Armature Reaction :

When the armature of a d.c machine carries current, it produces its own flux
called armature flux or armature mmf. This armature flux will effect the main flux
distribution in air gap. This phenomenon is called ‘Armature Reaction’. The armature
flux effects the main flux in two ways .i) It demagnetizes and ii) It cross magnetizes .

The figure(a) shows the flux distribution in air gap due to main poles. It observed
that the flux is uniformly
distributed and G.N.A
(Geometric Neutral Axis) or
M.N.A (Magnetically Neutral
Axis) acts right angle to main
flux axis Fm.
The figure(b) shows the
flux produced by armature only
when the machine is loaded. It is
observed that the armature flux
axis acts along M.N.A. The

40
combined effect or the resultant flux distribution due to the combination of these fluxes is
shown in figure(c). It is cleared from figure(c) that the armature reaction flux
strengthens each main pole at tailing tip and weakens at leading tip. It is also observed
that the main flux axis and hence, MNA get shifted by some angle ‘θ’ in the direction of
rotation of armature. ( In case of motors, this shifting is in the direction opposite to that
of armature rotation).
If the iron in the
magnetic circuit is assumed to
be linear ( no saturation), the
net flux per pole remains
unaffected by armature reaction
though the air gap flux gets
distorted. If the main pole
excitation is such that iron is in
the saturated region of
magnetization (this is case in a
practical machine), the increase in flux density at one end of the poles caused by armature
reaction is less than the decrease at other tip, so that there is a net reduction in flux under
each pole. From above figure, it is observed that the decrease in flux is 1 wb whereas the
increase is only 0.3 wb so that there is a net reduction in flux of value 0.7 wb. This effect
is called ‘Demagnetization’. Since, MNA is shifted by some angle ‘θ’, the axis of
armature now must along it and is shown following figure.
The phasor Fa represents armature mmf which
can be resolved into two components.
1. Component Fc (= Fa Sinθ ) : It acts at right
angles to main flux and it cross- magnetizes
it. Hence, this component is called ‘ Cross-
magnetization component’ of armature reaction and it finally cause for sparking
over commutator surface. But, it does not change the average value of flux and
hence generated voltage.

41
2. Component Fd (= Fa Cosθ ) : It acts opposite to main flux and it demagnetizes it.

Hence, this component is called ‘ Demagnetization component’ of armature

reaction and it finally cause for reduction in air gap flux and hence, generated
emf.
These two effects will increase with the increase in armature current and
become zero under no load conditions. The above facts can be understood from
the following fig.

42
Demagnetizing and Cross-magnetizing AT per pole :
The total armature conductors
which effects the produce main flux by its
own flux called ‘armature flux’ are divided
into demagnetizing and cross magnetizing
conductors. The exact conductors which
produce these two effects are shown in
figure. The brush axis has been given a
forward lead of ‘θ’ so as tp lie along the
new position of MNA. All the conductors
lying within the angles AOC = BOD = 2θ under each pair of poles are called
‘Demagnetizing Conductors’. The remaining conductors are ‘Cross-magnetizing
Conductors’.
Let ‘Z’ be the total no. of armature conductors
‘I’ be the current flowing through each armature conductor
Ia
Which is equal to , where Ia is armature current and P is no. of poles.
P
‘θm’ is the angle of lead (mechanical)
4θ m
Therefore, total no. of demagnetizing conductors = Z ×
360
4θ m 1
Total no. of demagnetizing turns =Z× ×
360 2
4θ m 1 1 Zθ m
Demagnetizing turns per pole = Z . × × =
360 2 2 360
θm
Demagnetizing Ampere-turns per Pole ( ATd/pole) = ZI ×
360
The remaining conductors are Cross magnetizing Conductors. Therefore, the
cross magnetizing conductors per pole = Total conductors per pole – Demagnetizing
conductors per pole.
ZI ZIθ m ⎛ 1 θ ⎞
Cross magnetizing Ampere turns per pole = − = ZI ⎜ − m ⎟
2 P 360 ⎝ 2 P 360 ⎠

