MODULE 3

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY

Introduction:

Set theory is the true study of infinity. This alone assures the subject of a place prominent in
human culture. But even more, Set Theory is the milieu in which mathematics takes place today. As
such, it is expected to provide a firm foundation for the rest of mathematics. And it does—up to a
point; we will prove theorems shedding light on this issue.

After the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. define set;
2. write sets in three different ways;
3. define the empty set;
4. find the cardinality of a set;
5. classify sets as finite or infinite;
6. decide if two sets are equal or equivalent;
7. define the complement of a set;
8. find all subsets of a set;
9. find intersections, unions, and differences of sets;
10. illustrate set statements involving two or three sets with Venn diagrams; and
11. solve problems using Venn diagrams.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 TIME FRAME: 6 hours

CHECK-UP TEST

Answer numbers 23 - 28 on page 54 (Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World. New

York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.)

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 LESSON PRO PE R

I. Sets

A set is a collection of objects. In our study of sets, we’ll want to restrict our attention to sets
that are well-defined. A set is well-defined if for any given object, we can objectively decide whether
it is or is not in the set. Each object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.

Roster Method
The elements of the set are listed between braces, with commas between the elements. The
order in which we list elements isn’t important.

Example: Writing a Set Using the Roster Method

Write the set of months of the year that begin with the letter M. Is this set well-defined?
Why or why not?

SOLUTION
The months that begin with M are March and May. So, the answer can be written in
set notation as

M = {March, May}

Each element in the set is listed within braces and is separated by a comma. This is a well-
defined set, because every month either begins with M or it does not: there’s no opinions involved.
However, if you really wanted to nitpick, you could claim that this set is not well-defined because it
didn’t specify a language for the names of months.

Natural Numbers
Sets are often labeled with capital letters. The Set of Natural Numbers (Counting Numbers)
is defined as N = {1, 2, 3, 4 …}. (When we are designating sets, the three dots, or ellipsis, mean
that the list of elements continues indefinitely in the same pattern.)

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

The Set of Even Natural Numbers is
E = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}

The Set of Odd Natural Numbers is

O = {1, 3, 5, 7, …}

Example: Writing Sets Using the Roster Method.

Use the roster method to do the following:

(a) Write the set of natural numbers less than 6.

(b) Write the set of odd natural numbers greater than 4.

(c) Can you think of another way to describe each set in words?

Writing Sets Using the Roster Method

SOLUTION

(a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(b) {5, 7, 9, 11, . . .}

(c) The first set could be described as the set of natural numbers less than or
equal to 5, or between 0 and 6. The second set could be described as the
set of odd natural numbers greater than 3, or greater than or equal to 5.

Set Notation
The symbol ∈ is used to show that an object is a member or element of a set. For
example, if A is the set of days of the week, we could write Monday ∈ A, and read this as
“Monday is an element of set A.” Likewise, we could write Friday ∈ A. When an object is

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 not a member of a set, we use the symbol ∉. Since “Icecreamday” is not a day of the week, we
can write Icecreamday ∉ A, and read this as “Icecreamday is not an element of A.”

Example: Understanding Set Notation

Decide whether each statement is true or false.

(a) Oregon ∈ A, where A is the set of states west of the Mississippi River.

(b) 27 ∈ {1, 5, 9, 13, 17...}

(c) z ∉ {v, w, x, z}
SOLUTION

(a) Oregon is west of the Mississippi, so Oregon is an element of A. The

statement is true.

(b) The pattern shows that each element is 4 more than the previous element. So the next
three elements are 21, 25, and 29; this shows that 27 is not in the set. The statement is
false.

(c) The letter z is an element of the set, so the statement is false.

Three Common Ways to Designate a Set

1. List or Roster Method

2. Descriptive Method

3. Set-Builder Notation

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Describing a Set Using the Descriptive Method

Use the descriptive method to describe the set B containing 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 in two different
ways.

SOLUTION

All of the elements in the set are even natural numbers, and all are less than 14, so B is the set
of even natural numbers less than 14. There are plenty of other ways the set could be described.
Another is the set of natural numbers between 1 and 15 that are divisible by 2.

Variable

The third (and fanciest) method of designating a set is set-builder notation, and this
method uses variables. A variable is a symbol (usually a letter) that can represent
different elements of a set.

Set-Builder Notation
Set-builder notation uses a variable, braces, and a vertical bar | that is read as “such that.”
For example, the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be written in set-builder notation as

{ x | x ∈ N and x < 7 }
This is read as “the set of elements x such that x is a natural number and x is less than 7.”
We can use any letter or symbol for the variable, but it’s common to use x.

