. Cir-
cuits having high Q-factors (say, in the order of 100 to See Figure 15.23(a).
300) are therefore useful in communications engineering. (b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average power
A high Q-factor in a series power circuit has disadvantages is zero. See Figure 15.23(b).
in that it can lead to dangerously high voltages across the (c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average power
insulation and may result in electrical breakdown. is zero. See Figure 15.23(c).
(For more on bandwidth and selectivity see Chapter 28,
page 356–358) Figure 15.24 shows current and voltage waveforms for an
R–L circuit where the current lags the voltage by angle
φ. The waveform for power (where p = vi) is shown by
the broken line, and its shape, and hence average power,
depends on the value of angle φ.
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits For an R–L, R–C or R–L–C series a.c. circuit, the average
power P is given by:
In Figures 15.23(a)–(c), the value of power at any instant
is given by the product of the voltage and current at that
instant, i.e. the instantaneous power, p = vi, as shown by P = VI cos φ watts
the broken lines.
182 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

15.11 Power triangle and power factor

Figure 15.25(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the cur-

rent I lags the applied voltage V by angle φ. The horizontal
component of V is V cos φ and the vertical component of
V is V sin φ. If each of the voltage phasors is multiplied by
I, Figure 15.25(b) is obtained and is known as the ‘power
triangle’.
Figure 15.24
or

P = I 2 R watts (V and I being rms values)

The formulae for power are proved in Chapter 26,

page 327.

Problem 24. An instantaneous current, i = 250 sin ωt

mA flows through a pure resistance of 5 k. Find the
power dissipated in the resistor.

Power dissipated, P = I 2 R where I is the rms value of

current.
Figure 15.25
If i = 250 sin ωt mA, then Im = 0.250 A and rms current,
I = (0.707 × 0.250) A
Hence power P = (0.707 × 0.250)2 (5000) = 156.2 watts
Apparent power, S = VI voltamperes (VA)
Problem 25. A series circuit of resistance 60  and True or active power, P = VI cos φ watts (W)
inductance 75 mH is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ reactive
supply. Calculate the power dissipated. voltamperes (var)

Inductive reactance,
XL = 2πfL = 2π(60)(75 × 10−3 ) = 28.27  True power P
Power factor =
Apparent power S
Impedance,
√ √
Z = (R2 + XL2 ) = [(60)2 + (28.27)2 ] = 66.33  For sinusoidal voltages and currents,
V 100 P VI cos φ
Current, I = = = 1.658 A power factor = = , i.e.
Z 66.33 S VI
To calculate power dissipation in an a.c. circuit two
formulae may be used: R
p.f. = cos φ = (from Figure 15.6)
Z
2 2
(i) P = I R = (1.658) (60) = 165 W
R The relationships stated above are also true when current
or (ii) P = VI cos φ where cos φ = I leads voltage V . More on the power triangle and power
Z
factor is contained in Chapter 26, page 329.
60
= = 0.9046
66.33 Problem 26. A pure inductance is connected to a
Hence P = (110)(1.658)(0.9046) = 165 W 150 V, 50 Hz supply, and the apparent power of the
circuit is 300 VA. Find the value of the inductance.
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 183