43
Example : A four pole generator has a wave connected armature with 722 conductors
and it delivers 100 A on full load. If the brush lead is 80 (mech), Calculate the armature
demagnetizing and cross magnetizing AT per pole.
Solution :
Angle of lead = 80 (mech)
No. of poles= P = 4
No. of conductors = Z = 722
Armature current = Ia = 100 A
I a 100
Current through each conductor = I = = = 50 A ( wave connection)
2 2
θm 8
Demagnetizing AT per Pole = ZI . = 722 × 50 × = 802
360 360
⎛ 1 θ ⎞ ⎛ 1 8 ⎞
Cross-magnetizing AT per Pole = ZI ⎜ − m ⎟ = 722 × 50⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 P 360 ⎠ ⎝ 2 × 4 360 ⎠
= 3718

Example : A 250 V, 25 KW, 4 Pole d.c generator has 328 wave connected armature
conductors. When machine is delivering full load, the brushes are given a lead of 7.20
(electrical). Calculate Cross magnetizing AT per Pole.
Solution :
Full load output = 25 KW
No. of conductors = Z = 328
Supply voltage = 250 V
25 × 1000
Current delivered at full load = I a = = 100 A
250
100
Current flowing through each conductor = I = = 50 A ( wave connection)
2
2 2
Brush lead = θ m = 7.2 × = 7.2 × = 3.6 0 (mech)
P 4
⎛ 1 θ ⎞ ⎛ 1 3.6 ⎞
Cross magnetizing AT per Pole = ZI ⎜ − m ⎟ = 328 × 50⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 P 360 ⎠ ⎝ 2 × 4 360 ⎠
= 1886

44
Example : An 8- pole lap connected d.c shunt generator supplies an output of 240 A at
500 V. The armature has 1408 conductors and 160 commutator segments. If the brushes
are given a lead of 4 segments from no load neutral axis, estimate ATd and ATc per pole.
Solution :
No. of poles = P= 8
Armature current = Ia = 240 A
No. of conductors = Z = 1408
No. of commutator segments = C = 160
I a 240
Current flowing through each conductor = = = 30 A
A 8
360
Brush lead = θ m = 4 × = 9 0 ( mech)
160
θm 9
Demagnetizing AT per Pole = ZI × = 1408 × 30 × = 1056
360 360
⎛ 1 θ ⎞
Cross-magnetizing AT per Pole = ZI ⎜ − m ⎟
⎝ 2 P 360 ⎠
⎛ 1 9 ⎞
= ZI ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 × 8 360 ⎠
= 1584

Example : A 500 V Wave- wound, 750 rpm, shunt generator supplies a load current of
195 A. The armature has 720 conductors and shunt field resistance is 100 ohm. Find the
demagnetizing AT per pole if the brushes are advanced by 3 commutator segments at this
load. Also calculate extra shunt field turns required to neutralize this demagnetization.
Solution :
500
Shunt field current = I sh = = 5A
100
Armature current = I a = I L + I sh = 195 + 5 = 200 A

I a 200
Current flowing through each conductor = I = = = 100 A
A 2
720
Assuming single turn coils, no. of coils = = 360
2

45
 No. of commutator segments = No. of coils = 360
360
Brush lead = θ m = 3 × = 30 (mech)
360
θm 3
Demagnetizing AT per Pole = ZI × = 720 × 100 × = 600
360 360
Extra turns required for neutralizing this
demagnetizing AT per pole is calculated as follows.
I sh .N extra = 600

600
N extra = = 120
5

Example: A 4 Pole , lap wound shunt generator supplies a current of 143 A. It has 492
armature conductors. The brushes are given an actual lead of 100 , calculate the
demagnetizing AT per Pole. Also calculate the no. of extra shunt field turns necessary to
neutralize this demagnetization.
Solution :
No. of conductors = Z = 492
Brush lead = θ m = 10 0

Armature current = I a = I L + I sh = 143 + 10 = 153 A

θm 153 10
Demagnetizing AT Per Pole = ZI × = 492 × × = 523
360 4 360
To neutralize this demagnetizing effect, an extra
mmf of 523 AT is to be produced by shunt field winding.
I sh .N extra = 523

