UNIT 1 and 2: ASSESSMENT TYPE

INTERNAL FORMATIVE EXAMINATION Weighting: 50% (Formative)

2x 90minute examinations – SR (Paper 1) and CR (Paper 2)
UNIT 1: Cells and Multicellular organisms
Topic 1. Cells as the basis of life
Checklist Subtopic: Chemical nature of cells
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Organic and Inorganic reactions
Describe the major organic compounds
Understand Polymers and monomers
- Carbohydrates;
o Define Monomers, Monosaccharides, Disaccharides
- Lipids
o Composition of lipids
o Types of lipids
- Proteins
o Composition of proteins
o Formation of proteins through dipeptides, polypeptides
o Protein structure
- Nucleic acids, nucleotides,
- Ions and water
Checklist The cell membrane
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Function of the cell membrane
- The appearance of the cell membrane
- Membrane structure, hydrophobic and hydrophilic heads and tails
- Phospholipids
- Davson- Danielli model, the paramecium parlor
- Protein molecules and the presence of protein channels, biochemical composition of the
plasma membrane
- Types of membranes proteins through transport proteins, receptor proteins, recognition
proteins and adhesion proteins.
- Definition of Glycoproteins
- What else is in the cell membrane?
o Cholesterol components
o Role of cholesterol in the membrane
o Summary
- The Fluid mosaic phospholipid Bilayer model of the cell membrane
o Movement of chemicals through diffusion

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Movement across the membrane
Passive movement across the membrane
- Passive transport and the movement of particles and the three types
o Diffusion
- Definition of Diffusion, factors that affect the rate of diffusion
- The role of the concentration gradient in the rate of diffusion
- The concept of equilibrium and how it effects diffusion
o Facilitated Diffusion
- The role of the selectively permeable plasma membrane in facilitated diffusion
- Definition of facilitated diffusion, compare between diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
o Osmosis
- The definition of osmosis, where does osmosis occur
- Define the situations with osmotic effects on a cell
1. Hypotonic cell
- Definition and example
- Dealing with osmotic problems such as in unicellular protists
2. Isotonic cell
- Definition and example
3. Hypertonic Cell
 - Definition and example
- Describe osmosis in animal cells and plant cells
- Ion Pumps
o Definition and example
Active Transport across the membrane
- Differentiate between uniport, symport and antiport carriers
- Definition of Co-transport hypothesis
- Concentration gradient movement across osmosis, active Transport and Diffusion
Cytosis
- Process of active transport
Endocytosis
- Define Phagocytosis
- Define pinocytosis
- Receptor mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis
- Definition, differentiate between endocytosis and exocytosis
Golgi apparatus.

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Limits to Cell Size
- Cell sizes
- Exchange of material across the membrane
- Size, Surface area and volume
- Surface area
o Calculating surface area of a cube
o Cell size and effects on volume and surface area
- Surface Area to volume ratio
- Rates of diffusion and cell size
o Increasing the rates of diffusion
o Shape of a cell and SA to VOL ratio
Checklist Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
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Cell theory prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
- Unicellular life forms
o E. Coli
o Paramecium
o Amoeba
- Multicellular life forms
- Humans and Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Eukaryotic cells
- Differentiate between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
- Define spontaneous generation
- Define the origin of cells
1. Origins of cells
2. Non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules
3. The first cells must have arisen form non-living material
4. First Eukaryotes
5. Endosymbiosis
6. Evaluation of Eukaryotes
7. Theory of endosymbiosis

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Eukaryotic cell organelles
- The cytoplasm and cytosol
- Organelles
1. Cell membrane
2. The nucleus
3. The ribosome
4. The endoplasmic reticulum
5. The mitochondria
6. Golgi apparatus
7. The Vesicles
 8. The Lysosome
9. The centrioles
10. The cell wall
11. Plastids
12. The chloroplast
13. The vacuole
14. The tonoplasts
Checklist Internal membrane and enzymes
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Internal membranes and enzymes
- The three different types
- Organelles lacking membranes
- Single membrane bound organelles
- Endosymbiosis theory
- The advantages of having a double membrane
- Mitochondria and mitochondria membranes
1. The outer membrane
2. The intermembrane
3. The inner membrane
4. the fluid filled matrix
- Chloroplasts
- Chloroplasts membranes and its five basic sections
1. The outer membrane
2. The intermembrane space
3. The inner membrane
4. The fluid filled stroma
5. Grana and Thylakoid system
- The nuclear membrane
What is its purpose

