Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

RECEPTORS AND SENSE ORGANS

¨ Sensation à conscious or unconscious awareness

of external or internal stimuli.
¨ Cells or organs, which are specialized to receive
stimulation, are called receptors.
¨ Special sense organ include the eye, ear, olfactory
or nasal organs and taste buds.
THE EYES
¨ Organ of photoreceptor (light receiving) or
teloreceptor (receiving impulse from distance).
¨ Eyes of most vertebrates à monocular vision.

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Figure: External features of

human eye

¨ General organization of eye comprises two parts:

accessory structure and eyeball.
Accessory structures:
Eyelids (palpebrae)
¨ These are two (upper & lower), movable
mucocutaneous fold.
¨ Function of eye lidà
……………………………………………………….
¨ Space between the upper and lower eyelids à
………………………………………………..
¨ The tarsal plate gives form and support to the
eyelids.
¨ Modified sebaceous glands on tarsal plate are
known as tarsal or Meibomian glands [IOM 2009]
¨ Hair follicles at border of eyelid have 2 types of
glands at their base.
1. Sweat glands called gland of Moll and
2. Sebaceous glands called gland of Zeis @Sibaji
[IOM 1994]
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

Quick digest
v In frog, a transparent membrane called
nictitating membrane or third eye lid is
present, which protects eyes in water.
v In rabbit, nictitiating membrane is reduced
simply to a small fold at the inner angle of an
eye.
v A non-functional vestigial nictitating
membrane called Plica semilunaris occurs in
human eyes.
v Inflammation of Zeis gland leads to stye, while
inflammation of Meibomian gland leads to
chalazion formation.

Conjunctiva
¨ Thin transparent mucus membrane
¨ Covering anterior surface of sclera à
…………………………….
¨ Covering inner surface of eyelid à
…………………………………….
¨ Conjunctival
epitheliumà……………………………………………………….

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Note:
v Conjunctiva is the thinnest epidermis in
animal body.
v Lacrymal gland is an exo-crine gland, which
secrets tear. [IOM 1996, 1992]
Lacrimal apparatus
¨ Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland and its ducts,
the lacrimal sac and the nasolacrimal duct.

Figure: Lacrimal apparatus

Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Secretion of lacrimal glandà …………………………………

[IOM 1996]
¨ Composition of lacrimal fluidà
…………………………………………………
¨ Function of lacrimal
fluidà………………………………………………. [KUMET]
¨ Nasolacrimal duct carries lacrimal fluid (= tear)
into ………………………………. [IOM 2006]
¨ Inflammation of lacrimal sac à dacrocystitis.
Extrinsic eye muscles (extraocular muscles of eye)
¨ Six extrinsic muscles move each eye;
Extraocular Nerve supply
muscle @ LR6SO4 rest
by 3
1. Superior III
rectus (Occulomotor)
@Rest by 3
2. Inferior III
rectus (Occulomotor) Figure: Extra ocular muscle of eye
@Rest by 3
3. Lateral VI
rectus (Abducens)
@ LR6

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4. Medial III
rectus (Occulomotor)
@Rest by 3
5. Superior IV (Trochlear)
oblique @ SO4
6. Inferior III
oblique (Occulomotor)
@Rest by 3

Eyeball
¨ Located in sockets like eye orbit of skull.
¨ Diameterà about 2.5 cm.
¨ Weight à 6-8 gram.
¨ From outside to inside, eye ball consists of three
concentric coats or tunics,viz., tunica fibrosa,
tunica vasculosa and tunica nervosa.
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

Figure: Structure of human eyeball

Tunica fibrosa:
¨ Outermost, thick and tough, non-vascular covering
around an eyeball.
¨ Function: protects the eyeball and maintains its
form.
¨ 2 parts:
a. Over projecting part (=transparent) à cornea
(1/6th part)
b. opaque partà sclera (5/6th part)
¨ Limbus à ……………………………………….

