ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1

I TURNED
MYSELF

INTO A
NOTEBOOK,
 Module 1
Title: Direct Current Generator
Title of the Lesson: Generator Principle

I. OVERVIEW
An electrical machine, deals with the transfer of energy either
from mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice versa. This
process is called eletromechanical energy conversion.

A machine that converts mechanical energy to an electrical

energy is called an electric generator. While a machine that
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy is called an electric
motor.

Electrical machines may be associated to an electrical energy of

an alternating type called A.C. machine or may be associated to an
electrical energy of direct type called D.C. machines.

DC generators and DC motors are the classifications of DC

machines. Their construction is identical whether it is a generator
or a motor.
MOTOR

ELECTROMECHANICAL
ELECTRICAL MECHANICA
ENERGY CONVERSION
ENERGY L ENERGY
DEVICE

GENERATOR

ELECTROMECHANICAL
ELECTRICAL MECHANICA
ENERGY CONVERSION
ENERGY L ENERGY
DEVICE
Fig. 1.1 Conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice
versa.

II. GENERATOR PRINCIPLE

 An electrical generator is a machine which converts
mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy.

The principle of energy transformation is based on

the production of dynamically (or motionally) induced EMF.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
each time a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically
induced EMF is produced. This emf will push the current to
flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

Faraday’s Law states that:

“The magnitude of the generated voltage is directly

proportional to the rate which a conductor cuts magnetic
lines of force.”

−N ∆ Φ B
ɛ=
∆t

ɛ = induced EMF
∆ Φ B = change in flux
∆ t = change in time

A change in magnetic field will also result to a change in

magnetic flux which will give a rise to induced EMF.

Φ B=BAcosθ
Φ B= magnetic flux
B= magnetic field
A= Area
θ = between the normal line perpendicular to the face of the
coil and the magnetic field itself.

Example of a 2-pole generator:

 In short the principle of generator action involves:
1. the existence of magnetic lines of force
2. the motion of conductor cutting the flux
3. then voltage is generated

III. Construction Of A DC Machine:

Note: Theoretically, a DC generator can be used as a DC

motor without any constructional changes and vice versa is
also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be
broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic constructional
details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor.
Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine
instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.
The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC
machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC
machine are described below.

1. Yoke
The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It
is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only provides
mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also
carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

2. Poles and Pole shoes

 Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes are
fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air
gap
uniformly.
3. Field Winding
They are usually made of copper. Field coils are
former wound and placed on each pole and are
connected in series. They are wound in such a way that,
when energized, they form alternate North and South
poles.
4. Armature Core
Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is
cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature
winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated
circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It
may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.

5. Armature Windings
It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests
in armature slots. The armature conductors are
insulated from each other and also from the armature
core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two
methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap
or wave windings are generally used. A double layer
winding means that each armature slot will carry two
different coils.
6. Commutator and Brushes
Physical connection to the armature winding is made
through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function
of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in
case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing
current to the armature conductors. A commutator
consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated
from each other. The number of segments is equal to the
number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to
an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the
shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
They rest on commutator segments and slide on the
segments when the commutator rotates keeping the
physical contact to collect or supply the current.

Brush

Commutator
IV. Armature and Windings
What is Pole Pitch?
Pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between the
center of two adjacent poles in a DC machine. This distance
is measured in terms of armature slots or armature
conductors that come between two adjacent pole centers.

Pole Pitch is equal to the total number of armature slots

divided by the total number of poles in the machine

For example, if there are 96 slots on the armature periphery

and 4 poles, the number of armature slots that come
between two adjacent pole centers would be 96/4 = 24.

Hence, the pole pitch of that DC machine would be 24. Hence

pole pitch is equal to total numbers of armature slots
divided by total numbers
of poles, we alternatively refer to it as armature slots per
pole.
S
Pole Pitch=
P
What is a Coil?
The coil of the DC machine is made up of one turn or multi
turns of the conductor. If the coil is made up of a single turn
or a single loop of the conductor, it is called a single turn
coil.
If the coil is made up of more than one turn of a conductor, we refer
to it as as multi-turn coil.

A single turn coil will have one conductor per side of the coil
whereas, in multi turns coil, there will be multiple conductors per
side of the coil. Whatever may be the number of conductors per
side of the coil, each coil side is placed inside one armature slot
only.
That means all conductors of one side of a particular coil must be
placed in one single slot only. Similarly, we place all conductors on
the opposite side of the coil in another single armature slot.