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Enzymes
- The rile of enzymes in biochemical reactions
- General characteristics of enzymes
- Activation energy and enzymes, explain the purpose of enzymes
- Cofactors and coenzymes
- Enzyme location
- Structure of enzymes
- Specifically shaped active sites
- Enzyme-substrate complex
- Lock and key theory
- Induced fit theory definition
- Types of inhibition, competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition, substrate inhibition,
Use of enzyme inhibitors, reversable and irreversible inhibitors, reverse inhibitors,
irreversible inhibitors, examples
- Other factors affecting enzyme activity, optimal level of enzyme action.
Checklist Energy and Metabolism
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ATP, the energy carrying molecule
- The types of metabolic reactions
1. Endergonic
- Define the use of energy in endergonic reactions
- The breaking down of larger complex organic molecules
2. Exergonic
- The presence of ATP in the reaction
Energy carrying molecules
- The structure of the ATP molecule
- The difference between ADP and ATP molecules
- Releasing energy for metabolism
- ADP and ATP are reversable reaction
- Transferring chemical energy from glucose to ATP
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Photosynthesis
- The overall equation
- The location of the enzymes that drive the photosynthetic reactions
- The stages of photosynthesis
1. The light dependent stage
- The place of light dependent stage, what occurs during the light independent stage
- The role of NADP, the presence of ATP and Hydrogen ions
2. The light independent stage
- Describe the carbon reduction stage
- Transmission into the Calvin cycle

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The Calvin Cycle
- Describe the fixation stages of the Calvin cycle
- Describe the stages of reduction of the Calvin cycle
- Describe the stages of regeneration of the Calvin Cycle
- Summarise the different stages of the Calvin Cycle
- C4 plants and the enzymes involved in the process
- Compensation point and the vectors that effect the rate of photosynthesis

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Cellular respiration
- Describe the different components of the cell respiration equation
- Differentiate between anaerobic and aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration and chain reaction
- Describe the three main stages of cellular respiration in eukaryotic cells
1. Glycolysis
- Describe the enzymes involved in the reaction process
- The presence of pyruvic acid
2. Kreb’s Cycle
- The journey of the pyruvate molecules in the Krebs Cycle
- The conversion into Acetyl CoA
- Describe the second stage of the Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain
- The placement of the electron transport chain
- Summarise the electron transport chain
Anaerobic respiration and chain reaction
- What occurs when the oxygen is absent
- The fermentation of lactic acid in animal cells
Compare between the aerobic and anaerobic respiration

UNIT 1: Cells and Multicellular organisms

Topic 2. Multicellular Organisms
Checklist Subtopic: Cell differentiation and specialisation 3
√ hours

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Cell specialisation and differentiation
- Unicellular and its characteristics
- Multicellularity and its characteristics, advantages compared to the unicellular life forms,
disadvantages compared to the unicellular life forms
- Describe the different levels of cellular organisation
- Define
1. Tissue, Cell, Organ, system
- Define the different types of plant tissues
1. Vascular tissue
2. Xylem
3. Phloem
- Organs of a complex plant, roots, Leaves, Stems, Flowers, Fruit,
- Systems in complex plants, specialised animal cells
- Types of tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, epithelial tissue, Organ
systems, Organism, Cell differentiation
- Germ layer in an embryo, stem cells, embryonic stem cells, Adult stem cells, potency,
Types of potency,
Checklist Digestive system
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- The large intestine
- Comparing digestive systems
- digestion in herbivores,
- Hindgut fermenters
- Foregut Fermenters
- Comparison of digestive tracts of herbivores
Checklist Exchange of nutrients
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- Identify the characteristics of absorptive surfaces within the digestive system and relate to
the structure and function of the villi
- Digestion and the four basic steps
1. Ingestion of food
- The place of intake
2. Mechanical breakdown
- Describe the process of physical breakdown through mastication and churning
- Describe the different types of teeth
3. Chemical breakdown
- The presence of enzymes as a biological catalysts and the increase of surface area through
mechanical digestion.
- Describe the major digestive enzymes such as protease, lipase and amylase.
- Summarise the enzymes action and the production in glands
4. Adsorption of nutrients
Describe the role of digestive enzymes (amylase, protease, lipase) in chemical digestion