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Cornea (=window of eye)

Ü Cornea (=window of eye) à transparent coat that
covers the colored iris.
Ü Histologicallyà……………. Layers
Ü Outermost layer à ………………………………………….
Ü Refractive powerà…………………………….. [IOM 1993]
Ü Cornea is avascular (devoid of blood supply) [IOM
2001] and it derives its nutrition from the
………………………………….
Quick Digest:
v There are 4 refracting surfaces in each eye: cornea,
aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour.
v Cornea is the most sensitive part of eye. [NEET
2019]
v Cornea transplantation is most successful
because it is avascular .
v Donation of eye means donation of cornea.[IOM
1998]
v Cornea transplantation is called keratoplasty.
v Inflammation of cornea is called keratitis. [IOM
- 1996]
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

v Except muscles of iris & ciliary body, all vascular

layer of eye ball is mesodermal in origin.

Sclera
Ü The “white” of the eye, is a mesodermally derived
layer .
Ü Sclera covers the entire eyeball except the cornea.

Tunica vasculosa (= Uvea):

¨ Middle layer of eyeball
¨ Distinguished into three parts à
……………………………….
Choroid
Ü Highly vascularized choroid lines most of the
internal surface of the sclera.
Ü Provide nutrition to the posterior surface of the

retina.
Ü Contains melanocytes à produce the pigment

melaninà …………………………………..
Ciliary body
Ü It is anterior expansion of choroid.
Ü Ciliary body consists ciliary muscle, ciliary
process, and suspensory ligaments.
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Ü Ciliary process produces aqueous humor and the

suspensory ligaments (= zonular fibers or
Zonules of Zinn) hold the lens.
Iris
Ü The iris (= rainbow) à the coloured portion of the
eyeball [BPKIHS]
Ü It consists of melanocytes à determines the

eye colour.
Ü 2 muscles

1. Outer radial muscles (= dilator pupillae):

………………………………………………………………
2. Inner circular muscles (= constrictor pupillae

or sphincter pupillae):
……………………………………………………..
Ü Muscles of iris are ……………………… in origin whereas

the muscles of ciliary body are …………………………. in

origin.
Ü Iris of eye is equivalent to the diaphragm of a

camera. [IOM 1997]

Lens
¨ Crystalline, elastic and transparent structure
¨ lacks blood vessels
¨ Ectodermal in origin.
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Held in position by cillary body and suspensory

ligaments (= zonular fibers or Zonules of Zinn).
[NEET 2019]
¨ In human beingsà biconvex.
Quick Digest
v Cataract (मोितिब&दु): loss of lens transparency due
to denaturation of lens protein.
v Presbiopia: loss of lens elasticity in old age
resulting in loss of accommodation for near
vision.

Tunica Nervosa (Retina):

¨ Retina has two main layers;
1. Outer pigmented layer
2. Inner neuro-sensory layer.
¨ The neural (sensory) layer of the retina has three
distinct layers of retinal neurons:
1. Photoreceptor layer (layer of Rods and Cones)
[Ind Emb 2009]
2. Bipolar cell layer (with horizontal cells and
amacrine cells)
3. Ganglion cell layer
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Rods and Cons (= Photoreceptors)

¨ Photoreceptors (=specialized cells)à converts
light energy to nerve impulses (electrical energy).
[Ind Emb 2006]

Figure: Neural
layer of retina

v Two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones

Rods Cones
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

Each retina has about 120 Each retina has about 6

million rods million cones
Rods allow us to see in Brighter light
dim light, such as moon stimulates cones,
light. which produce colour
vision. [IOM 2001]
Produce Rhodopsin, which Produce Iodopsin which
is visual purple. is visual violet.
Rhodopsin is formed with
the help of vit. A. [IOM
1993]
Rod cells are absent in The fovea centralis
fovea centralis contains only cones
[NEET 2015]
Rods are more in number Cones are more in
peripheral region of the number in central
retina region of the retina.
Rods are more in Cones are more in
nocturnal animals diurnal animals
In owl, only rods are In fowls, only cones
present and cones are are present and rods
absent. are absent

¨ Three types of cones are present in retina

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1. Blue cones (cyanolabes): sensitive to blue light

2. Green cones (chlorolabes): sensitive to green
light
3. Red cones (erythrolabes): sensitive to red light
¨ Colour vision results from the stimulation of
various combinations of these three types of
cones.
¨ Visual pathway:
• Photoreceptorsà bipolar cells à ganglion
cellsà optic (II cranial) nerve à visual cortex.

