Condensers and back pressure 493

absolute the volume will have become 1.7 m3/kg and the work done will be
represented by the area under the curve between the limits shown by Pi and
Pi.
If, now, the final pressure is reduced to 0.5 bar absolute the expansion will
continue to Λ and the volume will be 3.3 m3/kg. Thus, the extr$ work
obtained per kilogram of steam is represented by the shaded area. This is a
considerable amount of extra work, obtained by improving the back pres-
sure by 0.5 bar. To achieve a comparable amount of extra work at the inlet to
the turbine the steam pressure would have to be lifted from Pl to P4, i.e.
from 11 to 17.5 bars as shown by the cross-hatched area.
Of course, in practice it is normal to operate with considerably lower back
pressures than depicted in Figure ILL It is easy to see that even small
changes in back pressure can cause considerable changes in the work done
per kilogram of steam - and remember there are over a million kilograms of
steam entering the condenser per hour on large units. So it is easy to see why
turbine back pressure is the most important terminal condition of all.
Therefore it is important to the efficient operation of a unit that its back
pressure is always maintained at the optimum level.

Effect of varying the back pressure

From what has already been said it follows that a large amount of extra work
is done by the steam when the back pressure is reduced. If this were the
whole story then lowering the back pressure would always result in increased
output from a unit. The trouble is that as the back pressure improves certain
losses increase. These are mainly:
1 CW pumping power.
2 Leaving loss.
3 Reduced condensate temperature.
4 Wetness of the steam.
Consider each item in turn.
Increased CW pumping power. Assuming that the CW inlet temperature is
low enough the back pressure can be reduced by putting more and more CW
through the condenser tubes. However, this will require more and more CW
pumping power and the gain from improved back pressure must be offset
against the extra power absorbed by the pumps. Therefore CW pumps
should be run only when the cost of running them is less than the resulting
benefit from increased unit output. In other words, the pump operation
should always be optimized (see under 'Works Power', Chapter 14, page
651).
Increased leaving loss. Consider the last row of blades in a turbine. These
present to the steam a fixed annulus through which it must pass to get to the
494 Condensers and back pressure

condenser. Now, the steam leaves the last row at a velocity which depends
upon the conditions prevailing at that point. As this velocity is not utilized
usefully it represents a loss of possible work. This is known as the 'Leaving
Loss'. There is always a leaving loss but as the back pressure is reduced its
magnitude increases rapidly. For example, if the back pressure is 60 mbar
the loss would be a certain value. If the back pressure is reduced to 30 mbar
the specific volume of the steam will be approximately doubled, and so the
velocity of the steam through the fixed annulus must also double. But the
leaving loss varies as the squar£ of the velocity, and consequently will
increase four times.

Reduced condensate temperature. If the condensate in the condenser is at the

saturation temperature corresponding to the back pressure it will be 36°C at
60 mbar. Reducing the back pressure to 30 mbar will cause the temperature
to drop to 24°C. Hence, when it enters No. 1LP heater it will be cooler than
before. Consequently more steam will automatically be bled to the heater
because of the increased condensation rate of the steam. It follows that the
extra steam being bled to the heater is no longer available to do work in the
turbine downstream of the tapping point, and so the turbine will be deprived
of some work.

Increased wetness of steam. The lower the back pressure the greater the
wetness of the steam. The extra moisture could result in damage to the
moving blades. In addition the volume of steam is reduced. Thus at 30 mbar
back pressure the volume of the steam without wetness would be 45.7 m3/kg.
If there were 10% wetness the steam volume per kg would be reduced to
41.1 m3. As a rough guide it can be assumed that every 1% wetness will
reduce the efficiency of the associated stage by 1%.

The losses mentioned will eventually significantly affect the result.