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Digestive system
- Define the digestive system and the different parts present such as
1. The alimentary canal
2. Mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus, Liver, stomach, small intestine,
pancreas, large intestine, anus, rectum
3. Describe the structure and function of the mouth
1. Mechanical digestion
2. Chemical digestion
- Tongue and swallowing, the oesophagus, peristalsis, the stomach, the structure and
function of the stomach, the duodenum , the pancreas and the duodenum, the jejunum
- Absorptive surface sin the digestive system
1. The ileum
2. Villi
3. Diffusion in the villus from the villi into the bloodstream
4. What occurs to the digestive juices once in the bloodstream
5. The special case through glucose, comparison of food types
- Describe the roles of the liver, the large intestine. Comparing digestive systems
- Digestion in herbivores, classification of types of digestion both pre-gastric or post-gastric
fermentation
- Define and contrast the two types of Foregut fermenters
1. Ruminants
- Foregut fermenters
2. Non-ruminants
- Hindgut Fermenters and the two types
Checklist Exchange of Gases- the Respiratory System
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- Explain the relationship between the structural features such as large surface area, moist,
one or two cells thick and surrounded by an extensive capillary system and the function of
gaseous exchange surface (alveoli and gills) in terms of exchange of gases such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide
1. Different respiratory surfaces
o Gaseous exchange
o Compare respiratory systems
o Gas exchange occurring at respiratory surfaces
 o Diffusion through the skin
o Tracheal system
o Gills
o Summary of exchange of gases at respiratory surfaces
2. The Human Gas exchange system
o The pharynx and larynx
o The trachea
o Cillia
o Bronchi and Bronchioles
o Alveoli
o Gas exchange at the alveoli
o Lungs
- The mechanisms of breathing
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Diaphragm
3. Inhalation and Exhalation
4. Partial pressure and gas exchange
- Explain how the structure and function of capillaries facilitates the exchange of materials
between the internal environment and cells.
1. Partial pressures
2. Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon oxide
3. Inhalation and Exhalation
- Use data presented as diagrams, schematics and tables to predict the direction in which
materials will be exchanged between
1. Alveoli and capillaries
2. Capillaries and muscle tissue
Checklist Transport of Substances- the circulatory system
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Blood and Blood vessels
- Circulatory systems
1. Open circulatory system
a. Where does it occur, what is the process behind it
2. Closed circulatory system
a. Where does it occur, what is the process behind it
- Components of blood
1. What is it comprised of
a. Plasma
b. RBC
1. General features
2. Function
3. Erythrocytes
4. Oxygen transport
5. Carbon dioxide transport
c. WBC
1. Function of WBC
2. General Features
3. Blood clotting
d. Platelets
1. Definition and components
- Blood vessels such as arteries, capillaries and veins
1. Arteries
2. Capillaries
3. Veins
- Comparison of blood vessels

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The heart and circulatory pathways
- The location of the heart
- The exterior and interior of the heart
- Blood flow through the heart
- Circulatory pathways
 1. Pulmonary circulation
2. Systemic circulation
- The cardiac cycle
- Blood Pressure
- Pulse
- Comparison of vertebrate circulatory systems
- Cholesterol build up
The lymphatic system
- Describe the structure and the function
Checklist Exchange of Wastes
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The urinary system
- Removal of waste products
1. Carbon dioxide removal
- Nitrogenous wastes
- The definition of urinary system
- The role of the kidneys in the urinary system
- Kidney structure
- The nephron
- The glomerulus
- The Bowman’s capsule
- The tubule
- The process of filtration of blood and the filtrate that is used for the process
- The process of selective re-absorption of materials through the two processes
1. Passive transport
a. Diffusion
b. Osmosis
2. Active Transport
a. Selective re-adsorption
b. The proximal convolute tubule
c. The loop of Henle
d. Counter current multiplication
Summary
- The distal convoluted tubule
- The collecting duct
- The formation of urine
- Water regulation by the kidneys
- Selective re-absorption
- Urine Production
- Dialysis
Checklist Plant System-Gas Exchange and transport
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Plant Systems
1. Root System
2. Shoot System
- Gas exchange in vascular plants
- Stomata and Guard cells
- Photosynthesis and Leaf
- Describe the internal leaf structure
- Movement of gases
- Lenticles, roots and root hairs, vascular tissue, Xylem, Xylem and tracheids, Phloem, sieve
plates and companion cells
- Xylem vs Phloem, vascular bundles, Transpiration stream, root pressure, root pressure and
the casparian strip, capillary action allowing water to climb up the xylem in the stem
- Describe the factors affecting transpiration, effect of temperature on transpiration, effect of
wind speed on transpiration, effect of humidity on transpiration.
- Translocation, pressure-flow theory
- Pressure-flow theory and its hypothesis

UNIT 2: Maintaining the Internal Environment

Topic 1. Homeostasis
Checklist Subtopic: Homeostasis 4
√ hours

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Overall topic outline
- Investigates homeostasis and the stimulus- response model, including feedback control
mechanisms
- Describe the role of sensory receptors in detecting stimuli, classify receptors based on the
stimuli to which they respond to.
- Describe the role of effectors
- Explain how negative feedback stabilises systems against excessive change.
- determine metabolic activity as catabolic or anabolic and explain why changes in conditions
alter enzyme activity
- Describe neurons and the passage of a nerve impulse in terms with cell sensitivity related to
the number of receptors
- Recognise hormonal control through the endocrine system with cell sensitivity related to the
number of receptors
- Describe how receptor binding activities signal transduction mechanisms
- Explain thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms
- Explain osmoregulation mechanisms maintaining water balance in plants and animals