Example: Writing a Set Using Set-Builder Notation

Use set-builder notation to designate each set, then write how your answer would be
read aloud.
(a) The set R contains the elements 2, 4, and 6.

(b) The set W contains the elements red, yellow, and blue.

SOLUTION
INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3
(a) R = {x │ x ∈ E and x < 7}
 Exercises:
1. Designate the set S with element 32, 33, 34, 35, … using
(a) The roster method.
(b) The descriptive method.
(c) Set-builder notation.
2. Using the roster method, write the set containing all even natural numbers between
99 and 201.

Empty Set or Null Set

A set with no elements is called an empty set or null set. The symbols used to
represent the null set are { } or ∅ .

Example: Identifying Empty Sets

Which of the following sets are empty.

(a) The set of woolly mammoth fossils in museums.
(b) {x | x is a living woolly mammoth}
(c) {x | x is a natural number between 1 and 2}
SOLUTION
(a) There is certainly at least one woolly mammoth fossil in a museum somewhere, so the set
is not empty.
(b) Woolly mammoths have been extinct for almost 8,000 years, so this set is most
definitely empty.

(c) This set is empty because there are no natural numbers between 1 and 2.

Cardinal Number

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in the set. For a set A the
symbol for the cardinality is n(A), which is read as “n of A.” For example, the set R = {2, 4, 6,
8, 10} has a cardinal number of 5 since it has 5 elements. This could also be stated by saying
the cardinality of set R is 5.

Example: Finding the Cardinality of a Set

Find the cardinal number of each set.

(a) A = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}

(b) B = {x │ x  N and x  16}
(c) C = {16}
(d) ∅

SOLUTION

(a) n(A) = 6 since set A has 6 elements

(b) B is the set {1, 2, 3, 4, …, 14, 15}, which has 15 elements. So

n(B) = 15.

(c) n(C) = 1 since set C has 1 element

(d) n( ∅ ) = 0 since there are no elements in an empty set

Finite and Infinite Sets

A set is called finite if it has no elements, or has cardinality that is a natural number.
A set that is not finite is called an infinite set.
The set {p, q, r, s} is a finite set since it has four members: p, q, r, and s. The set {10, 20,
30, . . .} is an infinite set since it has an unlimited number of elements: the natural numbers that
are multiples of 10.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Classifying Sets as Finite or Infinite
Classify each set as finite or infinite.
(a) {x │ x ∈ N and x < 100}
(b) Set R is the set of letters used to make Roman numerals.
(c) {100, 102, 104, 106, . . .}
(d) Set M is the set of people in your immediate family.
(e) Set S is the set of songs that can be written.

SOLUTION

(a) The set is finite since there are 99 natural numbers that are less than 100.
(b) The set is finite since the letters used are C, D, I, L, M, V, and X.
(c) The set is infinite since it consists of an unlimited number of elements.
(d) The set is finite since there is a specific number of people in your immediate
family.
(e) The set is infinite because an unlimited number of songs can be written.

Equal and Equivalent Sets

Two sets A and B are equal (written A = B) if they have exactly the same members or
elements. Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent (written A  B) if they have the
same number of elements: that is, n(A) = n(B).

Example: Deciding If Sets Are Equal or Equivalent

State whether each pair of sets is equal, equivalent, or neither.
(a) {p, q, r, s}; {a, b, c, d}
(b) {8, 10, 12}; {12, 8, 10}
(c) {213}; {2, 1, 3}
(d) {1, 2, 10, 20}; {2, 1, 20, 11}
(e) {even natural numbers less than 10}; {2, 4, 6, 8}
SOLUTION INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3
(a) Equivalent
(b) Equal and equivalent
(c) Neither
II. Subsets and Set Operations
Universal Set
The universal set for a given situation, symbolized by U, is the set of all objects that are
reasonable to consider in that situation.

Once we define a universal set in a given setting, we are restricted to considering only
elements from that set. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then the only elements we can use to define
other sets in this setting are the integers from 1 to 8.

Venn Diagram

In the remainder of this chapter, we’ll use a clever method for visualizing sets and their
relationships called a Venn diagram (so named because it was developed by a man named John
Venn in the 1800’s). Figure 2-1 shows an example.

Complement

The complement of a set A, symbolized A’, is the set of elements in the universal set that
are not in A.

Using set-builder notation, the complement of A is

A’= {x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A}.

Venn Diagram for a Complement

In a Venn diagram, the complement of a set A is all the things inside the rectangle that are

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

not inside the circle representing set A. This is shown in Figure 2-2.

Example: Finding the Complement of a Set

a. Let U = {v, w, x, y, z } and A = {w, y, z}. Find A and draw a Venn

diagram that illustrates these sets.

b. What is the complement of the universal set for a given situation?