Coil Span or Coil Pitch (Ys) - It is the distance between the two
sides of a coil measured in terms of armature slots between them.
 Full Pitched - The pole span or coil pitch is
equal to the pole pitch. It means that the coil
span is 180 electrical degrees. (number of slots
is divisible by number of poles so exact
number)

Fractional Pitched- The coil span is less than the

pole pitch. In this case there is phase difference
between the emfs in the two sides of the coil.
Therefore, the total emf around the coil which is
vector sum of emfs in the two sides is less in this
case as compared to that in the first case. If the
35 3
number of slots is 35, then YS= − =8 . (no.
4 4
of slots not divisible by no. of poles)
S
YS= −K
P
Where:
Ys = coil pitch in slots
S = total number of armature slots
P = number of poles
S
K = any number of , that is subtracted to make YS an
P
integer
Example:
a) 20 slots, 4 poles b) 58 slots, 4 poles
S 20 S 58 29
YS= YS= YS=5 YS= −K YS= = ∨14.5
P 4 P 4 2
For it to be
=slot 1 to slot 6 58 2
YS= − =14 YS=14 exact we need
4 4 to subtract .5
=slot 1 to 15 58
or ½ to
4
V. Pitch of Armature Winding
Back Pitch (Yb)-A coil advances on the back of the armature. This
advancement is measured in terms of armature conductors and is
called back pitch. It is equal to the number difference of the
conductor connected to a given segment of the commutator.

Front Pitch (Yf)-The number of armature conductors or elements

spanned by a coil on the front is called front pitch. Alternatively, we
define the front-pitch as the distance between the second
conductor
of the next coil which connects the front, i.e., commutator end of
the armature.

Resultant Pitch (Y)-It is the distance between the beginning of one

coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected.

Commutator Pitch (Yc)-The distance between the two segments to

which the two ends of the coil are connected.
For lap winding, Yc is equal to the number of plex. For wave
winding Yc is equal to:
c±m
Yc=
P
2
Where:
Yc = commutator pitch
C = number of commutator segments
P = number of poles
m= number or plex (simplex=1, duplex=2, triplex=3)
Note: If Yc is not an integer or whole number, then wave winding is not possible.

Example:
a) 4 poles, 19 segments, simplex wave
C= 19; P=4; m=1
c±m 19+ 1 c±m 19−1
Yc= Yc= Yc= Yc=
P 4 Yc=10P 4 Yc=9
2 2 2 2

Tracing Yc=10:1+10=1111+10=21Tracing Yc=9 1+9=10

10+9=19 1 11 21
∴2 segments ahead segment 1
VI. Types of Armature Winding
There are two methods
1 10used19 in armature winding of a DC machine:
1. lap winding ∴1 segment ahead segment 1
2. wave winding.

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex

lap winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent
commutator segments.
 Complete winding diagram of a 17 slots, 4 pole simplex lap winding

In wave winding, the coil ends are connected to the

commutator segments very nearly, but never exactly equal to the
distance between poles of the same polarity, that is, alternate poles.
Since one cycle always occurs in distance covered by a pair of poles,
this distance is arbitrarily called 360 electrical degrees.

Complete winding diagram of a 41 slots, 4 pole simplex wave winding

Multiplex Winding
Multiplex winding is use to limit the current per path, because as
the number of plex increases the number of parallel paths in lap
winding also increases.
Number of parallel path:

Lap winding= plex × pole

Wave winding= 2 × plex

Multiplex lap winding are mostly limited to low voltage, high

current machines because practically speaking, it is desirable to
limit the current per path to values no greater than 250 to 300
amperes. When the current per path is in excess of these general
practical limits, commutation becomes difficult. (If the current per
path excedes 250A-300A the brushes will spark.)

For example, a machine with 100kW, 50 V, and 4 poles would have

an armature current of:

3
100× 10
=2000 A
50

If we are going to use simplex lap winding, the current per path will be:

2000 A
=500 A
4 poles

500A is almost double the current limit per path (250-300A limit)
so we will use duplex winding in order to limit the current.
2000 A
=250 A
8 poles
Dummy or Idle Coils
Dummy element is used to provide mechanical balance for the
armature. It is a wire that is similar to the other coils but it is not
connected to the commutator so that it does not affect the electrical
characteristics of the winding.

Winding diagram for four pole simplex wave armature with dummy element.

Equalizer Ring
It is used to avoid unequal distribution of current at the brushes, in so
doing, aiding to become sparkless commutation. It is a copper conductor
in the form of ring that is connected to the armature conductor so that
the circulating current due to slight difference in the emfs of several
parallel paths, passes over these equalizer rings instead of passing
through the brushes.
Unequal current distribution will create sparks that’s why equalizer
rings are necessary.
 EQUALIZER
RINGS

EQUALIZER 2

EQUALIZER 1

Sketch showing two equalizer connections in a six pole lap type armature winding.