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Homeostasis
- Define Homeostasis
- Explain why a constant internal environment is necessary
- Identify and differentiate between the two stages of homeostasis.
- Identify and explain why endotherms require the greatest capacity to control their internal
environment
- Outline the conditions of homeostasis maintained by the human body
- Identify flow diagrams to display the steps in stimulus response model
- Define an endotherm, receptor, effectors
- Define the types of sensory receptors and their roles in the stimulus response model

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The stimulus Response model [Negative Feedback] – Link to Nervous System Model
- Define a stimulus, CNS, Effector
- Summarise the three main parts of the nervous system
- describe the Nervous system, stimulus- response model
- Depict the organisation of the nervous system
- What are the main roles of the nervous system
- Determine the correct order of suitable responses involved in the pathway of the nervous
system (Pg. 6 of Surfing Science)
- How is body temperature regulated?

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The stimulus Response model [Positive Feedback]
- Negative feedback system and positive feedback definition
- Differentiate between negative and positive feedback systems
- How do negative feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis in a variable environment.
- Why can positive feedback be dangerous if it continues on for too long?
- How is a negative/positive feedback usually stopped?

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Metabolism and life
- Define anabolic and catabolic reactions
- Explain what is meant of metabolism. Describe metabolic reactions as either catabolic or
anabolic and give examples of each
- Measuring metabolic rate
- Factors affecting metabolic rate
- Activation energy and coupled reactions
- Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions, direct and indirect calorimetry
Checklist The Nervous System
√ Neural Homeostatic Control pathways

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Structure and function of neurons
- Recall the role of the nervous system in receiving stimuli through sensory receptors and
responding to those stimuli through effectors. Identifying pathways for neural pathways for
neural connection
- Identify cells that transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous
system and from the central nervous system to effectors.
 - Distinguish between sensory and motor neurons in terms of their structure and function.
Include reference to dendrites, soma, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, axon terminal
and synapse.
- Describe the role of reflexes in providing rapid responses to stimuli. Giving examples,
distinguish between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs.
- Describe the generation and transmission of nerve impulses in mammals. Include reference
to how the resting potential is established and maintained and how the action potential is
generated and transmitted by saltatory conduction. Include reference to the significance of
threshold stimulation and the importance of the refractory period and synaptic transmission
in producing discrete impulses that travel in one direction.
- Describe the structure of a chemical synapse. Identify pre- and post-synaptic neurons,
vesicles containing neurotransmitter and the synaptic cleft.
- Describe impulse transmission across a synapse.

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- Explain the process of the passage of a nerve impulse in terms of transmission of an action
potential and synaptic transmission. Refer to neurotransmitters, receptors, synaptic cleft,
vesicles, post synaptic and presynaptic neurons and signal transduction.
- Increasing the speed of transmission and factors that affect the rate of transmission
- Describing the synapse, the neurotransmitter, synaptic knob, the release of the transmitter
across the synaptic cleft.
- Describe signal transduction, the effect od neurotoxins and drugs on the synapse,
Checklist Endocrine system
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- Comparing the endocrine system and nervous system
- Stimulus-response and cell signalling
- The Endocrine system and signal transduction
- 3 steps in signal transduction

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- Recall that hormones are chemical messengers that relay messages to cells displaying
specific receptors for each hormone via the circulatory or lymphatic system
- Recognise how a cell’s sensitivity to a specific hormone is directly related to the number of
receptors it displays for that hormone.
- Describe how receptor binding activates a signal transduction mechanisms and alters
cellular activity.
- Hormones and their general features, describe the structure of the endocrine system, the
endocrine glands, the function of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the different
body processes that are controlled.
- Define pheromones, review the fluid mosaic model and the bilipid layer and selective
permeability
- Cell membrane receptors and target cells, cell receptors.
- Describe cell sensitivity and the response to hormones, upregulation and downregulation
and mechanisms of receptor down regulation
- Describe how receptor binding activates a signal transduction mechanism and layers
cellular activity.

