I.

Ploidy
A. Diploid
- refers to a cell or an organism that has two sets of chromosomes
- humans have 46 chromosome diploid (2n)
- somatic cells are diploid (all the body cells except the sex cells)
B. Polyploid
- the heritable condition of possessing more than two complete sets of
chromosomes
- common among plants, some fish, and some amphibians
C. Haploid
- a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes
- humans have 23 chromosomes
- sex cells or gametes have 23 chromosomes
II. The Chromosome Structure

A. Definition
- a chromosome are thread-like structures that consist primarily of
tightly packed DNA and proteins

B. Primary Structure
- consist of two chromatids joined together in the centromere by a
protein structure called kinetochore (where spindle fibers are
attached)
- it is composed of a double-helix DNA with adenine - thymine, guanine
- cytosine nucleotides, a phosphate group, and a sugar phosphate
backbone
- the DNA is then wrapped around 8 set of histones, a protein that
provides structure, in which it is called a nucleosome
- the nucleosomes will then form a chromatin fiber, to a supercoil, to a
full chromatid
 - Chromosomes also contain telomeres, which are repeat nucleotide
sequences (TTAGGG) and protein on the ends of chromosomes that
prevent degradation and end–end ligation (to stop the ends of
chromosomes from fraying or sticking to each other)
- the p arm is the short arm while the q arm is the longer arm, used for
determining the location of a gene/variant associated with a condition
C. Types
- Metacentric – centromere is in middle, meaning p and q arms are of
comparable length (e.g. chromosomes 1, 3, 16, 19, 20)
- Submetacentric – centromere off-centre, leading to shorter p arm
relative to q arm (e.g. chromosomes 2, 4 - 12, 17, 18, X)
- Acrocentric – centromere severely off-set from centre, leading to much
shorter p arm (e.g. chromosomes 13 - 15, 21, 22, Y)
- Telocentric – centromere found at end of chromosome, meaning no p
arm exists (chromosome not found in humans)
III. Cell Cycle
A. Interphase
- the non dividing stage of a cell where during this time it grows,
replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division
a) G1 Phase
- the growth phase, where the cell grows physically and
increases the volume of both protein and organelles
- the cell synthesizes various enzymes and nutrients that
are needed later on for DNA replication and cell
division.
b) S phase
- the cell copies its DNA to produce two sister chromatids
and replicates its nucleosomes
c) G2 Phase
- extra protein is often synthesized, and the organelles
multiply until there are enough for two cells
d) M Phase
- the mitotic phase
IV. Types of Cell Division
A. Mitosis
- a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells
- occurs in somatic cells
a) Prophase
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the
nuclear envelope (the membrane surrounding the
nucleus) breaks down
- Mitotic spindle begins to forms
b) Metaphase
- the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
- the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be
attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles

c) Anaphase
- The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids
together is broken down, allowing them to separate.
Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes
of each pair are pulled towards opposite ends of the
cell
- Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate
and push apart, separating the poles and making the
cell longer.
- All of these processes are driven by motor proteins,
molecular machines that can “walk” along microtubule
tracks and carry a cargo.
 d) Telophase
- The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building
blocks.
- Two new nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli
reappear.
- The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to
their “stringy” form.

B. Meiosis
- a type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces
the number of chromosomes in gametes
- produces 4 gamete cells (egg and sperm cells)
- Meiosis I
- Prophase I
- Leptotene
- Zygotene
- Pachytene
- Diplotene (chiasmata formation
 - Diaknesis

- Metaphase I
- Anaphase I
- Telophase I
- Cytokinesis (haploid cells to 2 daughter cells)
- Interkinesis (transitional stage before meiosis II)
- Meiosis II
- Prophase II
- Metaphase II
- Anaphase II
- Telophase II
- Cytokinesis

V. Cytokinesis
- the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis
- In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin
purse with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a
protein called actin, and the pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow
- In plant cells, phragmoplast form, which are plant-specific microtubule
structures that form cell plates at the cell division plane, composed of two
opposing arrays of actin filaments and microtubules
- The primary purpose of the phragmoplast is to transport Golgi-derived
vesicles to the site of cell plate assembly.
- Cell plate is a structure that forms when the cytoplasm of a plant cell divides

VI. Genetic Consequences