Continued reduction of the back pressure will result in the net improvement
in heat consumption becoming progressively less until a point is reached at
which the benefit due to improved back pressure is exactly neutralized by
the losses, and this is the point of minimum heat consumption, as shown in
Figure 11.2. Further reduction of the back pressure will cause the heat
consumption to increase, and so there is no point in operating at a lower
value. It should be noted, though, that the back pressure for minimum heat
consumption varies with load and so the operations staff should be supplied
with a curve such as shown in Figure 11.3 to enable them to determine the
minimum back pressure for any loading for their particular machines.
From the foregoing notes it is obvious that every effort should be made to
operate the plant at the optimum back pressure.
 Condensers and back pressure 495

102 r-

1-
c ioi I—
o
'■*->
a
E
c
o

100h

50 40
Back pressure, millibars abs.

Figure 11.2 Back pressure correction curve— 120 MW T/Aatfull load

30 h

E 20r-

0)
k-

a
■g 10
QQ

_L J-
40 60 80 100 120
Load, MW
Figure 11.3 Minimum back pressure for various loads— 120MWT/A

Graphical determination of losses contributing to departure of

back pressure from optimum
The usual reasons for departure of condenser conditions from optimum are:
1 CW inlet temperature different from design.
496 Condensers and back pressure

2 CW quantity flowing through condenser incorrect.

3 Fouled tube plates.
4 Dirty tubes.
5 Air ingress into system under vacuum.
The contribution of some factors to a given departure of back pressure
from optimum may be determined graphically. Consider a condenser with
the following optimum and actual conditions at, say, full load.

Condition Unit Optimum Actu

1 CW inlet temperature °C 16.5 18.2
2 CW outlet temperature °C 25.0 28.2
3 CW temperature rise (2) - (1) °C 8.5 10
4 Saturated steam temp, corresponding to
backpressure °C 30.5 35.0
5 Terminal temp, difference (4) - (2) °C 5.5 6.8
6 Air suction temperature °C 26.0 27.0
7 Air suction depression °C 4.5 8.0
(4) - (6)
8 Back pressure mbar 43.65 56.22

Refer to the 'Condenser Condition Graph', Figure 11.4.

Deviation due to CW inlet temperature. Plot a line vertically from the actual
CW inlet temperature of 18.2°C to the intersection with the optimum 'CW
rise' of 8.5°C. Thence plot horizontally to the intersection with the optimum
'terminal temperature difference' (l "I'D) line, and then vertically downward
to cut the 'saturated steam temperature' line. The corresponding back
pressure is 47.2 mbar. Hence, the loss due to the high CW inlet temperature
is the difference in back pressure between 47.7 mbar and the optimum value
of 43.65, i.e. 4.05 mbar.

Deviation due to CW flow. Plot a line from the actual CW inlet temperature
vertically to the intersection with the actual CW rise of 10.0°C. Thence plot
horizontally to the optimum TTD, then vertically downward to the satura-
tion temperature of 33.7°C. The corresponding back pressure is 52.0 mbar
so the loss due to incorrect CW flow is given by 52.0 - 47.7 = 4.30 mbar.

Deviation due to air/dirty tubes. The effect of air and dirty tubes on heat
transfer is to increase the TTD above optimum. As they both give the same
effect they are lumped together in this exercise. (Note: They can be segre-
gated, as will be shown later). Plot from the actual CW inlet temperature to
the actual CW rise and thence across to the actual TTD line of 7°C. Plotting
vertically downward the saturated steam temperature is 35.1°C, and the
back pressure is 56.22 mbar. So the deviation due to air/dirty tubes is given
by 56.22 - 52.0 mbar = 4.22 mbar.
The effect of air ingress into the condenser is to increase the value of the
 10 c
Terminal temperature 9
difference °C 8
7
6
5

Saturated steam temperature °C 16.5 18.2

38- 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20
L J_ il 1 li i i i L_ -L -L
I I I
6560 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 5 10 15 20 25
Condensers and back pressure

Back pressure millibars C.W. inlet temperature °C

Figure 11.4 Condenser condition graph (full load)

497
498 Condensers and back pressure

'air suction depression' from optimum. In the case being considered the
optimum value, obtained from the acceptance tests, is 4.5°C, but it is
actually 8°C, so there must be air present. Action should be taken to locate
and stop the ingress. Then a new set of readings can be obtained and all the
deviation due to 'air/dirty tubes' can be attributed to dirty tubes. Inciden-
tally, when condenser tubes are cleaned it is only the 'dirty tube' component
which is eliminated.