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- What are the two broad groups of hormones and three classes of hormones, lipid hormones
derived from cholesterol, peptide and protein hormones with short polypeptide chains,
anime hormones which are derived from amino acids.
- Signal transduction mechanisms definition, signalling cells with the hormonal stimulus
response model: 3 steps of signal transduction
- Reception of the message and the role of the ligand and the reception of the message.
- Define transduction and the series of events that it causes to bring a change in cellular
activities. Benefits of transduction cascades.
- Cellular responses and changes to metabolic activity. How is homeostasis achieved through
the balance of hormones, what impact does antagonistic hormones have in achieving
homeostasis in the instance of hormonal imbalance.
- Identify and recount case studies of opposing hormones to control glucose concentrations
and opposing hormones to control calcium ion concentrations.
- Plant hormones and the 5 types
Checklist Thermoregulation
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o Identify and explain the varying thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms and how they
control heat exchange and metabolic activity in terms of
o Structural features
- Thermoregulation in endotherms and ectotherms animals in relation to negative feedback
loops
- Detecting temperature changes through the hypothalamus,
- Heat transfer through conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation, describe methods
of heat production and heat loss in endotherms
- Thermoregulatory mechanisms and structural features such as body coverings, body
insulation, vascular body parts, surface area to volume ratio, gain of brown adipose tissue
and increased number of mitochondria per cell.
o Behavioural responses
- Kleptothermy, torpor, hibernation, Aestivation, consumption of water, changing of
habit/location, wallowing in water/mud. Panting or licking limbs
o Physiological mechanisms
- Human response to heat and the cold, the actions the hypothalamus, vasodilation, sweating,
vasoconstriction, shivering and piloerection.
- Detecting temperature change through temperature receptors in the skin and its
consequences.
- Physiological mechanisms and control of the body’s core temperature through evaporate
heat loss, Vasomotor, counter-current and thermogenesis.
- Vasomotor control, vasoconstrict ion and vasodilation and counter-current heat exchange
o Homeostatic mechanisms
- Thyroid hormones functions and insulin, negative feedback, temperature control and
homeostasis.
Checklist Osmoregulation
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o Identify and explain the various homeostatic mechanisms that maintain water balance in
animals, hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic solution and constant concentration and the
importance of osmoregulation.
o Identify and explain the various mechanisms that maintain water balance in plants in terms
of structural features and homeostatic mechanisms
o Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators definition and differentiation between them.
o Structural features
o Osmotic balance through a case study on the kidneys and gills in aquatic vertebrates and
osmoregulation in freshwater fish.
o Osmotic balance through salt glands in marine reptiles and the osmoregulatory systems
present to retain water in terrestrial vertebrates.
o Osmoregulation in mammals through structural features such as the excretory system such as
the kidneys. Discuss the functions of mammalian kidneys.
o Behavioural features
- Marine mammal and terrestrial mammal osmoregulation
- Behavioural responses such as drinking water, the thirst response and sensation
- Osmoregulation in plants and how the structural features impact the mechanism such as
stomata, number of stomata and stomatal hairs. Waxy cuticle and vacuoles, leaf surface
are and orientation, root system and ABA as a homeostatic mechanism.
- Plants and their adaptations for osmoregulation and xerophyte adaptations. Hydrophytes;
adaptations of waterlogged plants, halophyte adaptations.
- Mesophytes
o Physiological mechanism in the body and baroreceptors in animals
o Homeostatic mechanism
- Hormonal control through ADH in the kidneys. The mechanisms and hormones involved in
ADH and its effects on the function of kidneys.
- Osmoreceptors and ADH and the impacts of permeability in the duct walls and the effects
on the concentration of urine.
- Water loss and the homeostatic mechanisms involved in water gain (Aldosterone).
- The process of dehydration and overhydration. The effects of alcohol and its impact on
ADH.
- Explain the control of ADH (vasopressin) secretion by negative feedback, negative
 feedback and ADH.

UNIT 2: Maintaining the Internal Environment

Topic 2. Infectious Disease
Checklist Subtopic: Infectious disease 6
√ hours

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- Identify the difference between infectious diseases (invasion by a pathogen and can be
transmitted from one host to another) and non-infectious diseases (genetic and lifestyle
diseases)
- Identify the following pathogens: prions, viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists and parasites
- describe the following virulence factors that aid in pathogenesis: adherence, factors,
invasion factors, capsules, toxins and lifecycle changes
- Identify from given data and describe the following modes of disease transmission: direct
contact, contact with body fluids, contaminated food, water and disease- specific vectors.
- describe Genetic disorders, Nutritional Diseases and Environmental Diseases.
- Identify the type of infectious diseases and the type of pathogens, which is divided into
cellular and non-cellular pathogens (Prions).
- Define Viruses and cellular pathogens. Identify the different types of viruses and virulence
factors, adherence factors, invasion factors and capsules.
- Identify and differentiate between endo and exotoxins, Protozoans, parasitic worms and
parasites [Ectoparasite and Endoparasite].
- Disease patterns and transmission and spread of disease., identify reservoirs and
environmental reservoirs.
Checklist The immune response and defence against disease
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- Recognition of self and non-self, identify Major Histocompatibility complex [Class 1 and
Class 2 markers]
- Describe how the body identifies foreign materials, glycoprotein cell receptors.