523
N exctra = = 5.23 say 6
10

46
Compensating Windings :
Due to the cross
magnetizing effect of armature
reaction, the density gets disturb in air
gap as shown in figure. When a coil
passes through the region of peak flux
densities, the emf induced in it
exceeds the average coil voltage. If
this emf is higher than the breakdown voltage across adjacent commutator segments, a
spark over could result which can easily spread over as an envelope around the
commutator and short circuit it. ( The maximum allowable voltage between adjacent
segments is 30-40 V).
The second reason which can cause severe
over-voltages to appear between commutator segments is sudden
change in generator lad. If the load on machine undergoes a fast
change, Ia and hence Φa changes accordingly and resulting in a
dφ
statically induced emf in the coil. This emf is proportional to .
dt
If this emf aids with the dynamically induced emf in the coil,
sparking occurs at commutator segments. The same thing happens
when load on drops suddenly also. But, it is most dangerous to
withdraw load suddenly from the machine than sudden application
of load. It is cleared from following discussion.
When the load is added to generator suddenly, both armature
and main flux axis shift in same direction. For example, armature is
assumed to be rotating in clock wise direction at 1500 rpm. When it is
loaded, its main flux axis Fm also shifts in same direction at speed of
500 rpm. During this shifting process, the relative speed between
armature conductors and this moving flux is 1500-1000=500 rpm.

47
Statically induced emf (Es) which proportional to this 500 rpm at a given change in load
will be induced in the coil. When this emf is added with dynamically induced emf,
sparking will be produced over commutator surface.
When the load is removed from generator suddenly, the
armature rotation and Main flux axis shifting are in opposite
directions. Then, the relative speed becomes 1500-(-1000)= 2500
rpm. Now, the Statically induced emf (Es) is proportional to this
2500 rpm and it causes for severe sparking over commutator surface.
In both cases, as the statically induced emf is resulting sparking, it is
highly objected in d.c machines. This emf is generated as and when the main flux axis Fm
gets shifted only. This is an effect of Cross magnetization of armature reaction. This
sparking problem over commutator surface is due to armature reaction, but the problem
of sparking at brushes is due to poor commutation.
The only way to avoid this situation is to neutralize the armature reaction AT by
using a compensation winding. Compensating windings are placed in slots in the pole
shoes and are connected in series with armature in such a way that the current in them
flows in opposite direction to that flowing in armature conductors directly below the pole
shoes .An elementary scheme of compensating winding is shown in figure.
The no. of Ampere Turns to be produced by Compensating winding under each
pole for avoiding this cross-magnetizing effect is
Ia Z Pole.arc
ATd per Pole = × ×
A 2 P Pole.Pitch
IaZ Pole.arc
= ×
2 AP Pole.Pitch
Where ‘Z’ is the total no. of armature conductors
‘Ia’ is the armature current
‘A’ is no. of armature parallel paths
‘P’ is the no. of poles.
Compensating windings though expensive, must be provided in machines where
heavy loads are expected or the load fluctuates rapidly like machines driving steel mills
are subjected to severe duty cycles with rapid changes.

48
 Compensating windings eliminate armature flux under poles only and hence, the
compensation process is not complete. Some armature flux will be remained at inter-
polar region. This can be compensated by ‘Inter-Poles’ whose primary function is to
improve commutation.
Example : Calculate the no. of conductors on each pole face required in a compensating
winding for a 6 pole lap connected d.c armature containing286 conductors. The
compensating winding carries full armature current. Assume ratio of pole arc to Pole
Pitch as 0.7.
Solution :
No. of armature conductors = Z = 286
No. of poles = P = 6
No. of parallel paths = A = 6
286
No. of conductor per pole = = 47.66
6
Ia
Current flowing through each conductor = I =
6
47.66 I a
Armature reaction mmf = 0.7 × ×
2 6

