3CE01

WATER AND WASTEWATER

ENGINEERING

Dr. Reshma L. Patel

Civil Engineering Department
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
 Module-1
Lecture-1

Concept Covered
 Background on water for human
 Course Introduction
Why learn water and wastewater
Engineerng?
Course objectives and topic covered
 Access to Water
• The human right to water entitles
everyone without discrimination to
sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically
accessible and affordable water for
personal and domestic use.
UN General Assembly, 2010 Im
 Problems and Challenges
• Water Availability and Quantity
• Water Quality
• Population
• Industrial Growth and Urbanization
• Climate Change
• Water Management and Governance
• …many more
 What Can We Do ?
• Judicious Supply and Uses
• Protection of Resources
• Effective and Efficient Management
• Be a Responsible Citizen
Acquire awareness and knowledge about
water sources, sectoral demands,
availability, supply systems and
governance.
• Course Introduction In line to the current
needs:
• This course aims to make the learners
aware with the current knowledge and
practices in the field of water supply and
wastewater management.
• The discussions shall cover the basics as
well as advanced concepts on water
abstraction, purification (treatment), supply
(distribution), and collection of sewage,
sewage treatment and safe disposal.
• Specific Objectives

1. Understand characteristics of water and wastewater and

its determination
2. Study the population growth, related water demand,
wastewater generation and design periods for water and
wastewater treatment units
3. Expose the students to understand components of water
supply lines and sewer lines.
4. Develop analytical skills and design of water and
wastewater treatment units.
5. Provide fundamental knowledge about various disposal
standards for sewage
• Global Water Scarcity: Alarming Facts and Figures
• Over 2 billion people live in countries experiencing high water
stress (UN, 2018).
• 700 million people worldwide could be displaced by intense water
scarcity by 2030 (Global Water Institute, 2013).
• About 4 billion people, representing nearly two-thirds of the world
population, experience severe water scarcity during at least one
month of the year (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016).
• A third of the world’s biggest groundwater systems are already in
distress (Richey et al., 2015).
• Nearly half the global population are already living in potential water
scarce areas at least one month per year and this could increase to
some 4.8–5.7 billion in 2050. About 73% of the affected people live
in Asia (69% by 2050) (Burek et al., 2016).
 Lecture-2
Water Uses
• Concepts Covered
 Uses of Water
 Classes/Sectors of Water Uses
 Global and National Scenario
 Water Use Trends
Drivers Affecting Water Use Trends
• Uses of Water Source:
Water is used to fulfil various human needs
and environmental needs
• Environmental Needs
 Water in undisturbed ecosystems
 Water for aquatic life
 Water for wildlife
 Hydrological need
• Human Needs
 Domestic needs
 Agricultural needs
 Industrial needs
Transportation needs
Recreation and tourism
• Major Sectors for Water Uses
• Domestic: Water using for household purpose: Drinking,
Cooking, Bathing, Cleaning and Washing etc. Generally, either
supplied through municipal water distribution system, or
groundwater withdrawn through a hand-pump or motor-driven tube
well. Water is also drawn for other community uses, including fire
fighting, public buildings, and area parks, pools, and gardens.
• Industrial: Industries require water as raw material, or for
heating, cooling, generating electricity etc. Water demand varies
based on the nature of industry. Water intensive industries include
power, tanneries, pulp and paper, textile, breweries and soft drinks,
dairy, steel etc.
• Agriculture: Water is used for artificial watering systems referred to
as irrigation. Requirement depend on crop type, soil type, climate
and rainfall intensity and pattern.
• Environmental: Water required for ecosystem and livestock
maintenance.
• WATER DEMAND

