Bases= accepts protons

SUMMARY NOTES CHEM- UNIT 3& 4 Buffers: resist change in pH (titration curve is
UNIT 3: Equilibrium, Acids & Redox reactions generally fairly flat at this point)
Open equilibrium: matter and energy can be Dissociation constants: Ka= weak acid Kb=
exchanged weak base
Closed equilibrium: energy but not `matter 🡪 Concentration of reactants
can be exchanged and products
- Physical changes reversible
- Chemical reaction not Volumetric analysis: titrations🡪 vol. conc.
⇌ = equilibrium 1. Standard solution: n= m/M
2. Concentration of standard solution:
c=n/v
3. Concentration overall: C1V1=C2V2
Oxidation numbers: the 10 rules
SO42-
- Formation of products and reactants at S+ (0 x 4) = -2
same rates S+ (-2x 4) = -2
Enthalpy change:  ∆H = m x s x ∆T S+8= -2
Put in to make = -2
Collision theory: 6+-8= -2
- Increase conc= increase speed
Galvanic cells: generate electrical potential
- Increase press= decrease speed
difference from spontaneous redox reactions
Le Châtelier’s principle: when system
experiences disturbance, it will restore its anode=
positive/ oxidation
equilibrium state
+ concentration Shifts to minimise change
cathode=
+ pressure Shifts to fewer moles of gas negative/reduction
+ temperature Decrease equilibrium constant
+ catalyst Reaction speed up
standard
Equilibrium constant: homogeneous and electrode potential:
heterogenous stronger oxidised🡪 weaker oxidised
stronger reduced 🡪 weaker reduced
Acids and bases: predictions can be made about equilibrium
Monoprotic- donates 1 H+ ion position but not reaction
Polyprotic- donates many H+ ions Electrolytic cells:
Amphoteric/Amphiprotic- acts as an acid ø
and a base by donating or accepting H+ ion/s E values- Sn 🡪 Sn2+ + 2e-
- more negative= oxidation
- more positive = reduction
Addition of power source
to reverse the reaction
ø ø
E reduction- E oxidation

End point: where indicator changes colour in

titration
pH scales: Equivalence point: completely neutralizes
Concentration of hydroxide ions the analyte solution
Concentration of hydrogen ions
Redox reactions:
Oxidation-gain oxygen/ losses H+/releases
Bronsted Lowry Model: electrons
Acids= donate protons Reduction- loss oxygen/ gain H+/gains
electrons

UNIT 4: Structure, Synthesis & Design
Structure of organic compounds:
Aldehyde: a class of organic compound that
has a carbonyl group at the end of the main
chain
Ketone: a class of organic compounds that
has a carbonyl group in the middle of the main
chain
Alkanes: single bonds
Alkenes: double bonds
Alkynes: triple bonds
Carboxylic acids: carbon atom attached to an
oxygen atom with double bond to a hydroxyl
group by a single covalent bond
Ester: derived from carboxylic acid and an
alcohol
Naming and identification: IUPAC
substituents:
Structural isomers/ Structure of organic
compounds:
isomers: ions or molecules with identical
molecular formulas but different structures
stereoisomers: compounds with the same
molecular formula and structural formula, but
different arrangement of atoms
geometrical isomers: stereoisomers that
have different arrangements of atoms around
a rigid double bond
Physical properties and trends:
Alcohols & Halogens:
Polar bonding/ hydrogen bonding / dip
- As carbon chain solubility
forces
- Boiling point as carbon chain
- As atomic mass the radii gets longer
and volatility
- Liquids @ room temp boiling point
Esters & Carboxylic acids:
- Carbon chain solubility
- High boiling & melting point
- Melting point due to high
intermolecular forces
Aldehydes & Ketones:
- melting & boiling point
- Soluble
- Carbon chain melting point
Amines & Amides:
- carbon chain solubility
- Gas @ room temp = low melt & boil
- Amides have naturally high melt and
boiling point so carbon chain doesn’t
need to increase for solubility to
increase
Homologous sense & Hydrocarbons:
- Increased melting & boiling
- Solubility
- Intermolecular attracting
- Insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents
- Weak dispersion forces
- Melting point & boiling point
Markornikove’s rule: the H+ atom will go
through the carbon with the most hydrogens
Organic reactions and pathways:
Organic materials: structure and function
Polymers: molecule that can be bonded to
other identical molecules
Carbohydrates: contains OH groups and
provides energy to cells (can dissolve in water
and makes sugars/ starches)
Monosaccharides: sugar monomers with Analytic Techniques
empirical formula containing carbon chain with Chromatography: size exclusion
several OH groups COME IN DYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUMS Resin (pores)
Bigger molecules
1st (can’t go
through pores)
Smaller molecules
2nd (can do through
pores)
Lipids: glycerol and fatty acids
Fats, oils & waxes 🡪 saturates / unsaturated Mass spectroscopy: molecular mass &
- C, H, O/ OH groups/ COOH groups formula
CIS: low melting TRANS: high melting Use largest
on end of
- Can’t/ Can line up graph
- Increased molecular forces
Saponification of triglycerides:

Enzymes: Proteins that help, but aren’t used

up in a chemical reaction (catalyst)🡪 need an
active site
Proteins: Amine (NH2) and COOH groups
FUNCTION OF PROTEINS: - Large amounts of energy transferred
to molecular ion & break into smaller
fragments
Condensation The rule of 13’ & base value:
reaction between Molecular mass/ 13
product & reactant E.g. 72/13=5, remainder 7(5x13= 65(72-65=7)
SO… C5 H12
Infrared spectroscopy:
general amino acid
structure
Peaks of vibration
indicating the structures
of covalently bonded
compounds
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary amino
acids: a & b helix
Limitations:
Hard to
determine
exactly
Doesn’t say
how many
carbonyl groups/
hydroxyl groups
Only shoes
functional groups
Alkenes: above
3000
Alkanes: below 3000
Triple bond
(alkynes): 2000-
2050 (nothing else in
this region)
 Steam reforming: a process that used high
temp steams to produce H+ from methane source
such as natural gases

Formation of ethanol:
Step 1: initial hydration (addition of H+)
Step 2: water & steam (carbon atom that doesn’t bond to
Chemical synthesis: selection of particular H+ becomes positively charged)
Step 3: forming ethanol (O2 in H2O donates lone pair to
reagents to form a product with specific + charged carbon and becomes + itself)
properties Biofuels: alternative fuel made from
Harbor process: the production of ammonia biological raw materials
by a nitrogen fixation (molecular nitrogen in
the
Hydrogen Fuel Cell: an electrochemical cell
atmosphere)
that produces electricity and water
Under acidic conditions: phosphoric acid fuel
cell uses phosphoric acid as an electrolyte,
⮚ Ammonia exists
producing water, heat & electricity
Hydrogen to anode & loses
normally in electrons
environment but Ionised H+ into electrolyte to
can also be produce electricity, the O2 is
manufactured now a cathode
⮚ Produces Combines with electrons &
fertilisers, gases, ionised H+ to form hydrogen
explosive etc. fuel cell
Ammonia gases 🡪
condensate🡪 liquid Under alkaline conditions consumes H+ and
O2 KOH producing H2O, heat & electricity
Reaction conditions: Consumption of hydrogen to
oxidise at anode side to
⮚ Higher pressure=
produce water & releasing
more ammonia electrons
⮚ Higher temps= Electron flow through
less ammonia external circuit to return
⮚ N2 & H2 are cathode and reduce O2 to
exothermic, increase number of
reverse is hydrogen ions
endothermic Produces water, electricity &
heat. Increased catalyst to
increase time at anode/
cathode

Green Chemistry: reduce use/ production of

hazardous chemicals
Catalysis: alternative fuels (raw materials
biodiesel)
Lipase catalysis: hydrolysis of triglycerides to
the corresponding fatty acids & glycerol
Hydration of ethene
Protonate: adding a proton (H+) to a molecule
1. Prevention of waste rather than to treat/ clean
up after formed
2. Atom economy: synthetic methods should be
designed to maximise the incorporation of all
materials
3. Less Hazardous chemical synthesis: synthetic
materials used from substances that have little
toxicity to health of human & environment
4. Design safer chemicals: determine toxicity &
environmental fate at design stage
5. Safer solvents & auxiliaries: should be made
unnecessary whenever possible
⮚ Speed up reaction, more likely reactants meet
⮚ Cannot eliminate entirely (best is H2O)
 ⮚ Use substance that is non-polar ⮚ Chain of amino acids containing (NH2)
6. Design for energy efficiency: minimise anything group and (COOH) group
that can affect environment through synthetic
methods; fossil fuels to heat up solvent + ⮚ Joined by condensation reaction
catalyst (aluminium) to save energy Polysaccharides: multiple sugar monomers
7. Use of renewable feedstocks: plant-based ⮚ Provide us with energy when oxidised
chemicals Monosaccharides: single sugar monomers
8. Reduce derivatives reduces reaction steps,
resources & waste
⮚ Bonded together by glucoside linkages
9. Catalysis: increases selectivity (covalent bonds)
10. Design for degradation: chemicals that can be Polyester:
discarded easily ⮚ Contain an ester functional group in
11. Real time pollution prevention: monitor main chain
chemical reactions to prevent formation/
release of hazardous chemicals ⮚ Thermoplastic
12. Safer chemistry for accident prevention:
minimise risk of accidents Molecular Manufacturing
Macromolecules: Molecular machine: molecular system with
⮚ Polymers defined energy input that is a useful function
⮚ Proteins at the nanoscale (10-9)
⮚ Carbohydrates Goals:
Polyethene (LDPE & HDPE): ⮚ Make new products by the precise
⮚ Common plastic placement of atoms
⮚ Change catalysts/ additives to control ⮚ Biological machines in forms of
polymerisation enzymes or protein catalysts
⮚ Density/ degree of chain branching, Cantenane: assembly of molecules
crystallinity & cross-linking containing 2+ interlocking rings
Low Density PE High Density PE Rotaxane: assembly of dumbbell shaped
High pressure @ 300 Code ‘2’ molecules with 1+ macrocyclic ring threaded
degrees No branches, packed onto it
Recyclable closely
Code ‘4’ Catalyst enables
Bend & mould formation of free radicals
Branches. Density Branches. Density

Nanorobots: perform specific tasks with a

high degree of performance
Polypropene (PP): Chemical sensors: detect and measure
⮚ Thermoplastic with variety of biological molecules and proteins
applications for structure to resist
fatigue Top-down manufacturing:
⮚ Withstands heat nanostructures that removes material from
⮚ Code ‘5’ larger structures
Polytetrafluoroethylene: Bottom- up manufacturing: small
⮚ Anti- corrosive building structures (atoms/ molecules)
⮚ Non- reactive
used to build larger assemblies
⮚ Produced by free- radical
polymerisation of tetrafluorethene

Polypeptide (proteins):
Molecular manufacturing: precise
placement of atoms or molecules to build
larger assemblies