Magnetism

Vern J. Ostdiek

Donald J. Bord q Magnets:

→
always have at least two poles. A north pole and a south pole.

→
We have never observed a magnetic monopole — a magnet

with only one pole.

Chapter 8

→ If a magnet is broken into pieces, each part will have its own north

and south poles

Electromagnetism and

q The magnetic field produced by one

magnet causes forces to act on the poles of

EM Waves

any other magnet in its vicinity.

q When two magnets are near

each other:

like poles repel unlike poles attract.

Magnetism, cont’d

Magnetism, cont’d

q There are different types of magnetic materials.

q Some ferromagnetic metals actually retain(keep) the

q The most common is:

magnetism induced in them—they become

q Ferromagnets are materials in which a magnetic field

permanent magnets.

is induced when it is near a magnet.

q If a piece of iron is brought

near the south pole of a magnet,

the part of the iron nearest the

magnet has a north pole

induced in it. and the part farthest away has a south

pole induced in it.

Once removed from the magnet, the iron loses essentially all of its

magnetic field( non- permanent).

Magnetism, cont’d

Magnetism, cont’d

q As with gravitation and electrostatics, it is useful to

q A compass is simply a small magnet that is

employ the concept of a magnetic field.

free to rotate when in the presence of a

q A magnetic field is produced by a magnet and acts as

magnetic field.

the agent of the magnetic force.

q A compass can be thought of as a “magnetic field

detector” because its needle will always try to align itself

q Outside the magnet, the field points from north

with a magnetic field.

pole to south pole.

q Here is an example of a magnetic field:

Magnetism, cont’d

Magnetism, cont’d

q
Earth has its own magnetic field that causes compasses to
q The difference, in degrees, between the direction of

point toward the north.

a compass and the direction of true north varies from

q Earth’s magnetic poles do not coincide with its geographic poles, so
place to place and is referred to as the magnetic

compasses do not point exactly north at most places on Earth.

declination.

qIn parts of Alaska, the magnetic declination is as high

q

Earth’s magnetic field has the same

as 25° east.

general shape as the field around

qThis must be taken into account when navigating

a bar magnet, with its poles tilted
with a compass.

about 11° with respect to the axis of

q Another thing to note about Earth’s magnetic field:

rotation.

q The direction of “true north” shown on maps is determined

q Earth’s north magnetic pole is at (near) its south

by the orientation of the earth’s axis of rotation.

geographic pole, and vice versa. Why?

§ The axis is aligned closely with Polaris, the North Star.

Magnetism, cont’d

Magnetism, cont’d

1. The north pole of a magnet is attracted to

n For example, in the western two-thirds of the

the south pole of a second magnet.
United States, compasses point to the right (east)

2. The north pole of a compass needle points

of true north,

to the north.
whereas in New England

3. Therefore, the north pole of a

compasses point to the

compass points to the

left (west) of true north.

geographic north pole because

it is the magnetic south

pole.

Magnetism, cont’d

Magnetism, cont’d

n The Earth’s magnetic poles are not
n Superconductors, so named because of their ability

stationary.
to carry electric current with zero resistance, react

n The south magnetic pole is not exactly where
to magnetic fields in a rather startling fashion.

it was 20 years ago.
n In the superconducting state, the material will expel

n Plus, the poles swap
any magnetic field from its interior.

ends every few
n This phenomenon, known as the

hundred thousand
Meissner effect, is why strong

years.

magnets are levitated when placed

over a superconductor.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity and

and magnetism

magnetism

n Let’s summarize key aspects of electrostatics

n Many phenomena depend on the interactions

and magnetism.

between electricity and magnetism.

→ Electriccharges produce electric fields in the

space around them.

The word electromagnetic is used when the

→ An electric field causes a force on any

interplay between electricity and magnetism

charged object placed in it.

is involved.

→ Magnets produce magnetic fields in the space

n Numerous everyday items use electromagnetic

properties:

around them.

n electric motors, vacuum cleaners, computer disk

→ A magnetic field causes forces on the poles of

drives, generators, microphones, microwave ovens,

and many more

any magnet placed in it.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q There are three basic observations of the q The first of the three observations is the basis of

interactions between electricity and

electromagnets:

magnetism.
q Observation 1: A moving electric charge produces a

magnetic field in the space around it.