What is Water Demand

Need for Water Demand Estimation
Types of Water Demand
 Concept for Estimation of Water Demand
• Municipal Water Supply Systems Central
Objective:
To ensure supply of safe quality and adequate
quantity of water to end users.
Needs to Explore:
 Water Demand – How much water to extract from
source
 Water Source – What are the sources available
 Water Intake – How to withdraw water from the
source
 Water Quality – What treatments are required
 Spread of the users – Where to distribute and
how to distribute
• Water Demand
 Water is required for daily needs at homes: Drinking,
bathing, cooking, cleaning, laundry, toilets etc.
 Water is needed at institutions/business/parks/markets
areas for watering of public parks or gardens, public
fountains, sprinkling and road washing, cleaning public
sanitary blocks etc. for civic and public uses.
 Water is required for industries and commercial
establishments.
 Water in required for emergencies such as fire fighting.
 Water is needed to compensate for water losses
• Need for Estimating Water Demand
 Water services are usually designed in advance
for future.
 The kind of infrastructure and set-up needed
(pumping power, reservoir capacity, pipe sizes,
treatment plant capacity etc.) will depend on
water demand to be fulfilled.
 Under-estimation leads to inadequate design
whereas over-estimation results in uneconomical
and inefficient water supply system.
 Therefore, it is important to estimate the water
demand to the best accuracy possible for the life
period of the water supply projects.
• Types of Water Demand for a Town/City
 Domestic Water Demand: Includes the water required
for use in houses, for drinking, cooking, bathing, laundry,
cleaning utensils and floors, toilet flushing and
gardening. The amount depends on the living conditions
of the consumers.
 Commercial and Industrial Water Demand: Includes
the water demand of commercial and public
establishments such as offices, hospitals, hotels,
restaurants, cinemas, schools, etc., and factories or
industries. The quantity varies considerably with the
nature of the town or city and with the number and types
of establishments and factories/industries.
• Types of Water Demand for a Town/City (Cont.)
 Demand for Civic or Public Use: Includes water
required for watering of public parks/gardens, supply to
public fountains, road sprinkling and washing, cleaning
public sanitary blocks and markets etc.
 Fire Demand: Water required for fire-fighting
emergency purposes.
 Compensating Water Losses: Includes the water lost
due to leakage in mains, valves and other fittings, theft of
water through unauthorised water connections, and loss
and waste of water due to other miscellaneous reasons
(unaccounted for water).
 Factors affecting rate of demand
• There are various factors which influence the rate of
water demand.
• These factors are to be analyzed carefully and properly
before arriving at the rate of demand for a particular
locality.
• Following are the factors affecting the rate of demand of
water.
i) climatic condition vi) policy of metering
ii) cost of water vii) quality of water
iii) distribution pressure viii) sewerage
iv) habits of population ix) size of city
v) industries x) System of supply
• Climatic conditions : The requirement of water in summer is more than
that in winter. So also is the case with hotter and cooler places. In extreme
cold, the people may keep water taps open to avoid freezing pipes. This
may result in increased rate of consumption.
• Cost of water :The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers may
affect the rate of demand. The higher the cost, the lower will be the rate of
demand and vice versa.
• Distribution pressure : The consumption of water increases with the
increase in the distribution pressure. This is due to increase in loss and
waste of water at high pressure. For instance, an increase of pressure from
2 to 3 kg/cm2
May lead to an increase in consumption to the extent of about 25 to 30
percent. The designer therefore should only provide for distribution
pressure which is necessary for rendering satisfactory services.
• Habits of population : For high value premises, the consumption rate of
water will be more due to better standard of living of persons. For middle-
class premises, the consumption rate will be average while in case of slum
areas, it will be much lower. A single water tap may be serving several
families in low value area.
• Industries :The presence or absence of industries in a city may also affect
its rate of demand. As there is no direct relation between the water
requirements for industries and population, it is necessary to calculate
carefully present and future requirements of industries.
• Policy of metering: The quantity of water supplied to a
building is recorded by a water meter and the consumers
is then charged accordingly. the installations of meters
reduces the rate of consumption. But the fact of adopting
policy of metering is a disputable one as seen from the
following arguments which are advanced for and against
it.
Arguments for policy of metering:
(1) It becomes very easy to locate when meters are
installed.
(2) The consumer is charged in proportion to the quantity of
water which he uses.
(3) The reduction in consumption of water results in
decrease in loads on purification plants, pumps, sewers
etc.
(4) The wastage of water is decreased.
(5) The careful consumer pays less and the careless
consumer pays more.
Arguments against policy of metering:
(1) There is loss pressure due to installation of meters
and it adds to pumping cost.
(2) The use of water for gardens, fountains, etc. is
greatly diminished. This decreases the beauty of
the locality.
(3) The limited use of water may lead to unhygienic
conditions and may cause epidemic.
(4) The policy of metering is expensive in the sense
that the cost is to be incurred to buy, to install, to
read and to maintain the meters.
(5) It is suggested that the amount spent after
introducing the policy of metering may well be
spent in improvement of water supply scheme
itself.
• Quality of water :The improvement in quality of water may result in
the increase of rate of consumption. The public using the improved
water will consider it safe and may make various uses of the
available water. On the other hand, if water has unpleasant taste or
odour, the rate of consumption will come down.
• Sewerage : The existence of sewerage system in a locality will lead
to an increase in use of water for civic or public purposes. The
people will also use more quantity of water for flushing sanitary units
such as urinals and water closets.
• Size of city :Generally, the smaller the city, the lower is the rate of
demand. But the presence of a water-consuming industry in a small
town may result in a higher rate of demand, even if the town is small.
• System of supply : The supply of water may be continuous or
intermittent. In the former case, the water is supplied for 24 hours
and in the latter case, it is supplied for certain duration of day only. It
is claimed that the intermittent supply system will reduce the rate of
demand. But sometimes, the results are proved to be disappointing,
mainly for the two reasons:
(i) During non-supply period, the water taps are kept open and hence,
when the supply starts, the water flowing through open taps is
unattended and this results in waste of water.
(ii) There is a tendency of many people to throw away water stored
previously during non-supply hours and to collect fresh water. This
also results in waste of water.
 Lecture-3
Components of water Demand
• Concepts Covered
 Different Components of Water Demand
 Per Capita Water Demand
 Commercial and Institutional Water
Demand
 Industrial Water Demand
 Fire-Fighting Demand
 Standard Norms for Assuming Water
Demand
• Components of Water Demand:
 Domestic
 The domestic water demand aims to fulfil the human and
livestock water demands for in-house (drinking, cooking,
sanitation, washing etc.), and outhouse (gardening, lawn
sprinkling, filling ponds, swimming pools, washing cars
etc.) uses.
 The exact demand calculation is nearly impossible and
various estimates (based on field experiences and/or
statistical data) are used for quantifying average demand.
 Domestic demand is influenced by factors such as class of
dwelling, number of people in the household, income,
culture, religion etc.
 Water demand is higher in developed countries due to
advanced lifestyle.
• PER CAPITA WATER CONSUMPTION
• A minimum of10 to 100 litres per head per
day may be considered adequate for
domestic needs of urban communities,
apart from non domestic needs as flushing
requirements.
• A general rule the following rates per capita
per day may be considered minimum for
domestic and non-domestlc needs:
As per CPHEEO Manual and IS 1172-latest
affirmation code
1. For communities with populations up to 20,000 and
without flushing system:

a. Water supply through stand post: 40 lpcd (Min)

b. Water supply through house service connection: 70 to 100 lpcd

2. For communities with population 20,000 to 100,00 100 to 135 lpcd

together with full flushing system:

3. For communities with population above 100,000 : 150 to 200 lpcd

together with full flushing system:
• As per the Indian Standard, IS: 1172-1993 in the
design of a water supply scheme for a town or city
with full flushing system minimum water supply of
200 litres per head per day should be provided for
domestic water demand.
• Out of 200 litres per head per day of water, 45
litres per head per day of water may be taken for
flushing requirements and the remaining quantity
of water is for other domestic purposes.
• The breakup of 200 litres per head per day may be
approximately taken as shown in Table
• It is also mentioned in the Indian Standard, IS;
1172-1993 that the minimum value of water
supply given as 200 litres per head per day may
be reduced to 135 litres per head per day for
houses for Low Income Groups (LIG) and
Economically Weaker Section (EWS) of society,
depending upon prevailing conditions. As such
for small towns or cities minimum water supply
of 135 litres per head per day may be provided
for domestic water demand. The breakup of 135
litres per head per day may be approximately
taken as shown in Table.
Source: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/water-engineering-2/water-demand/water-demand-for-a-town-or-city-5-types-water-
engineering/44102
• The total quantity of water required to
meet the daily domestic water demand
for the town or city may be obtained by
multiplying the total domestic water
demand in litres per head per day by
the total design population.
• The total domestic water demand
generally amounts to about 40 to 60%
of the total water demand.
• Commercial and Industrial Water Demand
• This includes the water demand of commercial and other
establishments such as offices, hospitals, hotels, restaurants,
cinemas, schools, etc., and factories or industries.
• On an average for a town or city with moderate factories or
industries a provision of about 20 to 25% of the total water
consumption is generally made in the design of water supply
project for these uses.
• However, the quantity of water required for this purpose will
vary considerably with the nature of the town or city and with
the number and types of commercial and other establishments
and factories or industries.
• In small residential towns or cities the commercial and
industrial use may be as low as 40 litres per head per day but in
industrial towns or cities it may be as high as 400 litres per
head per day. As per the Indian Standard, IS: 1172-1993 the
minimum water requirements for buildings other than
residences are as shown in Table
Industrial Needs
• Separate provisions will have to be included for meeting the
demands likely to be made by specific industries within the urban
areas.
• The forecast of this demand will be based on the nature and
magnitude of each such industry and the quantity of water
required per unit of production.
• The potential for industrial expansion should be carefully
investigated, so that the availability of adequate water supply may
attract such industries and add to the economic prosperity of the
community.
• The quantities of water used by industries vary widely.
• They are also affected by many factors such as cost and availability
of water, waste disposal problems, management and type of
problems involved.
• Individual studies of water requirement of a specific industry
should, therefore, be made for each location.
Industrial Water Demand
(Source:Manual on Water supply CPHEEO)
• Fire Demand:
• It is the quantity of water required for fire-fighting purposes.
• In thickly populated and industrial areas, fires may break out and
may result in severe damages if not controlled effectively.
• As such for almost all the big and medium size towns or cities
provision should be made in the water supply schemes for meeting
the demand of water for fire-fighting purposes.
• The necessary quantity of water required for fire-fighting purposes
should be easily available and always kept stored in the storage
reservoir.
• The fire hydrants are usually fitted in the water mains at a distance
of not more than about 150 metres.
• When a fire breaks out, pumps installed on fire-fighting trucks are
rushed to the site of fire occurrence and these pumps, when
connected to fire hydrants, are capable of throwing water with high
pressure. The fire is thus brought under control.
• In the design of a water supply project the quantity of
water required to meet the fire demand is usually
determined by using various empirical formulae. In these
empirical formulae the quantity of water required to meet
the fire demand has been expressed as a function of
population. Some of these empirical formulae which are
commonly used for determining the quantity of water
required to meet the fire demand are given below,
• (a) Buston’s Formula:

• This formula is used in U.K. for moderate provisions.

(b) Kuichling’s Formula:
 (c) John R. Freeman’s Formula:

• in which Q is quantity of water required to meet the fire demand in U.S. gallons per
minute; and P is population in thousands.
• Since 1 U.S. gallon = 3.785 litres, the above noted converted formula is obtained].
(d) National Board of Fire Underwriters’
Formula and other Recommendations:
• The formula and other recommendations of
the National Board of Fire Underwriters
(now known as American Insurance
Association) for determining the quantity of
water required to meet the fire demand are
as given below:
• (A) For Business Towns or Cities:
(i) When population is less than or equal to 2
lakhs
• In which Q is quantity of water required to meet the fire demand in
U.S. gallons per minute; and P is population in thousands.
• Since 1 U.S. gallon = 3.785 litres, the above noted converted
formula is obtained.]
B) For Residential Towns or Cities:
• For residential towns or cities the required fire-flow
capacities depend upon the character and congestion
of the buildings as indicated below:
(i) Sections where buildings are small and of low height
• Not less than 1893 litres per minute (or 500 U.S. gallons
per minute).
(ii) Sections with larger or higher buildings upto 3785 litres per
minute (or 1000 U.S gallons per minute).
(iii) Sections with closely built buildings, or buildings
approaching the dimensions of hotels, or high-value
residences 5678 to 11355 litres per minute (or 1500 to
3000 U.S. gallons per minute).
(iv) Densely built sections of three-storey buildings.
• Upto 22710 litres per minute (or 6000 U.S. gallons per
minute).
• For the sake of comparison the fire demand of water for a city having a
population of one lakh is computed by using each of the four empirical
formulae as indicated below:
• It may be observed that the formulae at (b), (c) and (d)
give higher rates of fire-flow and therefore a storage for
only 2 hours duration with these rates may be considered
as the sufficient allowance for the total stand-by storage
capacity or the volume of water required to meet the fire
demand. However, as per the recommendations of the
National Board of Fire Underwriters, in U.S.A a storage for
5 to 10 hours duration at the rates..
• All the above noted empirical formulae, however, suffer
from a drawback that these are not related to the type of
the area served.
• Thus, although the probability of occurrence of fire with a
given duration may be greater for an industrial area than
for a residential area, these formulae will give same values
of the fire demand for both industrial as well as residential
areas each having the same population.
• The Manual on Water Supply and Treatment
recommends that for towns/cities with population more
than 50 000 to meet the fire demand provision may be
made based on the following formula-
• The Indian Standard, IS: 9668-1990
recommends that for towns/cities the
water for fire fighting shall be provided at
the scale of 1800 litres per minute for
every 50 000 population or part thereof for
towns up to 3 lakhs population and an
additional 1800 litres per minute for every
1 lakh population of more than 3 lakhs. A
storage for 4 to 24 hours duration at this
rate may be provided to meet the fire
demand.
• Demand for Public or Civic Use
• This includes water required for public or
civic use such as watering of public park or
gardens, road washing, sprinkling of water
on dusty roads, cleaning public sanitary
blocks, large markets etc. use in decorative
features as public fountains etc.
• For most of the water supply projects in
India, depending upon availability of water,
a provision of usually 5 to 10% of the total
consumption of water is made to meet this
demand.
• Loss and Waste of Water:
• The water in this category is sometimes termed
as unaccounted-for water.
• This includes the water lost due to leakage in
mains, valves and other fittings, worn or
damaged meters, meter slippage, theft of water
through unauthorised water connections, and
loss and waste of water due to other
miscellaneous reasons.
• The loss and waste of water due to all these
reasons should be taken into account while
estimating the total requirements of water.
• However, the quantity of water lost and wasted
due to all these reasons being uncertain it
cannot be precisely predicted.
• As such in the design of a water supply project
in order to account for the loss and waste of
water a provision of about 30 to 40% of the total
water consumption is usually made.
• However, if the distribution of water is entirely
through meters and if the distribution system is
well maintained, it is possible to bring down the
loss and waste of water to about 10 to 15% of
the total water consumption.
• In a distribution system the losses and wastage of
water should be reduced to a minimum possible
value, for which it is necessary to study the factors
affecting the losses and wastage of water.
The various factors which affect the losses and
wastage of water and the measures to reduce
them are as indicated below:
• (i) Water Tightness of Joints:
If due to bad plumbing the joints in the supply mains
are not watertight, a lot of water may be lost and
wasted through leakage from such joints. The
leakage of water can be reduced by careful and
better plumbing and regular maintenance, thereby
ensuring that the joints are watertight.