Maximum number of equalizer rings is equal to the number of

conductors under one pair of poles. Hence:
Number of conductors
Number of rings=
Number of pair of poles
Example:
Determine the number of equalizer connections at the commutator
of 36 segments, six pole armature for 100% equalization and make
a table showing those that are joined together at each one.
Number of conductors
Number of rings=
Number of pair of poles
36 '
Number of rings= sincehas 6 polesthen tha t ≪give us 3 pairs .
3
1+12=13 , 13+12=25 1------13------25
1 13 25
2 14 26
 3 15 27
4 16 28
5 17 29
6 18 30
7 19 31
8 20 32
9 21 33
10 22 34
11 23 35
12 24 36

On 50% equalization:
Number of conductors
Number of rings=
Number of pair of poles
36 '
Number of rings= =12 sincehas 6 poles then tha t ≪ give us 3 pairs .
3
50 % of 12=6
1+6=7 , 7+6=13 1------7------13
1 7 13
2 8 14
3 9 15
4 10 16
5 11 17
6 12 18
7 13 19
8 14 20
9 15 21
10 16 22
11 17 23
12 18 24

Advantages of Lap and Wave Windings

For wave winding:

• It gives more emf, so that wave winding is used for high voltage low
current machine.
• It is not required to use equalizer ring because each path contains
conductor which lie under all poles.

For lap winding:

• It gives more parallel paths so that it is suitable for high current low
voltage machine
 Module 2
Title: Direct Current Generator
Title of the Lesson: Types of DC generator

I. I. EMF Equation of DC Generator

QUIZ 1-SET A (KEY TO CORRECTION)
ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
BSEE-3D
2019110973
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
1. IN A DC GENERATOR, THE IRON LOSSES AT
1000 RPM ARE 10 KW AT A GIVEN FIELD
CURRENT. AT A SPEED OF 750 RPM AND AT THE
SAME FIELD CURRENT, THE TOTAL IRON LOSSES
BECOME 6kW. ASSUME THE HYSTERESIS LOSS IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE SPEED AND
THE EDDY CURRENT LOSS IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE SQUARE OF THE SPEED. DETERMINE THE
IRON LOSSES AT 500 RPM.
GIVEN:
75(Eq.1)-100(Eq.2)
PIRON 1=10kW
750=75 A + 75000 B
N1=1000RPM
600=75 A + 56250 B
PIRON 2=6kW
150= 18750 B
N2=750RPM
WH N
150=18750 B
WC N2
B=8×10-3
FIND:
PIRON N=500RPM

PIRON N=500RPM
PIRON=2(500)+8×103(500)2
PIRON=3000W or 3kW

SOLUTION
PIRON=NH+NC
PIRON= N+BN2
SCENE 1
10000= (1000) + B(1000)2
10000=1000A + 1000000B
10= + 1000B EQUATION 1
SCENE 2
6000=A (750) + B (750)2
6000=750 A + 562000 B 6=0.75A + 562.5B
EQUATION 2
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M 2019110973
2. The following data refer to a short shunt compound
generator
Full load current, 200 A
Full load terminal voltage, 220 V
Armature resistance, 0.04 Ω
Shunt field resistance, 50 Ω
Series field resistance, 0.02 Ω
Iron and friction losses, 4% of full load output.
Calculate:
 a. emf generated
b. Copper losses
c. Overall efficiency
GIVEN
I=200A
Vr=220V
Ra=0.04Ω
Rsh=50 Ω
Rse=0.02 Ω
IRON OR FRICTION LOSS=4%FULL LOAD
BY KVL
Eg=0.04(204.48) + 4.48(50)
Eg=232.1792 V

SOLUTION: Ia=Ish + IL
A Eg
Ia=4.48 A + 200
Ish=0.02(200) + 220
Ia=204.48 A
50
Ish=4.48 A

B COPPER LOSS
PCOPPER=ARMATURE LOSS + SHUNT FIELD LOSS +
SERIES FIELD LOSS
PCOPPER=RaIa2 + RshIsh2 + RseIsc2
PCOPPER=(0.04)(204.48)2 + (50)(4.48)2 + (0.02)(200)2
PCOPPER=8756.003 W

C OVERALL EFFICIENCY
Eff= Pout Pin x 100
POUT=220•200
POUT=44000 W
Pin=EgIa + IRON COPPER LOSS
Pin=232.1792(204.48) + .04
Pin=47484.00282 W

Eff= 44000 W x100

47484.00282 W
Eff=92.6628%

3. A SHUNT GENERATOR HAS AN EXTERNAL

CHARACTERISTICS SUCH THAT THE TERMINAL
VOLTAGE FALL UNIFORMLY FROM 450 V ON
OPEN-CIRCUIT TO 440 V WHEN DELIVERING 100
A. IT IS IN PARALLEL WITH A BATTERY OF 224
CELLS EACH EMF OF 2 VOLTS, INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY IS 0.02 Ω. FIND HOW
A LOAD OF 400 A WOULD BE SHARED.
GIVEN
SHUNT GENERATOR
Vo=450V to 440V
I=100A
Battery cells=224
Battery V= 2 V per cell
FOR GENERATOR=450-448 =0.2V/A
FOR GENERATOR=450-440 =0.1V/A
100