49
 It should be equal to MMF produced by compensating winding which is equal to
IaNc. Where Nc is no. of compensating winding turns on each pole = 2x No. of
compensating conductors.
47.66 I a
Therefore, = 0.7 × × = Ia.Nc
2 6
47.66
Or N c = 0 .7 × = 5.6 say 6 turns.
2×6
Example : A 4 Pole, Wave connected generator has 320 armature conductors and carries
a current of 400 A. If the Pole Arc / Pole pitch ratio is 0.68, calculate the AT per Pole for
a compensating winding to give uniform flux density in the air gap.
Solution :
To make flux distribution uniform in air gap, the cross magnetizing flux must be
eliminated.
No. of Poles = P = 4
No. of armature conductors = Z = 320
Armature current = Ia = 400 A
320
One Pole Pitch covers = 80 conductors , then, one Pole arc covers
4
0.68x80 = 54.4 conductors. Compensating winding on each pole shoe must
nullify this mmf. For this,
54.4 400
400 N c = × Or Nc = 13.6 turns.
2 2

50
Commutation :
The basic nature of emf generated in a d.c
generator is alternating. To make the current flow
unidirectional in external circuit, a device called
‘Commutator’ is used. The primary definition of
commuttion is the process of collecting currents from
this commutator and this commutation is said to be
ideal if these is sparking in this process.
As the armature conductors passes from one
pole to other pole ie., from a North pole to a south pole,
the current direction in it gets reversed. Obviously, this
change in direction takes place at MNA or Brush Axis. The particular coil while passes
MNA will be short circuited by brushes. This process by which current in a short
circuited coil gets reversed while it crosses MNA is called ‘Commutation’. The brief time
period during which a coil remains short circuited is called ‘Commutation Period (Tc)’.
For understanding this phenomenon,
let us consider a part of an armature winding
which is rotating in clockwise direction as
shown . In fig (a), brush covers total segment
‘b’, a total current of 40 A is assumed to be
collected by brush and the directions and
magnitudes currents at different parts of
winding are shown.

As bush touches segment ‘a’ as time

passes, the coil ‘B’ gets short circuited by
brush and this is start of commutation period
of coil ‘B’. Now, the current flowing through
coil B reduces to 10A, but in same direction.

51
 In fig (c) , the bush touches both
segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ equally and the current
through coil ‘B’ becomes zero. This point of
time is referred as middle of commutation
period.
As armature continues to rotate, the
brush contact area with segment ‘a’ increases
and that with segment ‘b’ decreases and hence current direction in coil ‘B’ gets reversed
as shown in fig (d).

Figure (e) shows the moment when the coil ‘B’ is at the end of commutation
period ie., the coil ‘B’ is relieved from short circuit. At the end of commutation period,
the current in coil ‘B’ found to be reversed completely ie., from +20 A to -20 A and is
called ‘Ideal Commutation or Straight Line Commutation’. Then, coil ‘C’ enters into its
commutation period and changes it current direction. In similar way, all the coils enter
commutation period one by one as the armature rotates and change their current
directions. But, in a practical machine, the current does not change its direction
completely by the time the commutation period Tc is completed. This shown in figure (e).
a current of 5 A is left unchanged. This current jumps through air from segment ‘b’ to
brush and produces sparking at brush. This commutation is called ‘Poor Commutation or
Delayed Commutation’.
The changes in current flowing through coil ‘B’ with respect to time are shown in
following fig.

52
 It is cleared from above that Poor or Delayed Commutation is always associated
with sparking at brushes. Commutation is a major problem in d.c machines. Because of
this problem, the over load capacity of d.c machines is less than that of a.c machines. In
a.c machines, there is no process called’ Commutation’. In a.c machines, the overload
capacity is limited by problem of temperature rise. But, in d.c machines, before machine
temperature of machine reaches its upper limit, Commutation problem comes.
So, we conclude that sparking at brushes is due to the inability of current to
reverse completely by the time the time period Tc is completed. The reasons for
commutation getting delayed are :
1. The self inductance Lc of the coil undergoing commutation. Since, current
through it is changing, some self induced emf is generated in it which opposes the
current to not change. This emf is called ‘reactance voltage’. The value of this
emf is given by
dI 2I
e = Lc × = Lc ×
dt Tc
Where ‘I’ is current flowing through the conductors
wb − wm
‘Tc’ is the commutation period = sec
v

53
 ‘W’b is brush width ,‘W’m is the width of mica insulation and ‘v’ is peripheral
velocity of commutator.
2. The effect of armature reaction causes
the MNA to shift from AB to A’B’ as
shown in figure. Since, the brushes are
located at AB, a small voltage is
induced in the commutating coil . This
emf opposes the current reversal
( Commutating coil is cutting the flux
which has the same sign as that of the
pole being left behind). This is cleared
from following figure.