These interactions occur

q An electric current produces

only when there is some

a magnetic field around it.

q A single charged particle creates

kind of change taking place,

a magnetic field only when it is

such as motion of charges

moving.

q The magnetic field produced

or a magnet.

is in the shape of circles around

the path of the charge.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions Between Electricity

and magnetism, cont’d

and Magnetism

q A DC current is a steady progression of

q Reversing the direction of the current in the

electric charges.
wire will reverse the directions of the

q The magnetic field:

magnetic field lines.

1. is constant,

2. has a strength proportional to the amount

of current through the wire,

3. has a strength that is inversely

proportional to the distance from the wire

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q Most applications use a coil instead of a

q This type of device is called an

straight wire.
electromagnet.

q The coil is a length of wire wrapped in the shape

q It behaves like a permanent magnet, but

of a cylinder (or a donut), usually around an iron

only while the current is flowing.

core.

q Stop the current and the magnetic field

q The field has the shape of a bar magnet.

vanishes.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q A coil with a length much larger than its

q Examples of such a solenoid include:

diameter is called a solenoid.

q non-digitaldoorbell chimes

q If an iron rod is partially inserted into a hollow

q electricdoor locks

core solenoid, the rod will be pulled into the

q starter motors on car and truck engines

solenoid when the current switches on.

( why)?

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q This first observation helps explain why only

q The second observation is the basis of electric

certain materials can serve as permanent

motors:

magnets. q Observation 2: A magnetic field exerts a force on

a moving electric charge.

q In non-ferromagnetic materials,

q A magnetic field exerts a force on a current-

the electron’s magnetic fields are

carrying wire.

random and cancel each other

q A stationary electric charge does not experience a

→ No net magnetic field.

force in a magnetic field.

q In a ferromagnetic material,
q This observation is in line with the first:

the fields can be forced to

q Anything that produces a magnetic field will itself

align by an external
be affected by other magnetic fields.

A moving charge creates a magnetic field.

magnetic field.
So, a moving charge experiences a force from other magnetic fields.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q If the direction of the current is reversed, the direction

of the force is reversed (downward).

The direction of the magnetic field produced

q An alternating current would cause the wire to

by a current-carrying wire is perpendicular to

experience a force that alternates up and down.

the direction the current is flowing.

The force that a magnetic field exerts on a moving

charge or on a current-carrying wire is

perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic

field and the direction the charge is flowing.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q Electric motors exploit this electromagnetic

q Each time the loop becomes horizontal, the

interaction.
direction of the current is reversed.

q Rather than a straight wire, a motor uses a

q This allows the magnetic force to continue

coil.
rotating the coil.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions between electricity

and magnetism, cont’d and magnetism, cont’d

q The third observation is the basis of electric q

If the coil moves and the magnet remains stationary, a

generators:
current is induced.

q Observation 3: A moving magnet produces q

If the magnet moves and the coil is stationary, a current is

an electric field in the space around it.

induced

q A coil of wire in motion relative to a magnet has a

current induced in it.

q This process is known as electromagnetic

induction.

Interactions between electricity

Interactions Between Electricity

and magnetism, cont’d

and Magnetism

q Here is a simplified sketch of a generator.

q An alternating current ( AC) in a coil will

q As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a

produce a magnetic field that oscillates:

current is established through the coil.

q Itincreases, decreases, and switches

polarity with the same frequency as the

current.

q Such an oscillating magnetic field will cause a

nearby piece of iron to vibrate.

q The oscillating magnetic field of a coil with AC

in it is used in many common devices.

Interactions between electricity

Principles of
and magnetism, cont’d Electromagnetism

q Summary :The basic electromagnetic q We can make two general statements about

interactions can be stated in the form of three

electromagnetism.The text calls these

simple observations:

the Principles of Electromagnetism.

q the Principles of Electromagnetism

(1) Moving charges produce magnetic fields.

→ Anelectric current of a changing electric field

induces a magnetic field.

(2) Magnetic fields exert forces on moving

charges.
→A changing magnetic field induces an

electric field.

(3) Moving magnets induce currents in coils of

a “changing” field means that the strength or the

wire (electromagnetic induction).

direction (or both) of the field is changing.

Principles of

Principles of
Electromagnetism, cont’d Electromagnetism, cont’d

q We talked earlier about a transformer as a n

A transformer consists of two coils in close proximity.

device to transform AC voltage and current. 1.