I1 + I2=400
I2=400-I1
I1=400-I2
GENERATOR vt=450-(0.1I1)
BATTERY vt=448-(0.2I2)
450-0.1I1=448-0.02I2
450-448-0.1I1=-0.02I2
2-0.1I1=-0.02I2
SUBSTITUTION
2-0.1I1=-0.02(400-I1)
2-0.1I1=-8 + 0.02I1
2 + 8=0.1I1 + 0.02I1
10 = 0.12I1
0.120.12
I1=83.3333A
I2=400-83.3333
I2=316.6667A

4 TWO SHUNT GENERATORS OPERATING IN

PARALLEL DELIVER A TOTAL CURRENT OF
250A. ONE OF THE GENERATORS IS RATED 50
kW AND THE OTHER 100 KW. THE VOLTAGE
RATING OF BOTH MACHINE IS 500V AND HAVE
REGULATIONS OF 6 PERCENT (SMALLER ONE)
AND 4 PERCENT. ASSUMING LINEAR
 CHARACTERISTICS, DETERMINE: (A) THE
CURRENT DELIVERED BY EACH MACHINE, (B)
THE TERMINAL VOLTAGE, (C) THE OUTPUT
POWER OF EACH GENERATOR.
GIVEN
IL=250A 6%
Po1=50kW 4%
Po2=100kW
Eg1=Eg2 500V
FIND IL AND IL2?
Vt=?
Po and Po2=?

SOLUTION
100kW
50kW
VOLTAGE DROP=500 X
VOLTAGE DROP=500 X 0.6
0.4
VOLTAGE DROP=30V
=20V
I=50000 500
I=100000 I=200A
I=100A
500
Ra1=30 100
Ra2=20/200
=100v/A
=0.1V/A
250=Eg1-Vt Eg2-Vt
Ra1 Ra2
250=500-Vt 500-Vt
0.3 0.1
A B. Vt=481.25V
IL1=500-481.25 C. Po1=62.5 x 481.25
0.3 1000
IL1=62.5A C. Po1=30.078kW
IL2=500-481.25 Po2=187.5 x 481.25/1000
0.1 Po2=90.234kW
IL2=187.5A
Module 2
Title: Direct Current Generator
Title of the Lesson: Types of DC Generator
I. EMF Equation of DC Generator
In a modern dc generator, with many poles, with a
large number of armature conductors that may result in
two or more paths in parallel, and with comparatively
high armature rotating speeds, the resulting voltage can
be calculated only by considering all those factors
responsible for the measured value. Remembering that
the voltage generated depends upon the rate at which
flux is cut and that 1 volt results from the cutting of 108
lines of force/seconds, the following analysis will lead to
a very useful fundamental equation
Derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:
1. Induced EMF of one conductor
2. Induced EMF of the generator
Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature Conductor
For one revolution of the conductor,
Let:
Φ=Flux produced by each pole∈weber ( Wb )
P=number of poles∈the DC generator
∴ Total flux produced by all the poles=∅ × P
60
and Time taken ¿ complete one revolution= N
where :N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the

induced emf of the armature conductor is denoted by
“e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.
Therefore:
dΦ total flux
e= ∧e=
dt time take
Induced emf of one conductor is:
dΦ N
e= =ΦP
60 60
N
Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor
in a generator, and arranged in such a manner that all
parallel paths are always in series.

Z = total numbers of conductor

A = number of parallel paths
Then,
Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

We know that induced emf in each path is same across

the line
Therefore, Induced emf of DC generator:
E = emf of 1 conductor × no. of conductors connected in
series.
Induced emf of DC generator is:
N Z Φ × P × RPM × Z
e=ΦP × voltsE g=
60 A a ×60
Where:
Eg = total generated voltage
Φ=¿ flux/pole in weber
P = number of poles, an even number
RPM = speed of armature, rev/min
Z = total number of armature conductor effectively used
to add to resulting voltage
a = number of armature paths connected in parallel
(determined by the type of armature winding)
If it’s a lap winding: a = plex × pole
If it’s a wave winding: a = 2 × plex
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A four pole generator having wave wound armature
winding has 62 slots, each having 20 conductors. What
will be the voltage generated in the machine when
driven at 1500 rpm assuming flux per pole to be 8
mWb.
Given: Φ=8 mWb → 8× 103 Wb Find: E g=? P=4 poles
RPM =1500rpm Z=62 slots × 20 conductors
a=2 × plex →2 ×60
Φ × P × RPM × Z
Formula: E g= a ×60
( 8 ×103 Wb ) × ( 4 ) × ( 1500 ) × ( 62× 20 ) E =496 V
Solution: E g= g
2× 60