SOLUTION:
(a) Using the list of elements in U, we just have to cross out the ones that are also in A.
The elements left over are in A.
U = {v, w, x, y, z}
A = {v, x}
(b) There are no elements in a universal set that are not in the universal set, so
according to the definition of complement, there are no elements in the complement of
a universal set, which means the complement is the empty set.

Subsets

If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B. The
symbol ⊆ is used to designate a subset; in this case, we write A ⊆ B.

• Every set is a subset of itself. Every element of a set A is of course an element of set A, so
A ⊆ A.

• The empty set is a subset of every set. The empty set has no elements, so for any set A,
you can’t find an element of  that is not also in A.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Finding All Subsets of a Set
Find all subsets of A = {Cold, Flu}.
SOLUTION
The subsets are
{Cold, Flu}
{Cold}
{Flu}

Note that a set with two elements has four subsets.

Proper Subsets

If a set A is a subset of a set B and is not equal to B, then we call A a proper subset of B,
and write A ⊂ B. That is, A ⊆ B and A ≠ B.

Venn Diagram for a Proper Subset

The Venn diagram for a proper subset is shown in Figure 2-4. In this case,

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 3, 5}, and B = {1, 3}.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Finding Proper Subsets of a Set
Find all proper subsets of {Marketing, English, Psychology}.
SOLUTION
{Marketing, English}, {Marketing, Psychology}, {English, Psychology},
{Marketing}, {English}, {Psychology}, Ø

Example: Understanding Subset Notation

Decide if each statement is true or false.
(a) {1, 3, 5} ⊆ {1, 3, 5, 7}
(b) {a, b} ⊂ {a, b}
(c) {x | x  E and x > 10} ⊂ N

(d) {r, s, t}  {t, s, r}

Note:  is the symbol for “not a subset of”

(e) {Lake Erie, Lake Huron}  The set of Great Lakes

(f)  ⊂ {5, 10, 15}

(g) {u, v, w, x} ⊆ {x, w, u}
(h) {0} ⊆ 

SOLUTION
(a) All of 1, 3, and 5 are in the second set, so {1, 3, 5} is a subset of {1, 3, 5, 7}. The statement is true.

(b) Even though {a, b} is a subset of {a, b}, it is not a proper subset, so the statement is false.

(c) Every element in the first set is a natural number, but not all natural numbers are in the set, so that set is
a proper subset of the natural numbers. The statement is true.

(d) The two sets are identical, so {r, s, t} is not a proper subset of {t, s, r}. The statement is true.

(e) Lake Erie and Lake Huron are both Great Lakes, so the set {Lake Erie, Lake Huron} is a subset of the
set of Great Lakes. The statement is false.

(f) The empty set is a proper subset of every set except itself. The statement is true.

(g) v is an element of {u, v, w, x} but not {x, w, u}. The statement is false.

(h) The set on the left has one element, 0. The empty set has no elements, so the statement is false.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Number of Subsets for a Finite Set
If a finite set has n elements, then the set has 2n subsets and 2n - 1 proper subsets.

Number of elements : n 0 1 2 3
Number of subsets : 2n 1 2 4 8
Number of proper subsets : 2n - 1 0 1 3 7

Example: Finding the Number of Subsets of a Set

(a) Find the number of subsets and proper subsets of the set {Ace, King, Queen, Jack, Ten,
Nine}
(b) Explain why the number of proper subsets for a set is always one less than total number of
subsets.
SOLUTION
(a) The set has n = 6 elements, so there are 2n, or 26 = 64, subsets. (Recall that 26 = 2 x 2 x 2 x
2 x 2 x 2, which is 64.)
Of these, 2n - 1 , or 64 - 1 = 63, are proper.
(b) When finding proper subsets, there’s only one subset excluded from the list of ALL
subsets: the original set itself. So there will always be one fewer proper subsets than total
subsets.

Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, symbolized by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that are in
both sets. In set-builder notation,
A ∩ B = {x | x  A and x  B}.
Note that the word “and” means intersection.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Venn Diagram for Intersection of Sets
For example, if
A = {10, 12, 14, 15} and
B = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17},
then the intersection
A ∩ B = { 14, 15 } ,
since 14 and 15 are the only
elements that are common to

both sets.
The Venn diagram for A ∩ B is shown in Figure 2-5. Notice that the elements of A are placed
inside the circle for set A, and the elements of B are inside the circle for set B. The elements in
the intersection are placed into the portion where the circles overlap: A ∩ B is the shaded portion.