(ii) System of Supply of Water:
• The water may be supplied intermittently or continuously for
24 hours. When water is supplied intermittently the leakage
losses and consequent wastage of water would be less than
those when water is supplied continuously for 24 hours.
However, when water is supplied intermittently there may be
more wastage of water because the consumers may throw
away the earlier stored water to waste in order to fill again
the fresh water when water supply is resumed.
• Moreover, where an intermittent supply is not metered, the
consumers may leave water taps open during periods of
non-supply, which may remain open and unattended when
the supply is turned on. This would result in a lot of wastage
of water.
• (iii) Pressure in the Distribution System:
• High pressure in distribution pipes may lead
to higher leakage losses of water, and also
wastage of large amount of water through
open taps. As such water should be
supplied at the lowest possible pressure
that will provide satisfactory service with
minimum loss and wastage of water.
(iv) Metered or Unmetered Water Supply:
• When the water supplies are metered the
wastage of water is considerably reduced,
because the consumers use water more
carefully as they have to pay for the quantity
of water actually consumed by them.
• On the other hand in the case of unmetered
water supply the consumers are charged at
a fixed monthly flat rate irrespective of the
quantity of water consumed by them. Thus
with unmetered water supply the consumers
use water carelessly resulting in more
wastage of water.
(v) Unauthorised Water Connections:
• Water may be stolen through unauthorised
connections, resulting in a considerable loss
of water. Such unauthorised water
connections should be detected and
checked by severely punishing the
defaulters, so as to reduce such losses of
water.
• Fluctuations in Water Demand
Concepts Covered
Factors Affecting Water Demand
Fluctuations in Water Demand
Types of Variations
Peak Factors for Maximum Demand
Estimations
• From the Previous Lecture…. We discussed that:
 Estimation of near correct water demand is very crucial for the
successful design and implementation of water supply
schemes
 There is no scientific formula to calculate per capita water
demand
 There are significant variability in the per capita demand from
different cities/countries
 The per capita water demand is generally assumed based on
the assumptions / experiences / statistical data on water uses
 Different agencies/codes suggest different numbers for per-
capita water demand
 The suggested numbers are average values and does not
consider fluctuation in the demand.
• Fluctuations in Water Demand
• Average Daily Per Capita Demand = Quantity Required in a
Year / (365 x Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not
be sufficient to meet the fluctuations in the water demand,
which could be due to:
 Seasonal or Monthly Variation: Considers season specific
high or low demand
 Daily Variation: Considers day-to-day variations in water
demand
 Hourly Variation: Considers time dependent variations in
water demand on a day.
 Also considers instantaneous variation in the demand.
• Fluctuations in Water Demand: Seasonal or Monthly
Variation
 During summers in India, the rate of water demand is
generally 30-40 % higher than the annual average due to
more water consumed for drinking, bathing, washing of
clothes, air coolers, gardening etc.
 During winters in India, the water demand is about 20 %
lower than the annual average as less requirement of water
for domestic uses.
[In some of the higher-economy countries like Australia, the
domestic water demand in winter is higher than summer
because more water used in getting hot water for bathing,
cleaning etc.]
 During rainy season, the outdoor demand of water for
gardening etc. is much less.
• Fluctuations in Water Demand: Daily Variation
 Depends on day-to-day individual activities and
climatic conditions.
 Water consumption increases during weekends,
holidays and festival days (Holi).
 The requirement is lower on the days of rain.
 Important for the design of networks, pumping
stations and reservoirs.
 In India, the maximum daily demand of water is
generally taken as 180 % of the annual average
daily demand of water. [Peak factor = 1.8]
 Peak factor may vary in different design
calculations
 Fluctuations in Water Demand: Hourly Variation
 Certain hours of the day, water
demand is found to be very high.
 Generally, morning hours 6:00-
10:00 AM and evening hours 6:00-
9:00 PM the water consumption is
higher than average hourly
consumption. During other hours
the requirement is very less.
 If a fire breaks out, a huge quantity
of water is required during short
duration.
 In India, the maximum hourly
demand of water is generally taken
as 150 per cent of the average
hourly demand on the day of
maximum use of water (or the
maximum day for the year).
[Hourly Peak factor = 1.5]
• Fluctuations in Rate of Water Demand
 Average Daily Per Capita Demand = Quantity Required in
12 Months/ (365 x Population).
 Maximum daily demand =1.8 x average daily demand
 Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak
demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand on a maximum day
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 xaverage daily demand)/24
= 2.7 x average daily demand/24
= 2.7 x annual average hourly demand