Small poles called ‘Inter-Poles’ are useful to avoid the sparking at brushes.

54
Methods of Improving Commutation :
There are two types of achieving good commutation, ie., making current reversal
in the short circuited coil as sparkles as possible. These are
1. Resistance Commutation
2. Voltage Commutation
1. Resistance Commutation :
In this method, low resistance copper brushes are replaced by comparatively high
resistive carbon brushes. The commutation process gets delayed due to the self-
inductance of commutating coil.

As this inductive effect dominates, delay increases and causes for more sparking
at brushes. To decrease the effect of inductance or to shift the phase of current transient
back during the commutation process, the current path is made more resistive. This is
done by replacing low resistive copper brushes with high resistive carbon brushes. If it is
done by increasing the coil resistance permanently, the copper losses will increase.
2. Voltage commutation :
To speed up the commutation process, the reactance voltage must be neutralized
by injecting a reversing emf in the short circuited coil under commutation. To see that
this emf generated in commutating coil is minimum, its self reactance should not cross a
particular value and this is the reason the no. of turns in a coil in d.c machine armature
N c2
windings is limited.( since, self inductance of commutating coil Lc = ).The reversing
S
emf may be produced by providing Inter-Poles between main poles. The inter poles are
narrow poles fixed to the yoke in inter-polar region. These are to be excited by armature

55
current and hence these are connected in series with armature winding. The polarity of
inter pole is same as that of main pole ahead in case of generators. But, in d.c motors, it is
same as that of main pole behind in the direction of rotation.
As the polarity of inter pole is same as that of main pole ahead, they induce an
emf in the commutating coil which helps the reversal of current. Inter poles increase the
over load capacity of machine. These poles make the commutation spark-free even at
overloads. Hence, for a given output, the machine can be made smaller and therefore
cheaper than Non-Inter polar machine.

It is cleared from above figure that the inter-polar air gap is kept larger than that
of main poles. It is to make magnetic
characteristic of inter poles linear or to avoid
saturation of inter poles at high armature
currents. Otherwise, inter pole flux may not
increase in proportion to armature current and
hence, it may not fulfill the purpose.
Another function of inter-poles is to
necessary to neutralize the cross magnetizing
effect of armature reaction at inter-polar region.
( Its neutralization process will be carried out by

56
compensating windings under poles). This above fact is cleared from above figure.
‘Fm’ represents the mmf due to main pole
‘Fc’ represents the cross magnetizing mmf
It is obvious that the mmf produced by inter pole is acting opposite to mmf ‘Fc.’

Generator Characteristics :
After knowing that we have many types of d.c generators, our aim is to select a
particular generator for a particular purpose. Unless otherwise a generator is analyzed in
different aspects, it not possible to fix up its place of use. Generally , generators are
analyzed using two characteristics. Viz., 1. No-Load Characteristics and 2. Load
Characteristics. Load characteristics are further classified into a)External characteristics
and b)Internal Characteristics.
1.No-Load Characteristics:
These characteristics are also called ‘Magnetization Characteristics’ or ‘Open
Circuit Characteristics (OCC)’. It gives relation between No-Load generated emf (Eg)
and the field current (If) at a given speed. The circuit set up for obtaining the necessary
data to plot this curve is shown below.

Voltmeter reads the emf induced in the armature and is given by,
φ .Z .N P
Eg = ×
60 A
Since the speed is maintained constant and the flux is proportional to field current
If , the above relation becomes E g = K .I f . As the field current increases, the

57
 generated emf increases linearly. At higher values of field currents, the core gets
saturated and hence emf generated does not increase.