Example: Finding Intersections

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list of side effects that
has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the medication. This a blind trial, so the
medications are simply labeled A, B, and C. The side effects for each are listed below.
A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}
B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}
Find each requested set.
(a) A ∩ B (b) B ∩ C (c) A ∩ B ∩ C
SOLUTION
(a) There are two side effects listed for both A and B: nausea and nervousness.
So A ∩ B = { nausea, nervousness } .
(b) There are three side effects common to drugs B and C: nausea, blurry vision, and fever. So B 
∩ C = { nausea, blurry vision, fever } .
(c) This example indicates that it makes perfect sense to find the intersection of more than two
sets: you just find elements that are in EVERY set. In this case, only one of the side effects is
listed for all three drugs: nausea. So A ∩ B ∩ C = { nausea } .

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Disjoint Sets

When the intersection of two sets is the empty set, the sets are said to be disjoint. For example,
the set of students who stop attending class midway through a term and the set of students
earning A’s are disjoint, because you can’t be a member of both sets.

Venn Diagram for Disjoint Sets

The Venn diagram for a pair of disjoint sets A and B is shown in Figure 2-6. If the sets have no
elements in common, the circles representing them don’t overlap at all.

Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, symbolized by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are in either
set A or set B (or both). In set-builder notation,
A ∪ B = {x | x  A or x  B}.

Note that the word “or” means union.

Venn Diagram for Union of Sets

For example, if
A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and
B = {5, 20, 30, 45},
then the union
A ∪ B = {5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45}.
Even though 5 and 20 are in
both sets, we list them only
once in the union.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

The Venn diagram for A ∪ B is shown in Figure 2-7. The set A ∪ B is the shaded area consisting
of all elements in either set.

Example: Finding Unions

For the sets in Example 6, find each of the following, then describe verbally what each set
represents.
(a) A ∪ B
(b) A ∪ C
(c) A ∪ B ∪ C
SOLUTION
To find a union, just make a list of all the elements from each set without writing repeats.
(a) A ∪ B = { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}. This is the set of side effects that were reported by
more than 1% of subjects taking either medication A or B.
(b) A ∪ C = { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, blurry vision,
fever, weight loss, eczema}. This is the set of side effects reported by more than 1% of
subjects taking either medication A or C.
(c) A ∪ B ∪ C = { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema}. This is the set of side effects
reported by more than 1% of subjects taking any of the three medications.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Performing Set Operations
Once again using the sets in Example 6, find each requested set and write a verbal
description of what each set represents.
(a) (A ∪ B) ∩ C
(b) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(c) (A ∩ B) ∪ C
SOLUTION
The key is to perform the operation in parentheses first.
(a) First, find A ∪ B: this is the set we found in part (a) of Example 7. Now find elements
common to that set and C: (A ∪ B) ∩ C = { dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever } . This
is the set of side effects common to medication C and either A or B (or both).
(b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) =  { nausea, dry mouth, nervousness } . This is the set of side effects
common to medication A and either B or C (or both).
(c) (A ∩ B) ∪ C = { nausea, nervousness, dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss,
eczema}. This is the set of side effects reported either by users of medication C, or both
users of A and users of B.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Performing Set Operations
Going back to our sets of side effects, recall that these were reported by at least 1% of users. The
universal set below is the set of all side effects reported by ANY users. Use this to find the
following sets.
U = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry vision,
fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling
down}
(a) A′∩ C′ (b) (A ∩ B)′∩ C (c) B′∪ (A ∩ C′)
CAUTION: When combining union and intersection with complements as we will in Example
9, we’ll have to be extra careful. Pay particular attention to the parentheses and to whether the
complement symbol is inside or outside the parentheses.
SOLUTION
(a) First, find A′, which is all of the items in the universal set that are not in A: A′ = {weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth, darting eyes,
uncontrollable falling down}.
Next, find C′: C′ = {night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet, weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor
mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}.
Now A′∩ C′ is the elements common to A′ and C′: A′∩ C′=  {weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor
mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}.
(b) The parentheses tell us that we should find A ∩ B first: A ∩ B = { nausea, nervousness}. Next,
find the complement: (A ∩ B)′ =  { night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable
falling down}. The elements of this set that are also in set C are what we’re looking for. This is
(A ∩ B)′ ∩ C = { dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}.
(c) First, find A ∩ C′: C′=  { night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet, weight gain, trouble
sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}, so A ∩ C′=  {night sweats,
nervousness, swollen feet}.
Next, note that B′ = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}.
The union we’re looking for is all of the stuff in B′ along with the stuff in A ∩ C′ that aren’t
already listed in B′:
B′ ∪ (A ∩ C′) =  {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down, nervousness}.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Set Subtraction
The difference of set A and set B is the set of elements in set A that are not in set B. In
set-builder notation,
A - B = {x | x  A and x  B}.