Note: Daily and Hourly peak factors may vary in different

design calculations
Population Forecasting
Concept Covered
Concept of Design Period and Design
Population
Need to Forecast Population
Population Forecasting Methods
 Suitability of Population Forecasting
Methods
• Design Period:
• A water supply project should be so planned that
it has a sufficient capacity to meet the demand
not only for the present times but also for a
reasonable future period or number of years.
• The future period or the number of years for
which a provision is made while planning and
designing a water supply project is known as
design period.
• The design period should neither be too long nor
too short. A too long design period will result in a
heavy financial burden on the present generation
while a too short design period may render the
project to be uneconomical.
• The consideration of a design period is
generally affected by the following factors:
(a) Useful Life of the Component Structures:
The design period should not exceed the useful life of
the component structures.
(b) Ease and Difficulty in Future Expansion:
• If future expansion involves lot of difficulties
then a longer design period should be
chosen. On the other hand if future expansion
of a water supply project can be undertaken
with ease then a relatively shorter design
period may be considered.
(c) Availability of Funds:
• If only limited funds are available then a
shorter design period will have to be
considered and vice-versa.
• (d) Rate of Interest on the Borrowings:
• If the money to be borrowed for a water
supply project is available at a lower rate of
interest, then a longer design period may be
economically justified and the same may be
adopted.
(e) Anticipated Rate of Population Growth,
Including Possible Shifts in Communities,
Industrial and Commercial Establishments:
• If the rate of increase of population is less, a longer design
period may be considered and vice versa.
• Similarly if there is a possibility of shifting of communities,
industries and commercial establishments to a particular
town or city then initially the water supply project for the
town or city may be designed for a shorter design period
with a provision of further expansion as and when needed.
• In practice a design period of 20 to 30 years is generally
considered sufficient for the design of a water supply
project.
 Concept of Design Period
Sl. No. Data Source Design period in years
1 Storage by dams 50
2 Infiltration Works 30
3 Pumping
i. Pump house (civil works) 30

ii. Electric motors and pumps 15

4 Water treatment units 15

5 Pipe connection to several treatment units and 30
other small appurtenances
6 Raw water and clear water conveying mains 30
7 Clear water reservoirs at the head works,
balancing tanks and service reservoirs (overhead
or ground level) 15
8 Distribution system 30
Design Population
 For a water supply project, the quantity of water should be worked out
with due provision for the estimated requirements of the future (design
period).
 The design of water supply schemes are based on the projected
population of a particular area, estimated for the design period.
 Any underestimated value will make the system inadequate for the
intended purpose while overestimation will make it costly.
 As over the years the population of the area is ever changing, the system
should be designed by considering of the population at the end of the
design period, or end of the first phase duration (before next phase
extension is likely to be implemented).
 After collecting the present and past population record for the area (from
census population records), the population at the end of design period
can be predicted using various methods by considering the growth
pattern of the concerned area.
 Population Forecast
• The design population will have to be estimated with due
regard to all the factors governing the future growth and
development of the project area in the industrial,
commercial, educational, social and administrative
spheres. Special factors causing sudden emigration or
influx of population should also be foreseen to the extent
possible.
• A judgment based on these factors would help in
selecting the most suitable method of deriving the
probable trend of the population growth in the area or
areas of the project from out of the following methods,
graphically interpreted where necessary.
• Demographic method of population projection :

Population changes can occur only in three ways-(i) by births

(population gain) (ii) by deaths (population loss) or (iii) migration
(population loss or gain depending on whether movement out or
movement in occurs in excess). Annexation of an area may be
considered as a special form of migration. Population forecasts are
frequently obtained by preparing and summing up of separate but
related projections of natural increases and of net migrations and is
expressed as below.

The net effect of births and deaths on population is termed

natural increase (natural decrease, if deaths exceed births).
Migration also affects the number of births and deaths in an
area and so, projections of net migration are prepared before
projections for natural increase.