¨ Optic disc (=physiological blind spot) à no rods

or cones.
¨ Macula lutea (macula = a small, flat spot; lutea =
yellowish) is in the exact centre of the posterior
portion of the retina, at the visual axis of the
eye.
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Fovea centralis
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…. [Bangaldesh Emb 2009, IOM 1996]
¨ Optic nerve carries this impulse to the visual area
in the occipital lobe of cerebrum. [IOM 2001, MOE
2069]
Accommodation
¨ The ability to change the focal length of lens by
changing the curvature of lens is called
accommodation power.
¨ Only mammals and birds have accommodation
power in their eyes.

Figure: Accommodation

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Interior of the eyeball

¨ Lens divides the interior of the eyeball into two
segments: the anterior segment and posterior
segment.
¨ Anterior segmentà has two chambers, i.e.,
anterior and posterior chamber

¨ Both chambers of anterior segmentà filled with

aqueous humor
¨ Aqueous humor à nourishes the lens and cornea.
¨ Pathway of aqueous humor flow:
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

à………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………….
¨ Glaucoma (= जलिब&दु)à
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
.
¨ Posterior segment à
………………………………………………………………………………….
¨ Hyaloid canal or Cloquet’s canal à
……………………………………………………………………….
Emetropia (Normal vision):
¨ Light rays from objects are in sharp focus on the
retina.
Myopia or nearsightedness:
¨ Can see near objects but cannot see far objects
clearly.
¨ Light rays coming from distance objects are
focused in front of the retina and image is
formed in front of retina.
¨ Correctionà…………………………………………………..[BPKIHS
2004]

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Hypermetropia or farsightedness or hyperopia:

¨ Can see distant objects but cannot see near
objects clearly.
¨ Light rays coming from near objects are focused
behind the retina and image is formed behind the
retina.
¨ Correction
à……………………………………………………………[BPKIHS 2007]
Astigmatism:
¨ Irregular curvature of cornea or lens à vision is
blurred or distorted.
¨ Correctionà……………………………………………………………….
Presbyopia [IOM 2009, MOE 2064]:
¨ Loss of accommodation by the lens as a person
grows older.
¨ Correction: bifocal lenses.
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

Glaucoma (=जलिब&दु):
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Cataract (=मोितिब&दु):
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Trachoma (= Rough eye):
¨ Inflammation of cornea and conjunctiva
(keratoconjuctivitis) due to Chlamydia
trachomatis [MOE 2067]
Xerophthalmia (dry eye):
¨ Ocular manifestation of Vitamin A deficiency.
¨ First clinical symptom of vitamin A deficiency
is ………………………………...
¨ First clinical sign of vitamin A deficiency is
…………………………………………..
¨ Most common cause of preventable blindness in
children: vitamin A deficiency.
¨ Most common cause of blindness in world:
Cataract (= Opaque areas in the lens)
¨ Photophobia is difficulty seeing in bright light

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Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

THE EARS
¨ Functionsà equilibration and hearing
(statoacoustic organ).
¨ Ear has three parts;
1. The external ear
à……………………………………………………………….;
2. The middle ear
à………………………………………………………………. and
3. The internal ear
à……………………………………………………………………...
External ear
¨ The external ear à two parts: auricle (= ear
pinna) and external auditory canal (= external
acoustic meatus)

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Figure: Anatomy of Human Ear

Auricle (=Pinna)
¨ Pinna is present only in mammals and assists in
capturing sound waves.
¨ It consists of …………………………. cartilage covered
with skin.
¨ Only part of the auricle not supported by
cartilage à…………………………
External auditory canal (= External acoustic meatus)
¨ Extends from the the concha to the tympanic
membrane (eardrum).
¨ Lengthà approximately 2.5 cm.
¨ Wall consists of ………………………………………………
¨ Contains few hairs , ceruminous glands (=secrete
ear wax or cerumen). [BPKIHS 2007]
¨ Function of ear waxà helps prevent dust and
foreign objects from entering the ear.