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Non-specific and specific immunity
The first line of defence
Non-specific responses, Physical barriers to the invasion of microorganisms.
- Plant barriers to infections
- Identify and differentiate between chemical responses to infection in plants
- Identify and describe the purpose of Adaptive immunity.
- Recount the cells of the innate immune response, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils,
dendritic cells, eosinophils, basophils, Mast Cells, Natural Killer cells,
The second line of defence
Nonspecific response triggered after the penetration of the first line of defence.
- Complement proteins and its role in specific and non-specific defences.
- Binding Pathogens, Attracting pathogens.
- Membrane attack complex [opsonisation]
- Complement, other associated defence molecules, prostaglandins and their functions.
- Defensis, cationic proteins and its functions
- Define Cytokinesis, Prostaglandins, Defensins, Cytokines, Chemokines.
- Chemokines and the concentration gradient
- The use of interleukins, interferon and its functions, perforin and cells of the innate immune
system: white blood cells.
The third line of response
Specific responses are produced against specific antigens
- The process in the identification of pathogens through the production of specialised
lymphocytes.
- Differentiated between cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity.
- Types of cells involved in the adaptive immune system through helper t cells, cytotoxic t
cells, B cells, Memory cells, Regulatory T cells.
- The major histocompatibility complex and antigen presentation and the classification of
two major groups from class 1 and class 2 markers.
- Host lymphocytes can recognise self-proteins, miotic activity in B and T lymphocytes is
stimulated between Effector and Memory cells.
- What are the three events of immunological specificity, antigen and antibodies.
- The role of macrophages and dendritic cells, the antigen- MHC complexes, what are
 antigen-presenting cell.
- B and T cells, the lymphatic system, the thymus and bone marrow, B lymphocytes and
antibodies,
- Summarise B-cells and their functions, antibodies, structure of an antibody, Memory cells,
- Describe the formation of the cytotoxic T cells, the role of cytotoxic T cells.
- The role of helper T lymphocytes.
- Antigen presentation, interleukin reduction, antigen presentation to Helper T cells,
- The process of Helper T cells to activate B cells,
- Describe the role of regulatory lymphocytes, memory T lymphocytes.
- Summarise the T Cells,
Checklist The immune response [Extra bits]
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-The allergic response, changing the body’s response to common allergen, Rhesus
incompatibility definition, incompatibility.
- The autoimmune disease and triggers, examples of auto-immune diseases.
- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Organ transplant rejection, Stem cells and
preventing organ rejection.
Checklist Immunity to Disease
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□ o Immunity to disease through
o Naturally active immunity
o Where is it obtained,
o Artificially active immunity
o Where is it acquired, displaying the primary and secondary antibody.
o What are vaccines, ethical issues and vaccines.
o Community immunity, Measles, Polio,
o Natural passive immunity,
o Artificially passive immunity.
o Antiserum, immune system and homeostasis, rational drug design, the active site
o Controlling the flue virus,
o The types of immunity, cell mediated, humoral immunity
Checklist Disease patterns, transmission spread of epidemiology
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□ Transmission and spread of diseases
- Types of Reservoirs, environmental reservoirs, non-living reservoirs.
- Human reservoirs, passive carriers, carriers of diseases, animals reservoirs
- Transmission and spread of disease, modes of transmission of infectious diseases.
- What are the five major routes of transmission
- Mechanism of transmission, person to person transmission, mechanisms of transmission
through indirect contact.
- Vector transmission, the occurrence of biological transmission, regional spread of disease.
- Global spread of disease, rate of diseases transmission (R 0).
- Calculate R0
- Limitations and assumptions, Endemic diseases. Epidemic and Pandemic difference and
definition, characteristics and challenges of a pandemic
- Describe factors affecting the spread of disease, persistence of pathogens, incubation
period, diseases progression. Reducing transmission and strategies to control the spread of
diseases.
- Epidemiology and the control of disease through
o Reduction of mass gatherings
o School/workplace closures
o Travel hygiene
o Temperature screening
o Travel restrictions
o Quaratine/Isolation
o Digital disease surveillance
Key Terms, Formulas and Notes
UNIT 1: Cells and Multicellular organisms: Topic 1. Cells as the basis of life
Sub Topic: 1. Cell membrane
Key Terms: cell membrane, fluid mosaic model, phospholipids, hydrophilic (polar), hydrophobic (non-polar), cholesterol,
proteins, protein channels, passive transport, diffusion, facilitated diffusion, concentration gradient, osmosis, solvent, solute,
solution, selectively permeable, hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic, turgid, plasmolysis, contractile vacuole, active transport,
ADP and ATP, ion pumps, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated cyotosis, exocytosis, surface area to
volume ratio, cytoplasmic streaming
Sub Topic: 2. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Key Terms: organic compound, monomer, polymer, carbohydrate, monosaccharide, disaccharide, glucose, sucrose, starch,
cellulose, polysaccharide, lipid, triglyceride, fatty acid, glycerol, protein, amino acid, nucleic acid (DNA/RNA), nucleotide,
ammonia, urea, uric acid, prokaryotic, eukaryotic, prokaryotic, organelles, cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, vesicle, mitochondria, vacuole, cell wall, chloroplast.
Key Formulas/Notes: Chemical representation of molecules is not required.
Sub Topic: 3. Internal membranes and enzymes
Key Terms: activation energy, enzyme, active site, substrate, product, lock and key hypothesis, induced-fit hypothesis,
inhibitor.
Sub Topic: 4. Energy and metabolism
Key Terms: ADP, ATP, photosynthesis, light-dependent reaction, light-independent reaction, Calvin cycle, cellular
respiration, aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, electron transport chain, fermentation,
pyruvate, lactic acid, ethanol, carbon dioxide.
Key Formulas/Notes: Each process of photosynthesis (light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions, cellular
respiration, glycolysis, fermentation, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain) should only be summarised in terms of total
inputs and outputs and how they are interrelated.
Recognise that glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration occurring in the cytoplasm and the second stage occurs in
the mitochondria.
UNIT 1: Cells and Multicellular organisms: Topic 2. Multicellular Organisms