Example: Finding the Difference of Two Sets

Once more, we’re going to use the sets from Example 6. You should be pretty well-
acquainted with them by now.
Find each set.
(a) A - B
(b) B - C
(c) (A - B) - C
SOLUTION
(a) Start with the elements of A, then take out anything in B that’s also in A. The common
elements are nausea and nervousness, so A - B = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}.
(b) This time, start with set B, then throw out the things in C that are also in B. The common
elements are nausea, blurry vision, and fever, so B - C = {weight gain, nervousness, trouble
sleeping}.
(c) We already know that A - B = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}; now we need to
find any elements that are also in C and throw them out. Only dry mouth is also in C, so (A -
B) - C = {night sweats, swollen feet}.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

III. Using Venn Diagrams to Study Set Operations
Venn Diagrams with Two Sets
We’ll start with diagrams involving interactions between two sets, as in Figure 2-8.
Region I represents the elements in set A that are not in set B.
Region II represents the elements in both sets A and B.
Region III represents the elements in set B that are not in set A.
Region IV represents the elements in the universal set that are in neither set A nor set B.

Illustrating a Set Statement with a Venn Diagram

Step 1 Draw a diagram for the sets, with Roman numerals in each region.
Step 2 Using those Roman numerals, list the regions described by each set.
Step 3 Find the set of numerals that correspond to the set given in the set statement.
Step 4 Shade the area corresponding to the set of numerals found in step 3.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Drawing a Venn Diagram
Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the set (A  B).

SOLUTION
Step 1 Draw the diagram and label each area with a Roman numeral.

Step 2 From the diagram, list the regions that make up each set.
U = {I, II, II, IV} A = {I, II} B = {II, III}
Step 3 Using the sets in step 2, find (A  B).

First, all of I, II, and III are in either A or B, so A  B = {I, II, II}. The only region not in
A  B is IV, so the complement is (A  B) = {IV}.

Step 4 Shade region I to illustrate A  B.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Venn Diagrams with Three Sets
Region I represents the elements in set A but not in set B or set C.
Region II represents the elements in set A and set B but not in set C.
Region III represents the elements in set B but not in set A or set C.
Region IV represents the elements in sets A and C but not in set B.
Region V represents the elements in sets A, B, and C.
Region VI represents the elements in sets B and C but not in set A.
Region VII represents the elements in set C but not in set A or set B.
Region VIII represents the elements in the universal set U, but not in set A, B, or C.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Drawing a Venn Diagram with Three Sets
Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the set A  (B  C).

SOLUTION
Step 1 Draw the diagram and label each area with a Roman numeral.
Step 2 From the diagram, list the regions that make up each set.
U = {I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII} A = {I, II, IV, V}
B = {II, III, V, VI} C = {IV, V, VI, VII}
Step 3 Using the sets in step 2, first
B  C = {V, VI}, so (B  C) = {I, II, III, IV, VII, VIII}.Of these regions, I, II, IV are also in

set A, so A  (B  C) = {I, II, IV}.

Step 4 Shade regions I, II, IV to illustrate A  (B  C).

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Write the set illustrated by the Venn diagram.

SOLUTION
The shaded portion is completely inside the circle for B, so it’s definitely a subset of B. But it
doesn’t include anything in either A or C, so we could write it as either B – (A  C), or B  (A
 C).

De Morgan’s Laws
For any two sets A and B,
(A  B) = A  B

(A  B) = A  B

The first law states that the complement of the union of two sets will always be equal to the
intersection of the complements of each set.

The second law states that the complement of the intersection of two sets will equal the
union of the complements of the sets.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Using De Morgan’s Laws
If U = {Antietam, Bull Run, Gettysburg, Shiloh, Fredericksburg, Cold Harbor,
Chancellorsville},
A = {Antietam, Bull Run, Gettysburg, Shiloh}, and
B = {Gettysburg, Shiloh, Fredericksburg, Cold Harbor},
find (A ∩ B)′ and A′ ∪ B′.
What can we observe about these two sets?
SOLUTION
A ∩ B = {Gettysburg, Shiloh} and (A ∩ B)′ = {Antietam, Bull Run, Fredericksburg, Cold
Harbor, Chancellorsville}
A′ = {Fredericksburg, Cold Harbor, Chancellorsville}
B′ = {Antietam, Bull Run, Chancellorsville}
A′ ∪ B′ = {Fredericksburg, Cold Harbor, Chancellorsville, Antietam, Bull Run}
Even though they’re listed in different orders (which we know doesn’t matter), these two
sets are the same, which matches the second of De Morgan’s laws

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Using Venn Diagrams to Show Equality of Sets .
Use Venn diagrams to show that
(A  B) = A  B,

proving the first of De Morgan’s laws.