2. A six pole, wave wound armature has 640

conductors. If the flux per pole is 16 mWb, at what
speed must be driven in order to generate 256 volts.
Given: Find: RPM =?
3
Φ=16 mWb →16 × 10 Wb
P=6 poles a=2 × plex →2 ×60
Z=640 conductors E g=256 volts
Φ × P × RPM × Z
Formula: E g= a ×60
3
(16 ×10 )×(6)× RPM ×(640)
Solution: 256 v=
2× 60
−4
RPM =5× 10
3. A six pole wave wound armature has 250 conductors
when driven at 400 rpm, the emf generated is 260 volt .
What is the useful flux per pole.
Given: E g=260 v Find: Φ=?
P=6 poles RPM =400 rpm Z=250 conductors
a=2 × plex →2 ×60
Φ × P × RPM × Z
Formula: E g= a ×60
( Φ ) × ( 6 ) × ( 400 ) × ( 250 )
Solution: 260 v = Φ=.052Wb
2 ×60
4. The induced voltage of a wave connected generator is
200 volts and the flux per pole is 0.02 Wb. The number
of conductors of the generator is 500. The generator is
driven at a speed of 600 rpm. Determine the number of
poles of generator.
Given: E g=200 v Φ=0.2 Wb
RPM =600 rpm Z=500 conductors
a=2 × plex →2 ×60
Find: P=?

Φ × P × RPM × Z
Formula: E g=
a ×60

( 0.2 ) × ( P ) × ( 600 ) × ( 500 )

Solution: 200 v = P=4 poles
2× 60
II. Types of Generators
D.C. generators can be classified as:
1. Permanent magnet type
2. Electromagnet type
Permanent Magnet Type
In this type of generator, the poles are made of permanent
magnet. The poles do not require any windings. Such type of D.C.
generators is of small size. These are employed mainly in
dynamo in cycles and bikes. It is not used for industrial purpose
because:
 It would require large magnet which is economically
not feasible.
  Magnetic strength decreases with time so magnetic
flux will not remain constant.
Electromagnet Type
The poles of D.C. generator is magnetized using windings.
Electromagnetic type generators can further classifies based on
the excitation of their field.
 separately-excited and
 self-excited D.C. generators
1. Separately-Excited Generators
In separately excited generator the field winding is
energized from another D.C. source which is connected
separately from the commutator

The armature current and load current are the same and it
becomes:
Ia = I L
The expression for generated voltage is:
Eg = Vt + IaRa
Electric power developed by the armature is:
Pg or Pa = EgIa
The output or load power is:
Po or PL = Vt IL

Where:
Rf = field resistance
Ia = armature current
IL = load or line current
Eg = generated voltage
Vt = terminal voltage
RL = load resistance
2. Self-Excited Generators
In self-excited generator the field winding is energized by the
current produced by the generator itself. There are three
types of self-excited generator offered depending upon their
connection of field winding to the armature.

Three Types of Self-Excited Generators

I.2. Series Wound Generator
The field windings (series field) are connected in series
with the armature conductors. They are made up of
comparatively few turns of thick wire or strips. This
generator is seldom used but for special purposes like
booster etc.
The armature current is the same as the load current, hence:
Ia = IL = Ise
The expression for generated voltage is:
Eg = Vt + Ia(Ra + Rse)
Electric power developed by the armature is:
Pg or Pa = EgIa
The output or load power is,
Po or PL = VtIL
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A series generator is rated 10 Kw, 125 volts DC, 1500 rpm with an
armature circuit resistance of 0.13 Ω and a series field resistance of
0.02 Ω. Determine the generated voltage and power if a brush drop is 2
volts.
I a=I L =I se =? Eg = Vt + Ia(Ra +Rse)+brush drop
PO =V t I L Eg = 125v + 80A(.13 +.02)+2v
P V I Eg = 139v
O t L
=
Vt Vt Pg =E g I a
PO
I L= Pg =139 v ×80 A Pg =11,120 w∨11.12kW
Vt
10 kW
I L=
125 v
3
10× 10
I L=
125 v
I L =80 A
1.3 Shunt Wound Generator
The field windings (shunt field) are connected in parallel
with the armature conductor and have full voltage of the generator
applied across them.
 The armature current is:
I a=I L + I sh
The shunt field current can be determined as:
Vt
I sh =
R sh
The load current can be determined as:
PO
I L=
Vt
The expression for generated voltage is:
E g=V t + I a Ra
Electric power developed by the armature is:
Pg ∨Pa=V t I L
The output load power is:
PO ∨P L =V t I L
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230 volts and the resistance of the
shunt field and armature are 50 ohms and 0.03 ohms respectively.
Calculate the generated emf.
Given:
IL = 450A
Vt = 230V
Ra = 0.03Ω
Rsh = 50Ω
Find: Eg =?
Solution:
Vt I a=I L + I sh E g=V t + I a Ra
I sh= I a=450+4.6
R sh E g=230 v+(454.6 A)(0.03 Ω)
230 v I a=454.6 A E g=243.63 v
I sh=
50 Ω
I sh=4.6 A

1.3 Compound Wound Generator

There are two types of compound wound generator. Few
series field and shunt field windings are combined in this generator
and connected either short shunt or long shunt compound generator.
This generator was developed to avoid the decrease in terminal
voltage due to increasing load.
1.3.A. Short Shunt Compound Generator
The series field is connected in series with the load and the shunt
field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding.