Sub Topic: 1. Cell differentiation and specialisation

Key Terms: Adult stem cells, Cell, Cell differentiation, Connective tissue, Ectoderm, Embryonic stem cells, Endoderm,
Epithelial tissue, Gene expression, Germ layers, Mesoderm, Multicellular, Multipotent, Muscle tissue, Nerve tissue, Organ,
Organism, Phloem, Pluripotent (cell), Specialised cell, Stem cell, Stem cell therapy, System, Tissue, Totipotent, Unicellular,
Unipotent, Vascular tissue, Xylem
Sub Topic: 2. Gas exchange and transport
Key Terms:
Gas Exchange: Aerobic (cellular) respiration, Alveoli, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Capillaries, Cilia, Diaphragm, Diffusion,
Epiglottis, Exhalation, Expiratory reserve volume, Gas exchange, Counter-current, Inhalation, Intercostal muscles,
Inspiratory capacity, Inspiratory reserve volume, Intercostal muscles, Lamellae, Larynx, Lungs, Oxygen carrying capacity,
Oxyhaemoglobin, Partial pressure, Pharynx, Residual volume, Ribcage, Trachea (wind-pipe), Tracheales, Tidal volume,
Total lung capacity, Ventilation (breathing), Vital capacity.
Transport: Aorta, Artery, Atria, Blood, Blood pressure, Capillary, Closed circulatory system, Coronary circulation, Diastole
phase, Haemoglobin, Heart, Interstitial fluid, Lymph vessel, Open circulatory system, Plasma, Platelets, Pulmonary artery,
Pulmonary circulation, Pulmonary veins, Pulse, Red blood cells (erythrocytes), Systemic circulation, Systole phase, Valves,
Vein, Vena cava, Ventricle, White blood cells (leucocytes)
Key Formulas/Notes: Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve graphs could be interpreted to support analysis of gas
exchange data.
Sub Topic: 3. Exchange of nutrients and waste
Key Terms:
Exchange of Nutrients: Alimentary canal (digestive tract), Amylase, Bile, Bolus, Caecum, Caecum fermenter, Carnivore,
Cellulose, Chemical digestion, Chyme, Colon, Colon fermenter, Digestion, Duodenum, Enzyme, Epiglottis, Foregut
fermenter, Gastric juice, Glycogen, Herbivore, Hindgut fermenter, Hydrolysis, Ileum, Ingestion, Jejunum, Larynx, Lipases,
Liver, Mouth, Non-ruminant, Nutrient, Oesophagus, Omnivore, Pancreas, Peristalsis, Pharynx, Physical (mechanical)
digestion, Protease, Ruminant, Salivary glands, Small intestine, Stomach, Teeth, Villi.
Exchange of Wastes: Bladder, Bowman’s capsule, Collecting tubule, Cortex (of kidney), Counter-current multiplication,
Distal tubule, Glomerulus, Hypertonic urine, Kidney, Loop of Henle, Medulla, Nephron, Nitrogenous waste, Pelvis (of
kidney), Proximal (convoluted) tubule, Reabsorption, Secretion, Ureter, Urethra
Key Formulas/Notes: The function of the Loop of Henle should be discussed in terms of the countercurrent system for the
production of concentrated urine.
Sub Topic:4. Plant systems – gas exchange and transport systems
Key Terms: Casparian strip, Companion cells, Cuticle, Guard cells, Lenticels, Lower epidermis, Mesophyll, Palisade
mesophyll, Phloem, Root hairs, Root pressure, Sieve tube cell, Spongy mesophyll, Stoma, Tracheids, Translocation,
Transpiration, Transpiration stream, Upper epidermis, Vascular bundles, Vascular tissue, Xylem, Xylem vessels