If an AC current is applied to the

left coil, the changing current

q Recall that AC current is a time-varying

through the coil creates a changing

current.

magnetic field.

q So, by the principles of electromagnetism, it

2.
So, the right coil is in a changing

creates a changing magnetic field.

magnetic field.

q Remember that a steady current produces

3.
Since a changing magnetic field

a steady magnetic field.

induces an electric field, there is

a current in the right coil.

Why doesn’t transformers work with DC?

Principles of

Principles of
Electromagnetism, cont’d Electromagnetism, cont’d

n The limiting factor of the transformer is that the

n Note that each loop of the coil has the same

power input (on the left) must ideally equal the
voltage induced in it.

power output (on the right).

The voltage of the entire coil is the sum of

the voltages in all loops.

Pin = Pout

n Each loop is in series with others

I inVin = I outVout Voltages in series add

n

Principles of

Principles of
Electromagnetism, cont’d Electromagnetism, cont’d

n The result is:
n Recall that a step-up transformer increases

voltage output number of turns in output coil
the output voltage.

=

voltage input number of turns in input coil

n So, the output coil has more turns than the

input coil.

n We can write this as:

n A step-down transformer decreases the

Vo N o

output voltage.

Vi N i

n So, the output coil has fewer turns than the

input coil.

n Vi & Vo represent the input and output voltages.

n Ni & No represent the number of turns (loops) on

the input and output coils.

Example

Example

Example 8.1

Example 8.1

A transformer is being designed to have a 600-

volt output with a 120-volt input. If there are
ANSWER: Vo = 600 V

800 turns of wire in the input coil, how many
The problem gives us:

turns must there be in the output coil?

Vi = 120 V

N i = 800

The number of turns in the output coil is

Vo N o V

= ® No = Ni ´ o

Vi N i Vi

Example

Example 8.1

Vern J. Ostdiek

Donald J. Bord

ANSWER:

Inserting the given values:

600

N o = 800 ´ = 800 ´ 5

Chapter 8

120

EM Waves

= 4,000 turns.

sections 5,6,and 7

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves

( new )

n Electromagnetic waves are transverse

n Electromagnetic waves do differ from sound

waves consisting of a combination of

waves in two important ways.

oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

n First, they are a combination of two waves in

one: an electric field wave and a magnetic

field wave.

n These cannot exist separately.

n Second, EM waves do not require a medium

in which to travel.

n They can travel through a vacuum: the light

from the Sun does this.

n They can also travel through matter: Light

through air and glass, and x-rays through your

body are common examples.

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

( new )

n Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves

n These waves travel at the “speed of light.”

consisting of a combination of oscillating electric and

n We use the symbol c to represent the speed

magnetic fields.

of light.

n EM waves do not require a

c = 299,792,468 m/s
medium in which to travel.

n They can travel through a vacuum:

= 3 ´ 108 m/s

the light from the Sun does this.

= 186,000 miles/sec

n They can also travel through matter:

Light through air and glass, and x-rays

through your body are common examples.

The formula v = fl holds for EM waves.

Example

Example

Example 8.2

Example 8.2

An FM radio station broadcasts an EM wave

with a frequency of 100 megahertz. What is

ANSWER:

the wavelength of the wave? The problem gives us:

f = 100 MHz

The wavelength is

c 3 ´ 108 m/s

c= fl®l = =

f 100 ´ 106 1/s

= 3 m.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n EM waves are named according to their

n Radio waves are the lowest frequency EM

wavelength and frequency. electromagnetic

waves.

spectrum.
n Their frequency range is

from 100 to about 109 Hz.

n They are sub-divided into

several groups:

n ELF – extremely low frequency

n VHF – very high frequency

n UHF – ultra high frequency

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n They are easily created with AC current.

n Microwaves are the next highest frequency

n Radio wave pass easily through the

waves.

atmosphere so they are

n They range from 109 to 1012 Hz.

good for communications.

n They are used for

n Low frequency waves are

1. Communications: Blue-tooth and Wi-Fi

reflected by the upper

atmosphere.

signals

n High frequency waves are

2. Radar: Doppler radar uses microwaves and

used to space
the Doppler effect to measure the speed of

communications.
an object.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

3. Microwaves are also useful at heating certain

n The increased motion of the molecules means increased

substances, e.g., water.

kinetic energy.

n Water is a polar molecule.

n Recall that temperature is essentially the average

§ The positive charge of the hydrogen is displaced from the

kinetic energy of the molecules.