The armature current is:

I a=I L + I sh
The shunt field current can be determined as:
V t + I L R se E g −I a Ra
I sh= =
R sh Rsh
The load current can be determined as:
I L =PO V t
The expression for generated voltage is:
E g=V t + I a Ra + I L R se
Electric power developed by the armature is:
Pg ∨PO=E g I a
The output or load power is:
PO ∨P L =V t I L
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A short shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30A at
220 volts and has armature, series field and shunt field resistance of
0.05Ω, 0.03Ω and 200Ωrespectively. Calculate the induced emf and the
armature current. Allow 1 volt per brush for contact drop.
Given:
Ra =0.05 Ω Find:
R se=0.03 Ω I a=?
R sh=200Ω E g=?
I L =30 A
V t =220 v
brush drop=1 v × 1=2 v → assume 2 brush
Solution:
I a=I L + I sh E g=V t + I a Ra + I L R se +brush drop
V +I R E g=220+ ( 31.1045 ) (.05)+(30)(.03)+2
I a=I L + t L se
Rsh E g=224.455 v
220+( 30)( 0.03)
I a=30 A+
200
I a=31.1045 A

1.3.B. Long Shunt Compound Generator

The series field is connected in series with the armature and the
shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.

The armature current is:

I a=I L + I sh
The shunt field current can be determined as:
Vt
I sh =
R sh
The load current can be determined as:
PO
I L=
Vt
The expression for generated voltage is:
E g=V t + I a (R a + Rse )
Electric power developed by the armature is:
Pg ∨PO=E g I a
The output or load power is:
PO ∨P L =V t I L
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A 4 pole long shunt lap wound generator supplies 25 KW at a terminal
voltage of 500 V. The armature resistance is 0.03 Ω, series field
resistance is 0.04 Ω and shunt field resistance is 200 Ω. The brush drop
maybe taken as 1 volt/brush. Determine the emf generated. Calculate
also the number of conductors, if the speed is 1200 rpm and flux
per pole is 0.02 Wb. Neglect armature reaction.
Given: Find:
V t =500 v E g=? Z=?
Ra =0.03 Ω
R se=0.04 Ω
R sh=200Ω
brush drop=1 v × 2=2 v → assume 2 brush
PO =25 kW
RPM =1200rpm
Φ=0.02 Wb
P=4 poles

Solution:
I a=I L + I sh
PO V t
I a= +
V t R sh
PO V t
I a= +
V t R sh
3
25 ×10 w 500 v I =50 A+2.5 AI =52.5 A
I a= + a a
500 v 200Ω
E g=V t + I a ( Ra + R se ) +brush drop
E g=500 v +52.5 A ( 0.03 Ω+0.04 Ω )+2
E g=505.675 v
Φ × P × RPM × Z
E g=
P× 60

( P × 60
Φ × P × RPM g) E= (
Φ × P × RPM × Z
P ×60
P ×60
Φ × P × RPM )
P× 60 × E g
Z=
Φ × P × RPM
4 × 60 ×505.675 v
Z= Z=1264 conductors
0.02Wb × 4 × 1200 rpm

Brush Contact Drop

It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when the
current passes from commutator segments to brushes and finally to
the external load. Its value depends on the amount of current and the
value of contact resistance. This drop is usually small and includes
brushes of both polarities. However, in practice the brush contact drop
is assumed to have the following constant value for all loads, 0.5V for
metal graphite brushes and 2.0V for carbon brushes.

Diverter
Diverter is a very low resistance connected in parallel with the
series field. It diverts or avoids part of the load current through the
section of wire that creates no flux.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The following information is given for a 300 KW, 600 V long shunt
compound DC generator:
Shunt field resistance = 75Ω
Commutating field winding resistance = 0.011Ω
Armature Resistance including Brush = 0.03Ω
Diverter Resistance = 0.036Ω
Series Field Resistance = 0.012Ω
When machine is delivering full load, calculate the induced emf.

Solution:
PO V t 3
300× 10 600 v
I a= + I a= + (0.036)(0.012)
V t R sh 600 v 75 Ω Rd R se=
( 0.036 )+(0.012)
I a=500+8
I a=508 A
Rd R se=0.009Ω
Formula of resistance in parallel circuit:
R1 R 2
R=
R1 + R2
 Rd R se
Rd R se=
Rd + R se

E g=V t + I a (R a + Rd Rse + RC )
E g=600 v+508 A ( 0.03 Ω+0.009 Ω+0.011 Ω )
E g=625.4 v
Module 2
Title: Direct Current Generator
Title of the Lesson: Types of DC Generator
I. Losses of a DC Generator
Remember that “Energy neither can be created nor it can be
destroyed, it can only be transferred from one form to another”. In
DC machine, mechanical energy is converted into the electrical
energy. During this process, the total input power is not
transformed into output power. Some part of input power gets
wasted in various forms. The form of this loss may vary from one
machine to another. These losses give in the rise in temperature of
the machine and reduce the efficiency of the machine. In DC
Machine, there are broadly four main categories of energy loss.
The various losses occurring in a generator can be sub-divided as follows:
Armature copper
loss

