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SUMMARY NOTES CHEM- UNIT 3& 4 Buffers: resist change in pH (titration curve is
UNIT 3: Equilibrium, Acids & Redox reactions generally fairly flat at this point)
Open equilibrium: matter and energy can be Dissociation constants: Ka= weak acid Kb=
exchanged weak base
Closed equilibrium: energy but not `matter 🡪 Concentration of reactants
can be exchanged and products
- Physical changes reversible
- Chemical reaction not Volumetric analysis: titrations🡪 vol. conc.
⇌ = equilibrium 1. Standard solution: n= m/M
2. Concentration of standard solution:
c=n/v
3. Concentration overall: C1V1=C2V2
Oxidation numbers: the 10 rules
SO42-
- Formation of products and reactants at S+ (0 x 4) = -2
same rates S+ (-2x 4) = -2
Enthalpy change: ∆H = m x s x ∆T S+8= -2
Put in to make = -2
Collision theory: 6+-8= -2
- Increase conc= increase speed
Galvanic cells: generate electrical potential
- Increase press= decrease speed
difference from spontaneous redox reactions
Le Châtelier’s principle: when system
experiences disturbance, it will restore its anode=
positive/ oxidation
equilibrium state
+ concentration Shifts to minimise change
cathode=
+ pressure Shifts to fewer moles of gas negative/reduction
+ temperature Decrease equilibrium constant
+ catalyst Reaction speed up
standard
Equilibrium constant: homogeneous and electrode potential:
heterogenous stronger oxidised🡪 weaker oxidised
stronger reduced 🡪 weaker reduced
Acids and bases: predictions can be made about equilibrium
Monoprotic- donates 1 H+ ion position but not reaction
Polyprotic- donates many H+ ions Electrolytic cells:
Amphoteric/Amphiprotic- acts as an acid ø
and a base by donating or accepting H+ ion/s E values- Sn 🡪 Sn2+ + 2e-
- more negative= oxidation
- more positive = reduction
Addition of power source
to reverse the reaction
ø ø
E reduction- E oxidation
Formation of ethanol:
Step 1: initial hydration (addition of H+)
Step 2: water & steam (carbon atom that doesn’t bond to
Chemical synthesis: selection of particular H+ becomes positively charged)
Step 3: forming ethanol (O2 in H2O donates lone pair to
reagents to form a product with specific + charged carbon and becomes + itself)
properties Biofuels: alternative fuel made from
Harbor process: the production of ammonia biological raw materials
by a nitrogen fixation (molecular nitrogen in
the
Hydrogen Fuel Cell: an electrochemical cell
atmosphere)
that produces electricity and water
Under acidic conditions: phosphoric acid fuel
cell uses phosphoric acid as an electrolyte,
⮚ Ammonia exists
producing water, heat & electricity
Hydrogen to anode & loses
normally in electrons
environment but Ionised H+ into electrolyte to
can also be produce electricity, the O2 is
manufactured now a cathode
⮚ Produces Combines with electrons &
fertilisers, gases, ionised H+ to form hydrogen
explosive etc. fuel cell
Ammonia gases 🡪
condensate🡪 liquid Under alkaline conditions consumes H+ and
O2 KOH producing H2O, heat & electricity
Reaction conditions: Consumption of hydrogen to
oxidise at anode side to
⮚ Higher pressure=
produce water & releasing
more ammonia electrons
⮚ Higher temps= Electron flow through
less ammonia external circuit to return
⮚ N2 & H2 are cathode and reduce O2 to
exothermic, increase number of
reverse is hydrogen ions
endothermic Produces water, electricity &
heat. Increased catalyst to
increase time at anode/
cathode
Polypeptide (proteins):
Molecular manufacturing: precise
placement of atoms or molecules to build
larger assemblies