negative charge of the oxygen.

n The frequency 2,450 MHz is used in most ovens.

n When exposed to microwaves, the water molecules rotate

§ This frequency is most effective at making the water molecules

because of the varying electric field.

rotate.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

( new )

n Cooking with microwaves is fast because n Infrared radiation is next higher in frequency.

energy is given directly to all of the

n It ranges from 1012 to about 4×1014 Hz.

molecules.
n It is the predominant component in heat radiation.

n It does not rely completely on the conduction

n IR is constantly emitted by

of heat from the outside to the inside of the

molecules simply due to

food— a much slower process.

their thermal vibrations.

n Absorbing IR increase

vibrations→increase temp.

n Remote controls use IR

since it is cheap & effective

at short range.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n Visible light extends beyond IR in frequency.

n another band of EM radiation.

n It ranges from 4×1014 to 7.5×1014 Hz.

n Certain specialized cells in the human eye called rods

and cones are sensitive to visible light.

n It is a surprisingly narrow band.

n The highest frequency is barely double the lowest

frequency.

§ The highest frequency we can hear is about 1,000 times

higher than the lowest audible frequency.

n Like IR, it is emitted by hot objects.

n Color can be a measure of an object’s temperature.

n to produce white light is to combine equal amounts of all frequencies

(colors) of light.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n Ultraviolet radiation begins at frequencies

n Visible light is a component of the heat

beyond those of the visible color violet.

radiation emitted by very hot objects.

n Its range is 7.5×1014 to 1018 Hz.

Example : Incandescent light bulbs

n It is emitted by very hot objects as part of the

heat radiation.

n Fluorescent and neon lights use excited

n UV provides the energy for chemical reactions

atoms that emit visible light.

in the skin that cause tanning or “sunburns.”

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n Some fluorescent materials appear to be colorless

under normal light and can be used as a kind of

invisible ink.

n Fluorescent lights use the UV emitted by

n They can be seen under a UV lamp but are

mercury atoms to cause a powder on the

invisible otherwise.

tube’s inner surface to emit visible light.

n UV radiation has many practical applications.

n This powder is said to be fluorescent, thus the

n it is used as an investigative tool at crime scenes

name.
to help identify bodily fluids such as blood and

bile.

n It is used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in

biology laboratories and medical facilities.

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n X-rays are the next higher frequency of EM waves.

n They are used for medical imaging since materials

containing relatively large atomic numbers absorb

n They extend from to 1016

Hz. 1020

x-rays more than those with

n Their wavelengths are about

lower atomic number.

10-8 to 10-11 meters.

The calcium (Z = 20) in bones implies

n This corresponds to the size of

that bones absorb x-rays.

atoms.

n The carbon and oxygen in

n They are useful for examining

the skin and muscles absorb less.

the atomic structure of materials.

n Lead has Z = 82.

X-ray (and Ɣ-ray) can be harmful because they are ionizing

radiation (produce ions as they pass by matter).


Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

( new )

n Lead, with atomic number 82, is a particularly

n An x-ray image is really an image of the

good shield for blocking x radiation.

“shadow” cast by the object.

n A normal photograph is an image

of the light reflected off the object.

n X-rays (and gamma rays) can be harmful because

they are ionizing radiation—radiation that produces

ions as it passes through matter.

n Such radiation can kick electrons out of atoms,

leaving a trail of freed electrons and positive ions.

n This process can break chemical bonds between

atoms in molecules, thereby altering or destroying

the molecule,

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

Electromagnetic waves, cont’d

n X-rays are easily produced by bombarding a metal (like

n Gamma-rays are the highest frequency EM

tungsten) with high-energy electrons.

waves.

n The electrons are rapidly decelerated as they strike the

n Their frequency range is 3×109 to beyond

metal. The decelerating

1023 Hz.

electrons emit x-rays.

n Their wavelengths are on the same scale as

n X-rays are also emitted

nuclear diameters.

by some of the atoms

n They are commonly emitted during nuclear

excited by the
reactions (radioactive decay, nuclear fission

high-speed electrons

and nuclear fusion).

( more in chapter 10).

Blackbody radiation

Blackbody radiation

n Every object emits EM radiation due to the

thermal motion of its atoms and molecules.

n If the atoms have greater thermal motion, the

Blackbody radiation

object must be at a higher temperature.

n An object that perfectly absorbs all EM

radiation would appear black.

n If it absorbs everything, then nothing reflects

off of it.

n We see objects because of their reflected light.