SOLUTION
Start by drawing the Venn diagram for (A  B).

Step 1 Draw the figure (as shown in Step 4).

Step 2 Set U contains regions I, II, III, and IV. Set A contains regions I and II, and B
contains regions II and III.

Step 3 A ∪ B = {I, II, II}, so (A ∪ B)′ = {IV}.

Step 4 Shade region IV to illustrate (A ∪ B)′.

Next draw the Venn diagram for A′∩ B′. Steps 1 and 2 are the same as above.
Step 3 A′ = {III, IV} and B′ = {I, IV}, so A′∩ B′=  { IV }.
Step 4 Shade region IV to illustrate A′∩ B′.
Since the diagrams for each side of the equation are identical, we use deductive
reasoning to conclude that (A ∪ B)′ = A′∩ B′ .

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Using Venn Diagrams to Show Equality of Sets
Decide if the two sets are equal by using Venn diagrams:
(A  B)  C and (A  C)  (B  C)

SOLUTION

Start with (A  B)  C .

The set A  B = {I, II, III, IV, V, VI}.

Of these, IV, V, and VI are also in C,
so (A  B)  C = {IV, V, VI}.

Now let’s examine (A  C)  (B  C).

The set A  C = {IV, V},

and the set B  C = {V, VI}.

(A  C)  (B  C) = {IV, V, VI}.
Since the shaded areas are the
same, the two sets are equal.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Finding the Cardinality of a Union
Draw a Venn diagram illustrating the sets below, then use the diagram to find the
cardinality of A, B, A ∩ B, and A ∪ B.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
B = { 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 }
Use the result to develop a formula for the cardinality of a union.
SOLUTION

First, notice that 6, 7, 8, and 9 are in both sets, so we’ll begin our Venn diagram by putting
those elements in the intersection portion of the diagram. Then we put the remaining
elements in A inside the circle for A but outside the intersection, and do the same for the
remaining elements in B.
Now we can just count to find the cardinalities in question.
n(A) = 9 n(B) = 7 n(A ∩ B) = 4 n(A ∪ B) = 12

From the diagram, we can see that if you simply add the number of elements in A and B,
you’ll be adding the elements in the intersection twice. So to account for that we can subtract off
the number of elements in the intersection, giving us the formula
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Cardinality of a Union
If n(A) represents the cardinal number of set A, then for any two finite sets A and B,
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).
In words, the formula says that to find the number of elements in the union of A and B,
you add the number of elements in A and B and then subtract the number of elements in the
intersection of A and B.

Example: Using the Formula for Cardinality of a Union

In a survey of 100 randomly selected freshmen walking across campus, it turns out that 42 are
taking a math class, 51 are taking an English class, and 12 are taking both. How many
students are taking either a math class or an English class?
SOLUTION
If we call the set of students taking a math class A and the set of students taking an English
class B, we’re asked to find n(A ∪ B).

We’re told that n(A) = 42, n(B) = 51, and n(A  B) = 12.
So…
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B) = 42 + 51 - 12 = 81

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 IV. Using Sets to Solve Problems
Using Venn Diagrams with Two Sets

Draw a Venn diagram, labeling the regions with Roman numerals as usual.

Step 1 Find the number of elements that are common to both sets and write that number in region
II.

Step 2 Find the number of elements that are in set A and not set B by subtracting the number in
region II from the total number of elements in A. Then write that number in region I. Repeat for
the elements in B but not in region II, and write in region III.

Step 3 Find the number of elements in U that are not in either A or B, and write it in region IV.

Step 4 Use the diagram to answer specific questions about the situation.

Example: Solving a Problem Using a Venn Diagram

In 2015, there were 40 states that had some form of casino gambling in the state, 44 states that sold
lottery tickets of some kind, and 36 states that had both casinos and lotteries. Draw a Venn diagram to
represent the survey results, and find how many states have only casino gambling, how many states
have only lotteries, and how many states have neither.

SOLUTION
Draw a Venn diagram with circles for casino gambling (C) and lotteries (L), labeling the regions with
Roman numerals as usual.
Step 1 Thirty-six states have both, so put 36 in the intersection of C and L, which is region II.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Cont.
Step 2 Since 40 states have casino gambling and 36 have both, there must be 4 that have
only casino gambling. Put 4 in region I. Since 44 states have lotteries and 36 have both, there
are 8 that have only lotteries. Put 8 in region III.

Step 3 Now 48 states are accounted for, so there must be 2 left to put in region IV.