Calculation of back pressure deviation

The graphical means of determining the extent of the deviations is useful for
demonstrating the method of calculation. However, it is not particularly
convenient for investigations on actual plant as each load requires the
determination of the optimum conditions as a preliminary to calculations of
the deviations. It is better to have curves to cover all the conditions likely to
be met in practice. Curve 1 {Figure 11.5) enables the optimum back pressure

70i-

60l·

50 h

= 40
E

I 30

co 20

10 (t\o«*
M\\r^(

_L _L -L -L J_ -L
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Load, MW

Figure 11.5 Target back pressure— 120 MW T/A. (Curve No 1)

to be determined for any load and for any probable CW inlet temperature.
Thus, with a loading of 100 MW and a CW inlet temperature of 20°C the
optimum back pressure would be 43.6 mbar.
 Condensers and back pressure 499

Also shown on the curve is the specified back pressure for any load, i.e.
the optimum back pressure when the CW inlet temperature is at the design
value (in this case 14.5°C), and shown by the dotted line. To derive the
curves in Figure 11.5 proceed as follows:
From design data determine the optimum CW rise and terminal tempera-
ture difference for a range of loads as in curve 2 (Figure 11.6). Thus, at 100

1 I i I , I i I i I I
0 40 60 80 100 120
Load, MW

Figure 11.6 Optimum CW. temperature rise and terminal temeperature difference —
120-MW T/A. (Curve No 2)

MW the CW rise is 7.5°C and the TTD is 3°C. Hence the saturation
temperature will be 10.5°C above the CW inlet temperature. So with a CW
inlet temperature of, say, 20°C the saturation temperature of the condensate
will be 30.5°C, which corresponds to a back pressure of 43.65 mbar. Simi-
larly, if the CW inlet temperature is 16°C the saturation temperature will be
26.5°C and the corresponding back pressure 34.6 mbar. Proceeding in this
500 Condensers and back pressure

manner the family of curves were plotted.

There is one further item required - that of saturation temperature against
back pressure, as shown in Figure 11.7 The deviations can now be deter-

40 r

30

20

10

-L I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Back pressure, millibars

Figure 11.7 Saturation temperature vs back pressure (Curve No 3)

mined for any load. As with so many monitoring exercises it is convenient to

use a pro-forma for the calculations such as that on page 501.
For example, in Test 1 a check was carried out on a 120 MW unit with
three condensers, A, B and C. Items 1-9 are obvious and do not require any
comment. Item 10 is determined from curve 1. At the intersection of the
'specified' back pressure and 100 MW read the back pressure 30.2 mbar.
Lines 11 and 12 are obtained directly from curve 2. Line 13 is the back
pressure corresponding to a saturation temperature equal to the sum of the
temperatures in lines 3, 11 and 12. In this case it is 21.5°C and the back
pressure, from curve 3, is 25.6 mbar. Line 14 is calculated in a similar
manner, but the temperature is given by line 5 and line 12. The back pressure
corresponding to 23.9°C is 29.8 mbar. Lines 15 to 19 are self-explanatory.
 Condensers and back pressure 501

Spot back pressure check

(+) = higher, ( - ) = lower back pressure.