Due to the residual flux present in poles, some emf called ‘Residual Emf’ exists
even when If = 0. This residual voltage is very much required for self excitation of d.c
generator. The extension of linear portion of magnetization curve is known as air gap
line. There will be no saturation along this line ie., characteristic of air gap.
The Open Circuit Characteristics at some other speed say N2 can be obtained from
OCC at N as follows.
N1
E1 = ×E at If
N
Self Excitation :
A self excited d.c generator is shown below.
Assume that the field is introduced into the circuit after the armature is brought to
its rated speed. At the instant of switching on the field, the armature voltage which
corresponds to a small residual value which causes a small field current to flow. If the
field is connected such that this current increases the field mmf and therefore induced
emf, the machine will continuously build up. This indeed is a positive feed back
connection and machine builds up to its rated steady value.

58
 The self excitation process stops at a point where OCC and Rf line intersects
which requires the magnetic circuit to have some saturation. Otherwise, there will be no
end for self excitation process.

It is cleared from figure that the no load terminal voltage decreases as the value of
field resistance increases.V01,V0 and V02 are terminal voltages with field resistances Rf1,
Rf2 and Rf3 respectively. As the field resistance exceeds Rc, ie., with field resistance Rf4,
OCC does not cut resistance line, hence machine does not give any emf. So, the generator
does not self excite with the field resistance more than Rc. This resistance is called
‘Critical field Resistance’. In other words, Critical field resistance is defined as the
maximum field resistance above which a generator can not self excite at a given speed.

59
 Similarly, as the speed of prime mover decreases at a given field resistance, the
terminal voltage decreases as shown figure.

As speed decreases below Nc, (with speed N2), OCC does not intersect Rf line.
Hence, generator can not self excite. This speed Nc is called Critical Speed. In other
words, Critical Speed is defined as the minimum speed below which a generator can not
self excite at a given field resistance. Critical Speed is also defined as the speed at which
actual field resistance Rf becomes critical resistance.
To summarize, a d.c shunt generator may fail to self –excite for any of
the following reasons.
1. Residual magnetism is absent.
2. The field connection to armature is such that the induced emf due to residual flux
tends to destroy the residual magnetism [-ve feed back ]
3. The field circuit resistance is more than the critical valve
4.The speed is below critical speed condition 2 can be remedied simply by reversing the
field connection to the armature or reversing the direction of rotation .In large d.c
machines, generators with permanent connections and fixed direction of rotation , the
problem is overcome by temporarily exciting the filed from a battery source [this is
known as ‘flashing’.)
5. The magnetic characteristic is a straight line ie., there is no saturation.

60
Load Characteristics:
Load characteristics can be 1. External characteristics and 2.Internal
characteristics.
Internal characteristics give relation between two internal quantities generated
voltage in armature ( Eg) and armature current ( Ia). And External Characteristic gives
relation between two external quantities terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). These
two characteristics are discussed for different generator.
1. Separately Excited D.C generator :
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a separately excited d.c
generator.

The armature is driven at constant speed ie., rated speed. The field current If is
adjusted to give rated voltage at no load and this If is maintained constant throughout the
operation considered.

61
 Now, terminal voltage V = E g − I a Ra and I a = I L .

As the load on generator increases, terminal voltage decreases due to armature

voltage drop. The other reason for decrease in terminal voltage is demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
The external characteristic differs from internal characteristic by the armature
drop IaRa. the voltage Regulation of generator is defined as

V0 − VFL
% Voltage Regulation = × 100
VFL
Where V0 is No-Load voltage and VFL is Full Load voltage or Rated voltage.
2. Shunt Generator :
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of shunt generator along its
external characteristics.

The shunt field current Ish is adjusted by means of a regulating resistance to obtain
the rated no load voltage. This field resistance should be maintained constant through out
the operation considered. Since, V = E g − I a Ra − B.D and I a = I L + I sh . As the load

increases, IL increases, Ia increases and hence IaRa drop increases. The terminal voltage
in shunt generator decreases rapidly than a separately excited generator because the shunt
V
field current is dependent on terminal voltage ‘V’. ( since, I sh = ). This trend
Rsh
continues till point ‘b’ is reached. This point is known as ‘Break down point’. If the load

62
is increased beyond this point, the current increases momentarily. But due to the severe
armature reaction for this heavy current and increased IaRa drop, the terminal voltage
drastically decreases. Due to this drastic reduction in ‘V’, Ish decreases which decreases
induced emf in armature. Hence load current also decreases. The curve turns back to
point ’c’ and oc shows short circuit current ( this current is due to residual voltage even
though V = 0). This characteristic is called ‘Drooping Characteristic’.
Internal characteristic :
Internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic as shown
below.