Key Terms, Formulas and Notes

UNIT 2: Maintaining the Internal Environment : Topic 1. Homeostasis

Sub Topic: 1. Homeostasis

Key Terms: Homeostasis, Stimulus-response model, Sensory receptors (chemo, thermos, mechano, photo, noci), Effectors,
Negative feedback, Metabolism (catabolic, anabolic), Tolerance limits.
Key Formulas/Notes: Tolerance limits can also be referred to as tolerance range.
Examples of feedback control diagrams could include proprioception, thermoregulation, osmoregulation or glucose
regulation.
Sub Topic: 2. Neural homeostatic control pathways
Key Terms: Sensory neurone, Inter (relay) Neurone, Motor neurone, Dendrites, Soma, Axon, Myelin sheath, Nodes of
Ranvier, Axon terminal and Synapse, Action potential, Synaptic transmission, Neurotransmitters, Synaptic cleft, Pre
synaptic and post synaptic neurones, Signal transduction.
Key Formulas/Notes: nil

Sub Topic: 3. Hormonal homeostatic control pathways

Key Terms: Hormones, Receptors, Upregulation, Downregulation, Signal transduction.

Sub Topic: 4. Thermoregulation

Key Terms: Thermoregulation, Endotherms, Ectotherms, Brown adipose tissue, Insulation, Kleptothermy, Hibernation,
Aestivation, Torpor, Counter current heat exchange, Thermogenesis.
Key Formulas/Notes: Behavioural responses also include consumption of water and changing habitat/location. The
student should understand these responses, but is not required to recall them.
Sub Topic: 5. Osmoregulation
Key Terms: Osmoregulation, Osmoregulators, Osmoconformers, Antidiuretic hormone, Stomata, Vacuoles, Cuticle,
Abscisic acid, Xerophytes, Hydrophytes, Halophytes, Mesophytes.
Key Formulas/Notes: nil
UNIT 2: Maintaining the Internal Environment : Topic 2. Infectious Disease

Sub Topic: 1. Infectious Disease

Key Terms: disease, pathogen, infectious disease, non-infectious disease, contagious, virulence, incubation period
Carrier, gram stain, exotoxins, endotoxins, prions, plasmodium, bacteriophage, viruses, retrovirus, bacteria, capsule,
flagellum, endospore, pili, adherence factors, adhesins, gram stain, antigens, antibiotics, antiseptics, protest, fungi,
arthropods, worms, parasites, endoparasite, exoparasite, host, vector
Key Formulas/Notes: Virulence factors do not need to be described biochemically.

Sub Topic: 2. The Immune Response and Defence against Disease

Key Terms: antigen, innate immunity, immunogen, first-line defences, second-line defences, third-line defences, innate
immunity, leukocytes, adaptive immune response, interferons, cytokines, chemokines, perforins, prostaglandins,
phagocytes, opsonisation, inflammation, histamines, mast cells, platelets, vasodilation, fever, major histocompatibility
complex, lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, helper T-lymphocytes, natural killer cell, memory
cells, antibodies (immunoglobulins), humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity, interleukins, suppressor T cells, cell
mediated immunity, primary immune response, secondary immune response, active immunity, passive immunity, artificial
passive immunity, natural passive immunity, antiserum, natural active immunity, artificial active immunity, vaccines,
vaccination, adjuvants, herd immunity, cuticle, defensins, pyrethrins

Key Formulas/Notes: Examples of plant chemical defences could include pyrethrins.

Sub Topic: 3. Transmission and spread of disease (epidemiology)

Key Terms: epidemiology, clusters, transmission, direct contact, indirect contact, susceptible, airborne transmission,
foodborne transmission, mucous membranes, fomite, droplet transmission, waterborne transmission, animal to person
transmission, vectors, environmental reservoirs, endemic, incubation period, epidemic. pandemic, reproduction number
(R0), secondary infections, virulence, pathogen persistence, community (herd) immunity, hygiene, antibacterial, contact
tracing, notifiable diseases, asymptomatic carrier, temperature screening, mathematical disease data modelling, quarantine,
outbreak, isolation, biosecurity

Key Formulas/Notes: Analysis of the spread and control of disease could include hand hygiene, quarantine, biosecurity
measures for the prevention of the spread of polio, smallpox, influenza, Ebola, cholera, bird flu, malaria.