Middle ear (= tympanic cavity)

¨ Locationà petrous part of temporal bone [IOM
1994].
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ It is separated from:
o the external à by tympani membrane
o internal earà by oval window (fenestra
ovalis) and the round window (fenestra
rotondus).
¨ Following structures are related to the middle
ear cavity (= Tympani cavity)
a. Tympanic membrane (=eardrum)
Ü Separates the external acoustic meatus from the
middle ear.
Ü Develops from all three germinal layers
(ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm)
Ü Inflammation à meningitis

Ü Repairing of the membrane à myringoplasty.

b. Auditory ossicles
Ü Consist of the malleus, incus and stapes. [IOM
1994] @ MIS HAS AQua Horse
Ear ossicle Shape @ HAS Modification of:
@MIS @ AQua Horse
Malleus Hammer shaped Articular bone
Incus Anvil shaped Quadrate bone
Stapes: Stirrup shaped Hyomandibular

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bone

Ü Malleus is largest
of the auditory
ossicles and
stapes is the
smallest bone in
the body.
Ü Malleus is
attached to à
……………………and stapes with à
………………………………….
Ü Joint between malleus & incus -à
……………….and between incus and stapesà………
Figure: Auditory ossicles

c. Muscles associated with the ear ossicles:

Ü Two muscles à tensor tympani and stapedius.

Ü Stapediusà smallest muscle in the body.

Ü Functionà protect our ear from loud noise.
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

d. Eustachian tube (= Pharyngotympanic tube or

auditory tube)
Ü Connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx
Ü Function: equalizes pressure on both sides of the

tympanic membrane. [MOE 2065, IOM 2009]

Ü Lengthà …………………………

Ü Eustachian tube consists of bone and …………………….

cartilage
Ü Lined by ………………………………………… epithelium.

Ü In infant is short, wide and placed

horizontalà…………………………………………………………..
Internal ear (= Labyrnth)
¨ Consists of bony cavities (the bony labyrinth) and
membranous ducts and sacs (the membranous
labyrinth) within these cavities.
¨ Location: petrous part of the temporal bone. [IOM
1994]
¨ Bony labyrinth consists of à vestibule, three
semicircular canals, and the cochlea (boney cohlea).
¨ These bony cavities are lined with periostium and
contain a clear fluid (Perilymph).

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Figure: Internal ear

(Labyrnth) of human

¨ Suspended within the perilymph of the bony

labyrinth is the membranous labyrinth.
¨ Membranous labyrinth consists of à
semicircular ducts, the cochlear duct, and two
sacs (the utricle and the saccule).
¨ These membranous spaces are filled with
endolymph. [IOM 2011]
¨ The structures in the internal ear convey
information to the brain about balance and
hearing:
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Organ of hearing àcochlear duct (= scala media)

is the.

Note: But the actual organ of hearing is organ of

Corti. [BPKIHS 2004, 2010]

¨ Organs of balancing (= vestibular

apparatus)à…………………………………………..
¨ Nerve responsible for hearing and balance à
vestibulocholear or auditory nerve (cranial
nerve VIII)
Cochlea:
¨ Resembles a snail’s shell and makes two and one-
half to two and three-quarter turns around
modiolus.
¨ Section through the cochlea reveals:
1. Cohlear duct (= Scala media):
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Scala vestibuli:
……………………………………………………………………………
3. Scala tympani:
……………………………………………………………………………

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¨ Both the scala vestibuli and scala tympani are

part of the bony labyrinth of the cochlea à
filled with perilymph.
¨ Helicotrema
à………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
¨ Vestibular membrane or Reissner’s membrane
separates the cohlear duct (= scala media) from the
scala vestibuli.

Figure: Cochlear apparatus in T.S.

¨ Basilar membrane
………………………………………………………………………………………
…….
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Resting on the basilar membrane is the spiral

organ or organ of Corti (= organ of hearing). [IOM
1996, 2010, BPKIHS 2005]
Organ of Corti:
¨ Organ of Corti generates nerve impulses in
response to vibration of the basilar membrane.