Date

Test / 2 3 4

LoadMW 100 80 120 118

Item Derivation Unit

1 Back pressure Plant mbar 36.5 34.5 37.1 48.0

2 Corresp. sat. steam temp. Figure 11.7 °C 27.6 26.4 27.5 32.2
3 CW inlet temp. Plant °C 11.0 7.0 8.0 18.7
4 CW outlet temp. 'Α' Plant °C 20.9 10.3 21.6 30.2
'Β' Plant °C 22.7 14.0 23.8 27.0
'C Plant °C 19.2 12.0 20.0 27.0
5 (Mean) Mean of (4) °C 20.9 12.1 21.8 28.1
6 Ά ' exhaust steam temp. Plant °C 28.0 26.0 27.0 36.0
Έ' Plant °C 27.0 26.0 27.5 38.0
'C Plant °C 21.0 28.0 21.0 36.0
7 Ά ' condensate temp. Plant °C 25.4 26.5 27.5 35.0
'B' Plant °C 25.4 26.5 27.5 35.0
'C Plant °C 21.7 24.5 27.0 26.5
8 Ά ' air suction temp. Plant °C 25.5 24.0 26.5 31.0
'B' Plant °C 24.0 18.0 22.0 31.0
'C Plant °C 17.0 23.5 23.0 30.5
9 'A'CW outlet valve Plant Wide 30 36 33 38
= 91 cm
'B' Plant 28 40 36 35
'C Plant 23 31 33 34
10 Specified back press. Figure 11.5 mbar 30.2
11 Optimum CW rise Figure 11.6 °C 7.2
12 Optimum TTD Figure 11.6 °C 5.0
13 Back press, due to CW
inlet temp. (3)+(11)-f-(12) mbar 25.6
14 Back press, due to CW flow (5)f(12) mbar 29.8
15 Variation due to CW
inlet temp. (13)-(10) mbar (-)4.6
16 Variation due to CW flow (14)-(13) mbar (+I4.2
17 Variation due to air/dirty
tubes (D-(14) mbar M 6 . 7
18 Total variation (D-03) mbar (+Π0.9
19 Target back pressure Figure 11.5 mbar 27
20 Variation from target (D-(19) mbar [+)9.5
21 No. of air pumps i/s
(maximum 3) Plant — 2 2 3 1

Line 20 is determined by reference to curve 1. The target back pressure is

read against the intersection of 100 MW and the actual CW inlet tempera-
ture of 11.0°C, i.e. 20.7 mbar. However, if the CW inlet temperature and the
load lines intersect below the line of 'Minimum back pressure' then the
target value to use is located from the intersection of the load and minimum
back pressure lines. Thus, in the case quoted, if the CW inlet temperature
502 Condensers and back pressure

had been 8°C then the target back pressure would be 25.5 mbar. Line 21 is
self-explanatory.

Exercise 1 (Answers on page 533)

Calculate the deviations for checks 2, 3 and 4.

Notes on the results

Loss due to high CW inlet temperature. Provided the cooling towers (where
appropriate) are performing satisfactorily this loss must be accepted. It is
possible, of course, to minimize the loss by having an abnormal quantity of
CW flowing through the condenser, thus giving a smaller CW rise across the
condenser than optimum. However, the potential gain is reduced by the
extra CW pumping power required. Therefore the increased turbine output
due to improved vacuum must be greater than the increased CW pumping
power required to justify this means of reducing the loss.

Deviation due to incorrect CW flow. This is normally a loss which can be

eliminated. If the CW rise across the condenser is less than optimum the flow
is excessive and the CW outlet valve opening should be reduced. Excessive
CW flow may cause undercooling of the condensate, in which case the
condensate temperature will be lower than that of the saturated steam
temperature. If the rise is greater than optimum then the valve should be
opened further. But if the CW temperature rise is unaffected by even an
abnormal opening of the CW outlet valve, then the condenser tube plates
are probably fouled with leaves or other debris, assuming there is no
shortage of CW.

Deviation due to air ingress. This is an entirely preventable loss and steps
should be taken to locate and stop any air ingress into the system under
vacuum as soon as the condition is detected. Remember, the resistance to
heat transfer of a layer of air 1.0 mm thick is equal to that of a slab of copper
16.5 m thick. Excessive air in the condenser may lead to an increased reading
on the condensate oxygen meter. On the other hand there are times when
the air ingress is so small that only one 50% air pump or steam ejector is
required to handle it. In such a case it is a waste of energy to run two 50%
pumps or ejectors 'just to be safe'.