Shunt Field copper

COPPER LOSSES loss

Series Field copper

loss

Hysteresis loss
IRON LOSSES
Eddy Current loss

Friction loss
MECHANICAL
LOSSES
Windage loss

A. Copper losses
 Armature Copper loss = Ia2R
Where:
Ra = resistance of the armature, interpoles and series
field winding, etc.
 This loss is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses
 Field Copper Loss= Ish2 Rsh = VtIsh
Shunt field copper loss= Ish2 Rsh = VtIsh
Series field copper loss=Is2Rs
Where:
Rs = resistance of series field winding.
This loss is about 20 to 30% of
full-load losses, but practically it is constant.
The loss due to brush contact resistance. It is
usually included in the armature copper loss.
 Magnetic losses (also known as iron or core losses)
As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic
field, some losses occurs in the core which is called core
losses. Normally, machines are operated with constant
speed, so these losses are almost constant. These losses
are categorized in two form; Hysteresis loss and Eddy
current loss.
 Hysteresis Loss (WH )
This loss is due to reversal of magnetization of
the armature core. Every portion of the rotating
core passes under N and S pole alternately,
thereby attaining S and N polarity respectively.
The core undergoes one complete cycle of
magnetic reversal after passing one pair of
poles. If P in the no. of poles and N is the
armature speed in rpm, then frequency of
magnetic reversals is:
PN
f=
120
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of
iron, maximum value of flux density βmax and
frequency of magnetic reversals. For normal flux
densities (i.e. up to 1.5 Wb/m2) hysteresis loss is
given by Steinmetz formula.
1.6
W H =η β max f V watts
Where:
V = volume of the core in m3
η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Value of η for:
Good dynamo sheet steel = 502 J/m3
 Silicon steel = 191 J/m3
Hard Cast steel = 7040 J/m3
Cast Steel = 750 – 3000 J/m3
Cast iron = 2700 – 4000 J/m3
β max1.6 =maximum flux density raised to 1.6
f=frequency (Hz)
 Eddy current loss (WC)
When armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic
flux. Hence an emf is induced in the body of the core
according to the laws of electromagnetic induction.
This emf though small, sets up large current in the
body of the core due to its small resistance. This
current is known as eddy current loss. This loss
would be considerable if solid iron core were used. In
order to reduce this loss and the consequent heating
of the core to a small value, the core is built up of thin
laminations, which are stacked and then riveted at
right angles to the path of the eddy current. These
core laminations are insulated from each other by a
thin coating varnish. .Due to the core body being one
continuous solid iron piece, the magnitude of eddy
current is large. As the armature cross sectional area
is large, its resistance is very small, hence eddy
current loss is large. In Fig. (b), the same core has
been split up into thin circular disc insulated from
each other. It is seen that now each current path,
being of much less cross section, has very high
resistance. Hence, magnitude of eddy current
is reduced considerably thereby drastically reducing
eddy current loss. It is found that eddy current loss
Wc is given by the following relation:
1
2 2 2 2
W e =K β max f t V watts
Where:
βmax = max flux density
t = thickness of each lamination
f = frequency of magnetic reversals
V = volume of armature core
These iron losses if allowed to take place
unchecked not only reduce the efficiency of the
generator but also raise the temperature of the core.
As the output of the machine is limited in most cases
by temperature rise, these losses have to be kept
 as small as economically as possible. Eddy current
loss is reduced by using laminated core, but
hysteresis loss cannot be reduced this way. For
reducing hysteresis loss, those metal are chosen for
the armature core which have a low hysteresis
coefficient. Generally, special silicon such as stalloy
are used which not only have a low hysteresis
coefficient but which also possess high electrical
resistivity.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. In a dc machine the total iron loss is 8kW at its rated speed and excitation.
If excitation remains the same, but the speed is reduced by 25%, the total
iron loss is found to be 5kW. Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current
losses at:
A. full speed
B. half the rated speed This is from our equation
Solution: 1
Since WH ∝ f and We ∝ f2→ W =K β 2 f 2 t 2 V 2 watts and
e max
1.6
W =η β max f Viswatts
Also the frequency of reversal ofHmagnetization directly proportional to
the armature speed.
PN
WH ∝ N and We ∝ N2 since f = then f ∝ N
120
WH = AN and We = BN2Where A and B are constants