Figure: Organ
of Corti

¨ Sensory receptors in the organ of Corti are à hair

cells
¨ Minute hairs or stereocilia project upward from
hair cells to tectorial membrane [IOM 1998]
¨ The organ of Corti has supporting cells à
Hensen’s cells [BPKIHS 2008]

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Organs of balance and equilibrium (= Vestibular

apparatus)
¨ Vestibular apparatus à
……………………………………………………
Vestibule:
¨ Consists of the Otolithic organs (saccule and
utricle).
¨ It is concerned with static equilibrium
¨ Sensory receptors found in this part are called
maculae (macula of utricle and macula of saccule).
¨ The maculae consist; hair cells (= sensory
receptors) and supporting cells.
¨ Hair cells on their surface have à 40-80 steriocilia
+ 1 kinocilium embedded in otolithic membrane.
¨ A layer carbonate crystals called otoliths or
statoliths or otoconia or ear dust extend over the
entire surface of the otolithic membrane.
Semicircular canals
¨ Three semicircular canals function in dynamic
equilibrium (=maintenance) of body position
[BPKIHS 2001]
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

¨ Three semicircular canals are at right angle to each

other.
¨ Each semicircular canal or duct has an enlargement
at one of its ends called the ampulla.
¨ Sensory organs of ampulla are called crista
ampullaries (= cristae). [MOE 2066, 2069, KU 2010]
¨ 0n top of the cristae is a loose gelatinous tissue
mass called capula.
¨ Each crista contains a group of hair cells and
supporting cells.
¨ Hair cells contain stereocilia, which are embedded
in cupula.

Difference between human and rabbit

HUMAN RABBIT
Eye
Both eyes are located at Both eyes are located
anterior part of face. on the dorsal and
Binocular vision is lateral side of head.
present Monocular vision is
present.
Nictitating membrane Nictitating membrane
is vestigial which is is present

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called as plica
semilunaris. Eye is red colored.
Eye may be black, blue or
brown colored.
Ear
- Ear pinna is kidney - Ear pinna is funnel
shaped and cannot be shaped and
moved. mobile
- No. of coiling of - No. of coiling of
2 1
cochlear canal is 2 cochlear canal is 2
4 2

General receptors:
vThese are general sense organs, for example:
Ü Thigmoreceptor or Tectoreceptor or Tactile
receptor: Sensitive to touch, e.g., skin
(maximum on face of mammals)
Ü Tangoreceptor or mechanoreceptor: Sensitive to

touch or pressure
Ü Vibrioreceptor: Sensitive to vibrations

Ü Chemoreceptor: Sensitive to chemicals

Ü Thermoreceptor: Sensitive to temperature

Ü Algesireceptor or nocireceptor: Sensitive to

pain
Receptors and Sensory Organs 1

Ü Rheoreceptor: Sensitive to water current, e.g.

lateral line organs in fishes and tadpole
Ü Statoreceptor: Sensitive to equilibrium
Ü Proprioreceptor: Sensitive to muscle position
Ü Free nerve endings: Sensitive to touch,
pressure, and pain; found in skin.
Tangoreceptors or mechanoreceptors
1. Merckel's corpuscles or Merckel's discs: Shallow
cup-shaped discs in non-hairy (glabrous)
epidermis of skin.
2. Meissner's corpuscles: Sensitive to touch and
pressure; found in dermis at the base of hair and
feather; at the tip of finger; at lip and nipple.
3. Grandey's corpuscles: At the base of beak of birds
4. Capsulated corpuscles: Encapsulated sensitive
cells in skin
5. Paccinian corpuscles: Sensitive to touch pain and
pressure; found in deep layer of dermis
6. Corpuscles of Golgi or Mazzoni: sensitive to touch;
e.g., subcutaneous tissue of fingers
Olfactoreceptors
vJacobson's organ (=vomero-nasal organ): First
appear in amphibians; developed in lizard and
well developed in snake.

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Thermoreceptors
1. End bulb of Krause: frigidoreceptor (sensitive to
cold)
2. Organ of Ruffini: caloreceptor (sensitive to heat)
3. Ampulla of Lorenzini: found in snout region of
sharks.
RECEPTORS AND SENSE ORGANS 35