Deviation due to dirty tubes. Operationally little can be done to eliminate the
cause of the loss, as the tubes must be cleaned when the condenser is out of
 Condensers and back pressure 503

service. However, as soon as the loss is detected it should be ascertained that

the chlorine injection to the affected plant is satisfactory. It may be that the
Station Chemist will have the dosage increased. The effect of this loss on
back pressure can be reduced by increasing the flow of CW but, as stated
earlier, operation of the pumps must be optimized.

Notes on the effect of air ingress on back pressure

The capacity of the air pumps is determined empirically. Some idea of the
relationship between air pump capacity and unit size is given in Figure 11.8.

I ■ I ■ I ■ i I 1 1 1 J
0 100 200 300 400 500
Steam to condenser, kg/s

Figure 11.8 Air extraction plant capacity

When air mixes with steam it has very little effect on the absolute pres-
sure. For example, mixing saturated steam with 1/2000 of its weight of air
will increase the back pressure by only about one quarter of one per cent
(0.25%) if the back pressure is 34 mbar, when only Dalton's law of partial
pressures is considered. The real trouble with air is that it is incondensable,
and so, when the steam condenses on the CW tubes, the air remains, and
may form a film on the tube surface. As stated above, air is such an excellent
insulator that it only requires a film a few molecules thick to interfere
seriously with the heat transfer, and as a result the back pressure suffers.
Fortunately it is easy to determine whether air is present merely by
measuring the temperature of the contents of the air suction pipe to the air
pumps. When there is only a little air present the temperature is very little
below the saturated steam temperature (say within 4.5°C). As more and
more air is present the temperature falls - the more air present the greater
the depression of the air suction compared to the saturated steam tempera-
ture. Preferably the thermometer should be in direct contact with the
contents of the air suction pipe.
It may happen that at very low back pressures there is an accumulation of
air in the condenser. This could be because the specific volume of the air
504 Condensers and back pressure

becomes greater the lower the back pressure. Consequently the total
volume to be handled by the air removal equipment may increase to such an
extent that the equipment cannot cope. Therefore, if the condenser perfor-
mance falls off sharply at low back pressures but returns to normal at higher
pressures (for example going from part-load to full-load operation) then
air-removal limitations should be considered a possibility.

Suggested modifications to back pressure indicators

It will be apparent that often it is necessary to determine both the back
pressure and the corresponding saturation temperature. To avoid the neces-
sity of referring to steam tables the back pressure indicator can be given an
auxiliary scale. For example, consider the Vacumeter and Kenotometer
instruments; they have the usual pressure scale on the left-hand side of the
mercury column and a scale graduated in 'Percentage perfect vacuum' on
the right-hand side. This latter scale is of no use in power stations so the
author has had them replaced at the stations where he works with one
graduated in steam saturation temperature, so the back pressure and satura-
tion temperature are indicated as shown in Figure 11.9. Thus, when a
reading of back pressure is obtained from the instrument, the corresponding
temperature can also be determined.

Representative back pressure

Normally there is a significant variation of pressure across the plane of the
turbine exhaust/condenser inlet, which is further complicated by the fact
that there are now several different condenser configurations in common
use. Therefore, it is necessary to have provision for a number of pressure-
sensing tappings which should be about 10 mm diameter and preferably
flush with the wall. Each exhaust should have tappings on all four sides, or
two sides if that is all that are accessible, and there should be at least eight
per condenser. The holes in individual condensers should be connected by a
manifold although it is an advantage if individual measurements can also be
obtained if required. Complete details are given in CEGB Site Test Code
No. 3, Performance of Surface-Type Steam Condensers. On smaller
machines with underslung condensers it was common to fit a vacuum grid
such as shown in Figure 11.10.
When carrying out precise back-pressure measurements, use precision
test mercury columns such as shown in Figure 11.11 although suitable
pressure transducers are now also very popular. Whatever instrument is
used it should be accurate to within 0.3 millibar. Normally it is necessary to
correct the readings obtained from a mercury column to those that would
have been obtained at standard conditions. The method is shown later.
When pressure transducers are used they have the considerable advantage