In this figure, ECC represents external characteristics and ICC represents internal
characteristics. The field Resistance line (Rf) is drawn. This line gives the value of field
current for different values of terminal voltages. It is obtained from Rf line that Ish is the
shunt field current corresponding to terminal voltage ‘V’. IL is load current obtained from
ECC corresponding to same terminal voltage ‘V’. When current Ish is added horizontally
to this IL, the armature current Ia is obtained. Hence, at point ‘P’, the co-ordinates are V,
Ia. The armature resistance drop at this armature current is IaRa. When this drop is added
vertically to point ‘P’, the point ‘Q’ is obtained. At this point, the y co-ordinate represents

63
V + I a Ra = E a and x co-ordinate represents I L + I sh = I a . Hence, the point ‘Q’ must be

point on Internal Characteristic. In similar way, the other points on Internal characteristic
are obtained.
2.Series Generator:
Since, Series field winding is connected in series with the armature winding, it
carry full armature current. As Ia is increased by increasing load, the flux and hence
generated emf also increase as shown in figure.

It is observed from fig that series generator has got ‘Voltage Rising characteristic’
ie., with increase in load, the voltage increases. Hence, the voltage regulation is negative
for series generator. But at high loads, the voltage starts decreasing due to excessive
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
3. Compound Generators :
The cause of voltage drop in the terminal voltage from no load to ull load in a
shunt generator can be compensated by producing some extra voltage in armature. It can
be achieved by increasing flux in the machine as and when generator is subjected to load.
This is done by adding few series turns. Then, generator becomes Compound generator.
If series field turns are selected
such that the drop in terminal voltage at
all loads equal to the extra voltage
generated in generator, the generator
maintains constant voltage at all loads.
Then, that generator is called ‘Level
compounded’ or ‘Flat Compounded
Generator’.

64
 If series field turns selected such that the voltage increases with load, then, that
compound generator is called ‘Over compounded Generator’.
If series field turns selected such that the voltage decreases with load, then, that
compound generator is called ‘Under compounded Generator’.
But, all three types of generators are cumulatively compounded generators. In
Differential Compound Generators, the voltage reduces drastically as load increases as
shown in above figure.
The V-I characteristics of different generators of various types of generators for
same full load voltage are shown in following figure.

65
Parallel Operation :
Advantages of Parallel Operation :
1. Continuity of service can be assured. If any problem comes to any generator in
parallel group, that particular generator is removed and other generators will be
giving supply to load. This not possible with a single large generator.
2. Efficiency can be increased. Since generators operate most efficiently at full load,
it is economical to use single unit when the load is light. It is possible in parallel
combinations only.
3. Maintenance and Repair work is easy.
4. It is easy to add and remove generators from parallel group as load demand
changes.
The Chief requirements of Parallel Operation :
1. The polarity of incoming machine must be same as that of existing machine or
bus bar. Otherwise, it results for short
circuit. It is cleared from the figure
shown. As the second generator is
connected wrongly with first one, the
total voltage along the loop is 200+200
= 400 V and which drives a hug current of 2000A since the armature resistance is
very small.
2. The voltage of both incoming and existing machines must be same.

Procedure for paralleling a D.C Generator with Existing Generator :

1. Properly select the polarity of incoming generator
2. The generator 2 is speeded up to its rated speed by its prime-mover and switch 2
is closed.
3. The excitation of incoming generator is changed till voltmeter reads zero. It
means that its terminal voltage is same as that of generator 1
4. Close the switch S1.
5. Increase the excitation of generator 2 simultaneously decreasing excitation at
generator 1 till it takes its proper share of load.