Step 4 Now we can answer the questions easily. There are 4 states that have casino gambling
but not lotteries (region I), 8 that have lotteries but not casinos (region III), and just 2 that
have neither (region IV). In case you’re wondering, those two states are Hawaii and Utah.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Solving a Survey Problem Using a Venn Diagram
In a survey published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatologists, 500
people were asked by random telephone dialing whether they have a tattoo and/or a body
piercing. Of these, 79 reported having a tattoo only, 31 reported having a piercing only,
and 151 reported having at least one of the two. Draw a Venn diagram to represent these
results and use your diagram to find the percentage of respondents that have a tattoo, that
have a piercing, that have both, and that have neither.
SOLUTION
In this example, we’ll have to adapt the procedure from Example 1 because we don’t
know the number that have both. The key is to begin by putting in information we’re
given that corresponds exactly to one of the regions in our Venn diagram.
Step 1 We’re told that 79 people have only a tattoo, so put 79 in region I. We’re told that
31 have only a piercing, so 31 goes in region III.
Step 2 There are 151 with a tattoo, a piercing, or both. This is the union of sets T and P,
which makes up regions I, II, and III. We already know there are 110 people in regions I
and II combined (79+31), so there must be 151 - 110 = 41 people in region II.
Step 3 There are 151 of the 500 accounted for so far, so region IV must contain 500 - 151
= 349 people.
Step 4 There is a total of 120 people in the regions that make up set T, so 120 people have
tattoos; 120/500 = 0.24, so 24% have tattoos. Seventy-two have piercings (14.4%), 41
have both (8.2%), and 349 have neither (69.8%).

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Solving a Problem Using a Three-Set Venn Diagram
A criminal justice major is studying the frequency of certain types of crimes in a nearby county. He
studies the arrest records of 300 inmates at the county jail, specifically asking about drug-related
offenses, domestic violence, and theft of some sort. He finds that 194 had been arrested for theft,
210 for drug offenses, and 170 for domestic violence. In addition, 142 had arrests for both theft
and drugs, 111 for both drugs and domestic violence, 91 for both theft and domestic violence, and
45 had been arrested for all three. Draw a Venn diagram to represent these results, and find the
number of inmates that had been arrested for
(a) Only drug-related offenses.
(b) Theft and domestic violence but not drugs.
(c) Theft or drugs.
(d) None of these offenses.
SOLUTION
We know the following information from the problem:
300 Inmates
194 Theft (T)
210 Drugs (D)
170 Domestic Violence (DV)
142 Theft and Drugs
111 Drugs and Domestic Violence

91 Theft and Domestic Violence

45 All Three

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Cont: To begin, draw the diagram for three sets.
Step 1 The only region we know for sure from the given information is region V – the number of inmates
arrested for all three offenses. So we begin by putting 45 in region V.

Step 2 There are 142 inmates with arrests for both theft and drugs, but we have to subtract the number
arrested for all three offenses to find the number in region II: 142 - 45 = 97. In the same way, we get 91 - 45
= 46 in region IV (both theft and domestic violence) and 111 - 45 = 66 in region VI (both drugs and
domestic violence).
Step 3 Now we can find the number of elements in regions I, III, and VII. There were 194 inmates arrested
for theft, but 97 + 45 + 46 = 188 are already accounted for in the diagram, so that leaves 6 in region I.
Of the 210 inmates with drug arrests, 97 + 45 + 66 = 208 are already accounted for, leaving
just 2 in region III.
There were 170 inmates arrested for domestic violence, with 46 + 45 + 66 = 157 already
accounted for. This leaves 13 in region VII.

Step 4 Adding up all the numbers in the diagram so far, we get 275. That leaves 25 in region VIII.
Step 5 Now that we have the diagram completed, we turn our attention to the Questions.
(a) Inmates arrested only for drug-related offenses are in region III—there are only 2.
(b) Theft and domestic violence with no drug arrests is region IV, so there were 46 inmates.
(c) Those arrested for either theft or drugs are in all regions except VII and VIII. So there are only 13 + 25 =
38 that weren’t arrested for at least one of those, and 300 – 38 = 262 who were.
(d) Only 25 inmates (outside of all circles) haven’t been arrested for any of those offenses.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Solving a Problem Using a Three-Set Venn Diagram
Three of the most dangerous risk factors for heart attack are high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and
smoking. In a survey of 690 heart attack survivors, 62 had only high cholesterol among those three risk
factors; 36 had only smoking, and 93 had only high blood pressure. There were 370 total with high
cholesterol, 159 with high blood pressure and cholesterol that didn’t smoke, and 23 that smoked and had
high cholesterol but not high blood pressure. Finally, 585 had at least one risk factor. Draw a Venn diagram
representing this information and use it to answer the following questions.
(a) How many survivors had all three risk factors?
(b) How many had exactly two of the three risk factors?
(c) How many had none?
(d) What percentage were smokers?
SOLUTION
We know the following information from the problem:
690 Survivors
62 Cholesterol only
36 Smoking only
93 Blood Pressure only
370 Cholesterol
159 Cholesterol and Blood Pressure
23 Cholesterol and Smoking
585 at least one risk factor

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Cont.
To begin, draw the diagram for three sets.