Apparent power S = VI true power

(a) Power factor =
S 300 apparent power
Hence current I = = = 2A
V 150 100 100
V 150 i.e. 0.5 = . Hence I = = 2A
Inductive reactance XL = = = 75  (100)(I) (0.5)(100)
I 2
XL 75 (b) Power factor = 0.5 = cos φ. Hence phase angle,
Since XL = 2πfL, inductance L = =
2πf 2π(50) φ = cos−1 0.5 = 60◦ leading
= 0.239 H P 100
(c) Power P = I 2 R. Hence resistance R = 2 = 2
I (2)
Problem 27. A transformer has a rated output of = 25 
200 kVA at a power factor of 0.8. Determine the rated
V 100
power output and the corresponding reactive power. (d) Impedance Z = = = 50 
I 2
√
(e) Capacitive reactance, XC = (Z 2 − R2 )
VI = 200 kVA = 200 × 103 ; p.f. = 0.8 = cos φ √
= (502 − 252 )
Power output, P = VI cos φ = (200 ×103)(0.8) = 160 kW
= 43.30 
Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ
1 PART
If cos φ = 0.8, then φ = cos−1 0.8 = 36.87◦ XC = hence capacitance,
2πfC 2
Hence sin φ = sin 36.87◦ = 0.6
Hence reactive power, Q = (200 × 103 )(0.6) = 120 kvar 1 1
C= = F
2πfXc 2π(60)(43.30)
Problem 28. The power taken by an inductive circuit = 61.26 µF
when connected to a 120 V, 50 Hz supply is 400 W and
the current is 8 A. Calculate (a) the resistance, (b) the
impedance, (c) the reactance, (d) the power factor, and Now try the following exercise.
(e) the phase angle between voltage and current.
Exercise 55 Further problems on power in a.c.
P 400 circuits
(a) Power P = I 2 R. Hence R = = = 6.25 
I2 (8)2 1. A voltage v = 200 sin ωt volts is applied across
V 120 a pure resistance of 1.5 k. Find the power
(b) Impedance Z = = = 15 
I 8 dissipated in the resistor. [13.33 W]
√ 2 √
(c) Since Z = (R + XL2 ), then XL = (Z 2 − R2 )
√ 2. A 50 µF capacitor is connected to a 100 V, 200 Hz
= [(15)2 − (6.25)2]
supply. Determine the true power and the apparent
= 13.64  power. [0, 628.3 VA]
true power VI cos φ
(d) Power factor = =
apparent power VI 3. A motor takes a current of 10 A when supplied
400 from a 250 V a.c. supply. Assuming a power fac-
= = 0.4167 tor of 0.75 lagging find the power consumed. Find
(120)(8) also the cost of running the motor for 1 week
(e) p.f. = cos φ = 0.4167. Hence phase angle, continuously if 1 kWh of electricity costs 12.20 p.
φ = cos−1 0.4167 [1875 W, £38.43]
= 65.37◦ 4. A motor takes a current of 12 A when supplied
= 65◦ 22′ lagging from a 240 V a.c. supply. Assuming a power factor
of 0.70 lagging, find the power consumed.
Problem 29. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series [2.016 kW]
with a capacitor takes 100 watts at a power factor of
0.5 from a 100 V, 60 Hz supply. Find (a) the current 5. A substation is supplying 200 kVA and 150 kvar.
flowing, (b) the phase angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the Calculate the corresponding power and power
impedance, and (e) the capacitance. factor. [132 kW, 0.66]
184 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

6. A load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8 lag-

ging. Calculate the apparent power and the reactive
power. [62.5 kVA, 37.5 kvar]
7. A coil of resistance 400  and inductance 0.20 H
is connected to a 75 V, 400 Hz supply. Calculate
the power dissipated in the coil. [5.452 W]
8. An 80  resistor and a 6 µF capacitor are con-
nected in series across a 150 V, 200 Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the cur-
rent flowing and (c) the power dissipated in the
circuit. [(a) 154.9  (b) 0.968 A (c) 75 W]
9. The power taken by a series circuit containing
resistance and inductance is 240 W when con-
nected to a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. If the current
flowing is 2 A find the values of the resistance and
inductance. [60 , 255 mH]
10. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with
an inductance takes 210 W at a power factor of
0.6 from a 50 V, 100 Hz supply. Find (a) the
current flowing, (b) the circuit phase angle, (c)
the resistance, (d) the impedance and (e) the
inductance.
[(a) 7 A (b) 53.13◦ lagging (c) 4.286 
(d) 7.143  (e) 9.095 mH]
11. A 200 V, 60 Hz supply is applied to a capacitive
circuit. The current flowing is 2 A and the power
dissipated is 150 W. Calculate the values of the
resistance and capacitance.
[37.5 , 28.61 µF]