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

n Such an object is called a blackbody.

n The blackbody radiation curve shows the

n It emits radiant energy at a higher rate than

intensity at each wavelength of radiation

any other object of the same size and

emitted by a blackbody.

temperature.
n The size and shape of the graph depends on

n This is because most objects will reflect some of

the object’s

the incident radiation.

temperature.

n The blackbody absorbs more energy and

therefore gets hotter.

n Blackbody radiation( BBR) is the radiation

emitted by a blackbody.

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

( new )

n The intensity of the different wavelengths, the

amount of energy released per unit area per unit

time, varies with wavelength.

n The graph for a real object (not a blackbody)

would be similar.

The intensity of the visible wavelengths is higher

than that of the IR wavelengths.

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

3. At higher temperatures, more of the power is
n Three aspects of heat radiation are affected by the

emitted at successively shorter wavelengths of EM

object’s temperature:

radiation.

1. The amount of each type of radiation emitted increases with

n For a blackbody, the wavelength that is given the

temperature.
maximum power is inversely proportional to its

The total amount of radiant energy emitted per unit area per unit

2.

temperature:

time ( intensity) increases rapidly with any increase in

0.0029

temperature.
lmax =

n The total radiant energy emitted per second is proportional

§ T is in kelvins, and
T

to the fourth-power of the absolute temperature:

§ lmax is in meters

(T in kelvins)

P µT4

Blackbody radiation, cont’d

Example

Example 8.3

n This means we can determine the temperature of

Assuming that the Sun is a blackbody with a

an object by measuring the EM radiation it emits.

temperature of 6,000 K, at what wavelength

n A thermogram is
does it radiate the most energy?

a “picture” of the

IR radiation

emitted by an

object.

n If you could see

infrared, humans would

appear to glow more

brightly than their cooler

surroundings.

Example

The Earth Atmosphere

Example 8.3

ANSWER:

The problem gives us: T = 6,000 K

nThe Earth atmosphere

The wavelength is

0.0029 0.0029

lmax = =

T 6,000

= 4.8 ´ 10-7 m

Ozon layer

Ozone layer

n Ozone layer: is a region in the earth’s atmosphere

between 20 and 40 km above the earth surface

consisting of high concentration of ozone O3 .

n
Ozone(O3 ) the form of oxygen with three atoms in each molecule.

n It takes the responsibility of protecting the earth from

harmful elements in the sun light (like ultraviolet

radiation).

n ozone absorbs most of the harmful UV in sunlight

Ozone layer Ozone layer

n Compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are

n The concentration of ozone in a huge section

released into the air drift upward to the ozone layer of the atmosphere was reduced by about

and chemically break up the ozone molecules, reduce one-half.

the concentration of ozone.

n CFCs chemical compounds such as Freon used in

refrigerators, air conditioners, and as an aerosol propellant in

spray cans

Ozone layer Greenhouse effect

n Greenhouse effect: is the effect occurring due to
some kind of a barrier (glass in a greenhouse or a
more natural one, is the earth’s atmosphere)
n Continued reduction in ozone levels could
have tragic consequences.
n Water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), and other gases in the
1. Rates of occurrence of skin cancer could
rise. air act somewhat like glass, they allow visible light from the
Sun to pass through to Earth’s surface while they absorb
2. Crop yields could decrease, because part of the infrared radiation emitted by the warmed
increased UV adversely affects many plant surface(As the temperature of things increases, they emit more IR).
species.

Greenhouse effect The Ionosphere

n If greenhouse gases increase (water vapor, CO2
, CFC’s and methane), there is a risk of global
warming (the entire atmosphere heating up).
n The atmosphere is heated by the IR that is
absorbed; it is about 35°C (65°F) warmer than it
would be without this effect.
• Ionosphere: is a region in the earth’s atmosphere
between 50 and 90 km above the earth surface
containing a relatively high density of ions and free
electrons.
• Higher frequency radio waves, such as those used in FM radio
and television, pass through the ionosphere and out into space.
• Lower-frequency radio waves, such as the 500–1,500 kilohertz
waves used in AM radio,
reflect off the ionosphere
and return to Earth.
 The Ionosphere
• The ionosphere is also the home of the auroras (the
northern lights and the southern lights).
• Charged particles from the Sun excite atoms and
molecules in the ionosphere, causing them to emit light.