Step 1 Fill in the regions we know exact values for. In this case, there are five: 62 only high
cholesterol (region III), 36 only smoking (region I), 93 only High blood pressure (region VII), 159
with high blood pressure and cholesterol but no smoking (region VI), and 23 with high cholesterol
but not high blood pressure (region II).

Step 2 There were 370 total with high cholesterol, and we have 23 + 62 + 159 = 244 accounted for
so far, so region V must contain 370 – 244 = 126 survivors.

Step 3 The last piece of information we have is that 585 had at least one risk factor. This will allow
us to find the remaining two regions. All of the numbers currently in the diagram add up to 499, so
region IV must contain 585 - 499 = 86 survivors. Also, if 585 patients had at least one risk factor,
that leaves 690 - 585 = 105 in region VIII.
Step 4 Now we can answer a whole bunch of questions about the study.
(a) The intersection of all three risk factors contains 126 survivors.
(b) Regions II, IV, and VI are patients that had exactly two of the risk factors: This is 86 + 23 +
159 = 268 survivors.
(c) From region VIII we see that 105 patients had none of the risk factors.
(d) The total number inside the smoker circle is 36 + 23 + 126 + 86 = 271; this represents 271/690,
or 39.3% of the survivors.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

V. Infinite Sets
Infinite Sets
A set is infinite if it can be placed into a one-to-one correspondence with a proper subset of itself.

Example:Showing That a Set is Infinite

Show that the set {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, …} is an infinite set.
SOLUTION
A simple way to put this set in correspondence with a proper subset of itself is to match every
element n with its double 2n:
{5, 10, 15, 20, 25, . . .}
{10, 20, 30, 40, 50, . . .}
The second set, {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, . . .} is a proper subset of the first since it doesn’t include
the number 5, and the two are in one-to-one correspondence, so {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, . . .} is an
infinite set.

General Term of an Infinite Set

One consequence of the way we showed that the set of natural numbers is infinite is that
we can find a generic formula for the set of even numbers: 2n, where n is the set {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
We will call 2n in this case a general term of the set of even numbers. Notice that we said “a
general term,” not “the general term.” In most cases the simplest general term is the one where
the first listed number is obtained from substituting in 1 for n, and that’s the one we’ll typically
find.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

Example: Finding a General Term for an Infinite Set
Find a general term for the set {4, 7, 10, 13, 16,…}.
SOLUTION
Try to recognize a pattern in the numbers of the set.
In this case, the pattern is that the numbers increase by 3.
When this is the case, 3n is a good choice, because as n increases by 1, 3n increases by 3.
But simply using 3n will give us the set {3, 6, 9, 12, . . .}, which is not quite what we want.
We remedy that by adding 1 to our general term, to get 3n + 1.
(We encourage you to check that answer by substituting in 1, 2, 3, . . . for n to see that it
generates the set {4, 7, 10, 13, 16, . . .}.)

Countable and Uncountable Sets

A set is defined to be countable if it is finite or can be placed into one-to-one correspondence
with the natural numbers. If it cannot, it is defined to be uncountable.

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 Example: Showing That a Set Is Countable
Show that the set of integers is countable.
SOLUTION
Integers are not a finite set, so we need to find a way to put them in one-to-one correspondence with
the natural numbers. Try this:
Natural numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9…
Integers 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 -3 4 -4 …
We can see that every integer will eventually get matched with a natural number, so this defines a
one-to-one correspondence.
The proof would be stronger, though, if we could define a formula for the correspondence.
For every natural number n,

{
n
if n is even
2
n→
n−1
− if n is odd
2

defines a one-to-one correspondence.

Exercises:
Answer numbers 2, 10, 14, 26, 28, 32, 42, 44, and 50 on pages 96 – 97 54 (Sobecki, D. (2019).
Math in Our World. New York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.)

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

 ASSIGNMENT
Answer numbers 9 - 15 on page 54 (Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World. New York. NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.)

References

Nocon, R. (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. Quezon City: C & E Publishing,
Inc.

Sirug, W. (2014). Business Mathematics, rev. ed. Manila: Mindshapers Co.

Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World. New York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

End of Module 3

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3

INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY – Module 3