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Load sharing :
Because of lightly drooping characteristics, shunt generators are suitable for
stable parallel operation. Their satisfactory operation is due to the fact that any tendency
on the part of generator to take more load or less than its proper share of load results in
certain changes in voltage in the system which immediately oppose this tendency thereby
restoring the original division of load. Hence, once paralleled, they are automatically held
in parallel.
Similarly, for taking a generator out of service, its field is weakened and that of
other generator is increased till the ammeter of generator reads zero. After that, the switch
is opened thus removing out of service.
The figure shows the voltage
characteristics of two shunt generators. It is seen
that for a common terminal voltage ‘V’, the
generator 1 delivers I1 amps and generator 2
delivers I2 . It is seen that generator 1 having
more drooping characteristic delivers less
current.
Let us discuss the load sharing of two generator having unequal no load voltages
E1 and E2. R1 and R2 are their armature resistance and ‘V’ is common terminal voltage.

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 Then, V = E1 − I 1 R1 for generator 1 and V = E 2 − I 1 R1 for generator 2

E1 − V E2 − V
And also I 1 = and I2 =
R1 R2

I 2 E 2 − V R1 K 2 N 2φ 2 − V R1
And = × = ×
I 1 E1 − V R2 K 1 N1φ1 − V R2
It is cleared from above equation that the load can be transferred from one unit to
other by changing their excitations. For example, to transfer load from 1 to 2, Φ2 or N2 is
to be increased (or) Φ1 or N1 is to be decreased. Finally, the conclusions are :
1. Two parallel connected shunt generators having equal no load voltages share
load in such ratio that the load current of each machine produces the same voltage
drop in each machine.
2 In case two generators have unequal no load voltages, the load currents produce
sufficient voltage drops in each so as to keep their terminal voltage the same.
3. The generator with least droop assumes greater share of load.
4. Parallel generators with different power ratings , but with same voltage
regulations will divide any oncoming load in direct proportion to their respective
power ratings.
2.Series Generators in Parallel :
The figure shows two identical series
generators are connected in parallel. Suppose E1 and E2
are initially equal, generators supply equal currents and
have equal resistances. Suppose E1 increases slightly
so that E1>E2. In that case, I1 becomes greater thanI2.
consequently field of generator 1 is strengthened thus
increasing E1, further while the field of generator 2 is weakened thus decreasing E2
further since the total current supplied is constant. Since, this effect is cumulative,
generator 1 will therefore take entire load and finally drive generator 2 as motor. ( As I2 is
zero, Φ2 becomes zero. Because of bus voltage it starts running as motor.)
For making parallel operation stable, there are two techniques used . They are
1. By using equalizer bars and 2. By cross connecting field windings.

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1.Using equalizer bars :
The figure shows the connections of
equalizer bars. Suppose I1 increases, this
increased current partly passes through series
field coil of generator 1 and partly it flows
through equalizer bar and the series field
winding of generator 2.Hence, the generates
are effected in similar manner with the result
the generator 1 does not take entire load .

2. By Cross connecting field windings:

In this method, the field winding of generator 1 is
connected in series with armature of generator 2 and the
field winding of generator 2 is connected in series with
armature of generator 1 as shown. As I1 increases, flux in
generator 2 increases and it sees that its share does not
decrease. Similarly, when I2 increases, flux in generator 1
increases and does not allow it decrease its share.

Compound Generators :

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Example : Two 220 V, d.c generators each having linear external characteristics operate
in parallel. One machine has a terminal voltage of 270 v on no load and 220 V at a load
current of 35 A. while the other has a voltage of 280 V on no load and 220 V at 50 A.
calculate output current of generator and bus bar voltage when a total current of 60 A is
delivered to a load. What is the KW output of each generator under this condition.
Solution :
For generator 1, V = E1 − I 1 R1
220 = 270 − (35 × Ra1 )

50 10
Or R a1 = = ohm
35 7
For generator 2, V = E 2 − I 2 R2
220 = 280 − (50 × Ra 2 )

60 6
Or Ra 2 = = ohm
50 5
At load of 60 A,
10
For generator 1, V = 270 − I 1 ×
7
6
For generator 2, V = 280 − I 2 ×
5
And also I 1 + I 2 = 60
By solving above two equations, I1 = 24 A and I2 = 36 A.
Terminal voltage = V = 280 − (1.2 × 36) = 236.8 V
Output of generator 1 = 236.8 × 24 = 5.683 KW
Output of generator 2 = 236.8 × 36 = 8.525 KW

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