This method thus takes into account the prevailing and

anticipated birth rates and death rates of the region or city for the
period under consideration . An estimate is also made of the
emigration from and immigration to the city, growth of population is
calculated accordingly considering all these factors, by arithmetical
balancing.
Assumption: Population is estimated based
on annual birth rate, death rate and
migration rates.
• Pt = Po + Po .t(rb -rd )+t.Rm
Application and Limitations:
The estimation of migration rate is difficult
and depends on various factors such as
development and job opportunities,
economic factors, social facilities etc.
• Arithmetical Increase method
This method is generally applicable to large and old
cities. In this method the average increase of population per
decade is calculated from the past records and added to the
present population to find out population in the next decade.
This method gives a low value and is suitable for well settled
and established communities.
This method is based on the assumption that the
population is increasing at a constant rate. The rate of
change of population with time is constant.
dP/dt =C
Integrating,
P2 – P1 = C*( t2 –t1 )
Where :
P1 = Population at the time t1 first census
P2 = Population at the time t2 last available census
The value of constant C is determined by the formula
P = P + n*C
• Incremental Increase method :
In this method the increment in
arithmetical increase is determined from the
past decades and the average of that
increment is added to the increase. This
method increases the figures obtained by
the arithmetical increase method.
• Geometrical Increase Method :
In this method percentage increase is
assumed to be the rate of growth and the
average of the percentage increase is used to
find out future increment in population. This
method gives much higher value and mostly
applicable for growing towns and cities having
vast scope for expansion.
If the present population is P and the average
percentage growth is I the population at the end
of n decade will be
Pn = P(1 + I/100 )n
• Decreasing Rate of Growth :
In this method it is assumed that rate of
percentage increase decreases and the
average decrease in the rate of growth is
calculated. Then the percentage increase
is modified by deducting the decrease in
rate of growth. This method is applicable
only in such cases where the rate of
growth of population shows a downward
trend.
• Graphical method :
In this approach there are two methods. In one, only the
city in question is considered and in the second, other similar
cities are also taken into account.
(i) Graphical Method Based On Single City:
In this method the population curve of the city (i.e. the
population Vs. past decades) is smoothly extended for
getting future value. This extension has to be done carefully
and it requires vast experience and good judgment. The line
of best fit may be obtained by the method of least squares.
(ii) Graphical Method Based On Cities with Similar Growth
Pattern:
In this method the city in question is compared
with other cities which have already undergone the same
phases of development which the city in question is likely to
undergo and based on this comparison , a graph between
population and decades is plotted.
• Logistic Method :
The S shaped logistic curve for any city gives complete trend of
growth of the city right from beginning to saturation limit of population
of the city.
Assumption:
I. Population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things
within limited space and economic opportunity.
II. The growth rate of population due to births, deaths and migrations
takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any
extraordinary changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural
disaster etc.
• Application and Limitations:
I. The curve is S-shaped and is known as logistic curve which gives
complete trend of growth of the city right from beginning to saturation
limit of population of the city.
II. This method is applicable for very large cities with sufficient
demographic data.
Population Forecasting: Logistic Growth Method
P.F. Verhulst after long research work has given the following
mathematical solution of logistic curve:
McLean further suggested that if three pairs of the
characteristics values P0, P1 and P2 at times t0, t1, and
t2 which are extending over the useful range of the
population are so chosen that to= 0, t1, and t2 = 2t1 the
saturation values Ps and constants m and n can be
determined from the following equation:
Master Plan Method / Zoning Method
 Some cities are planned and regulated by local bodies
according to a master plan, where the city is divided into
various zones such as residence, commerce and industry.
 The population densities are fixed for various zones.
Accordingly population estimates can be made based on the
zone sizes and planed population densities.
 Where a master plan containing land use pattern and zoning
regulations is available, the anticipated population can be
based on the ultimate densities and permitted floor space
index (FSI) provided for in the Master Plan. In the absence
of such information on population the following densities are
suggested for adoption (CPHEEO, 2012).
 By this method it is very easy to access precisely the design
population.
Ratio Method
 In this method, the local population and the country's
population for the last four to five decades is obtained from
the census records.
 The ratios of the local population to national population are
then worked out for these decades.
 A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and
extended up to the design period to extrapolate the ratio
corresponding to future design year.
 This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national
population at the end of the design period, so as to obtain
the required city's future population.
 The accuracy of the method depends on accuracy of
national population estimate.
 The method does not consider the abnormal or special
conditions which can lead to population shifts from one city
to another.
Demand Forecasting and Design Capacities
Concepts covered
Future Demand Estimation
Estimation of Demand based Design
Capacities
Worked Examples
Demand Estimations For the estimation of
water demand:
 Select a design period/phase.
 Estimation of population at the end of design period/phase
using suitable population forecasting method.
 Adopt the guided per capita demand (unit water use)
 Calculate the average daily water demand by multiplying the
per capita demand to the population at the end of design
period/phase.
 Quantify the maximum daily demand and peak hourly
demand.
 Apply provisions for fire fighting demand, water losses,
industrial demand for predicted industrial growth, and
additional demands, if any.
Common Practices for Design Provisions
Design capacity of water treatment plant:
Average hourly flow on the maximum
consumption day
Design capacity of water treatment plant:
Maximum daily demand
Design capacity of water distribution system
Maximum of [(Peak hourly flow) or
(Maximum daily demand + fire flow demand)]
 Common Units
Per Capita Demand:
 LPCD (litres per capita per day)
• Unit Conversions:
Treatment Plant Capacity: • 1 m3 = 1000 Litres
 MLD (million litres per day)
 MGD (million gallons per day) • 1 MLD = 1000000 L/d =
 Cubic meters per day (m3 /d) or per 1000 m3 /d
hour (m3 /h) • 1 US Gallon = 3.78541
Litres
Flow in pipes • 1 Imperial (UK) Gallon =
 Cubic meters per hour (m3 /h) or per 4.54609 Litres
second (m3 /s)
• Practice Problem
• A water supply system is to be designed for a town for a
design period of 30 years from now. The average municipal
demand is predicted to be 200 lpcd throughout the design
period. The Population record for the town is as under.

Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Population In Thousand 52 66 83 105 136

• Calculate the following:

i. Forecasted population at the end of design period (use
arithmetic increase method, geometric increase method and
incremental increase method, and compare the forecasted
values)
ii. Fire demand for the town using Kuichling’s Formula
iii. Design flow of water treatment plant
iv. Design capacity of water distribution system
Practice Problems: Solution
Year Population Population Incremental Geometric (Fractional)
(x1000) Increase Increase (x1000) Growth Rate Design period: (30
(x1000)
years from now)
1971 52
2020 + 30 = Till Yr
1981 66 (66-52) = 14 14/52 = 0.269231 2050
1991 83 (83-66) = 17 (17-14) = 3 17/66 = 0.257576

2001 105 (105-83) = 22 (22-17) = 5 22/83 = 0.26506

Time from last
(136-105) = (31-22) = 9 31/105 = 0.295238
known population: =
2011 136
31 2050–2011 = 39 Yrs
Total 14+17+22+31 3+5+9 = 17 = 3.9
=84
Average 84/4 = 21 17/3 = 5.667 (=I) Decades (= n)
(=kA )
Geometric Mean (0.269*0.258*0.265*0.295)
Average demand =
1/4 = 0.2714 (=kG ) 200 lpcd
• Design Population (P2050):
• By Arithmetic Increase Method:
P2050 = P2011+kA *n = 136+(21*3.9) = 217.9 ≈ 218 Thousands
• By Geometric Increase Method:
P2050 = P2011*(1+kg )n = 136*(1+0.27)3.9 = 346.95 ≈ 347 Thousands
• By Incremental Increase Method:
P2050 = P2011+(kA *n)+[I*{n(n+1)/2}] =
136+(21*3.9)+[5.667*{3.9*(3.9+1)/2}] = 272.05 ≈ 272 Thousands
Practice Problems: Solution
• Design Population (P2050):
• By Arithmetic Increase Method: ≈ 218 Thousands [Population increase
is not constant]
• By Geometric Increase Method: ≈ 347 Thousands [Percentage growth
rate is more or less constant]
• By Incremental Increase Method: ≈ 272 Thousands [Incremental
increase is population is not constant, but increasing]
• So, Let us consider, P2050 = 347 Thousands
• Kuichling’s Formula for Fire Demand Q (Lit/min) = 3182 √P
where P is in Thousands
Fire Demand, Q = 3182 √347 = 59274 Lit/min = 59.27 kL/min
• Design Flow for Water Treatment Plant (designed for maximum daily
demand)
Average daily demand (at the end of design period) = per capita
demand*population = 200*347000 = 69400000 Lit/day = 69.4 MLD
• Maximum Daily Demand = peak factor*average daily demand =
1.8*69.4 = 124.92 ≈ 125 MLD
• Design Flow for Water Treatment Plant = 125 MLD
Practice Problems: Solution
Design Flow for Water Distribution System:
Maximum Daily Demand = 125 MLD
Average Hourly Flow on a Maximum Day = 125/24 = 5.21 ML/h
= 5210 m3 /h
Maximum Hourly Flow on a Maximum Day (Peak Hourly Flow) = hourly peak
factor*Average hourly flow on a max. day
= 1.5*5210 = 7815 m3 /h

Hourly Fire Demand (59.27 kL/min) = 59.27*60 kL/h = 3556.44 kL/h = 3556.44
m3 /h

Design flow for water distribution system

= Maximum of [(Peak hourly flow) or (Maximum daily demand + fire flow
demand)]
= Maximum of [7815 m3 /h or (5210 m3 /h + 3556.44 m3 /h)]
= Maximum of [7815 m3 /h or 8766.44 m3 /h] = 8766.44 m3 /h