Total core loss: WT = WH + We

WT = AN + BN2

Let’s assume that the full rated speed be is 1

Given: Total iron loss=8kW
WT = AN + BN2
8kW = A(1) + B(1)2
8kW= A + B→ (first equation)
Now when speed is 75% at full rated speed
(The problem said: “If excitation remains the same, but the speed is reduced by 25% , the
total iron loss is found to be 5kW” so 100%-25%=75%)
Then:
WT = AN + BN2
5kW=A(0.75)+B(0.75)2
5kW=A(0.75)+B(0.5625) →(second equation)
Multiply ➀ by 0.75:
➀ (0.75)(8kW)=(0.75)(A + B)
6kW= 0.75A + 0.75B ➀
Subtract ➀ by ➁:
 ➀6kW= 0.75A + 0.75B
➁5kW= 0.75A + 0.5625B
1 = 0.1875B
B = 5.333kW
Substitute to equation ➀:
8kW= A + B A=8kW - (5.333kW)
8kW= A + (5.333kW) A=2.667kW
Since WH = AN and We = BN2
A. WH at rated speed=2.67kW
We at rated speed=5.33kW
B. WH at half the rated speed: (we use 0.5 since N=1 and half of 1 is 0.5)
C. WH1/2 =2.67kW× 0.5
WH1/2=1.335kW
We at half the rated speed:
2
We1/2=5.33kW× ( 0.5 )
We1/2=1.3325kW
These losses are practically constant for shunt and compound-wound generators,
because in their case, field current is approximately constant. Both these loses total up
to about 20 to 30% of FL losses.
 Mechanical Losses
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the
machine are called mechanical losses. These losses
occur due to friction in the moving parts of the
machine like bearing, brushes etc, and windage
losses occur due to the air inside the rotating coil of
the machine. These losses are usually very small
about 15% of full load loss.
These losses are the combination of friction losses
and windage losses.
i) Friction losses are occurs at bearings of
commutator brushes
ii) Windage losses are occurs at armature against
wind flow.
These are about 10 to 20% of FL losses.
 Stray Load Losses
There are some more losses other than the losses
which have been discussed above. These losses are
called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses
are due to the short-circuit current in the coil
undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to
the armature and many more losses which are
difficult to find. These losses are difficult to
determine. However, they are taken as 1% of the
whole load power output.
  Constant or Standing Losses
As said above, field copper loss is constant for
shunt and compound generators. Hence, stray losses
and shunt copper loss are constant in their case.
These losses are together known as standing or
constant losses (We)
For shunt and compound generator
Total Loss = Ia2Ra + W
= Ia2Ra + If22Rf + SPL
Armature Copper Loss is known as variable loss, because it varies with the
load current.
Total Loss = Variable Loss + Constant Loss
WT = WV + WC
Where:
WT = total losses
WV = variable losses
WC = constant losses
SPL = stray power losses

Power Stages of a DC Generator

Generator Efficiencies
Following are the three generator efficiencies:
1. Mechanical Efficiency
total watts generated∈armature
Eff m =
mechanical power supplied
E g Ia
Eff m = ×100
P¿
2. Electrical Efficiency
watts available ∈theload circuit
Eff e =
total watts generated
P
Eff e = out × 100
Eg I a
3. Overall or Commericial Efficiency
watts available ∈theload circuit
Eff c =
mechanical power supplied
Pout
Eff c = × 100
P¿
It is obvious that overall efficiency:
Eff c =Eff e × Eff m
For good generator its value may be as high as 95%
Note: Unless specified otherwise, commercial efficiency is always to be understood.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Generator output = VtIL
Generator input = output + losses
Generator efficiency is maximum when:
Variable loss = Constant loss
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A shunt generator supplies 195 amperes at 220V. Armature
resistances 0.02Ω, shunt field resistance 44 Ω. If the iron and friction
losses amount to 1600 w, find:
(a) EMF generated
(b) Copper losses
(c) Commercial, Mechanical and Electrical Efficiencies
(d) BHP of the engine (Brake Horsepower or output)
Given:
I L =195 A
V t =220 v
Ra =0.02Ω
R f =44 Ω
(a) EMF generated
E g=V t + I a ( Ra )
I a=195+5
I a=200 A
E g=220+200 ( 0.2 )
E g=224 v
(b) Copper losses
2 2
I a R a=200 ( 0.2 )=800 w → armature copper loss
I f 2 Rf =( 52 ) 44=1,100 w → shunt field copper loss
C ut =800+1,100=1900 w → Total Copper Loss
(c) Commercial, Mechanical and Electrical Efficiencies
 OUTPUT 42,900
nC = × 100= =92.46 % → commercial
INPUT 46,400
OUTPUT 42,900
n e= ×100= =95.76 % → electrical
Eg I a ( 224 ) ( 200 )
E I ( 224 )( 200 )
nm = g a × 100= =9 6 . 55 % → mechanical
INPUT 46,400
(d) BHP of the engine
BHP of the engine= P¿
P¿ =PO +total losses
P¿ =¿ ¿
P¿ =( 195 ×220 ) +1900+1600=62.198 hp

2. A shunt generator supplies a full load current of 100 amp. At 110

volts. The shunt field resistance is 55 ohms and stray losses are 500
watts. If the machine efficiency at full load id 86%. Calculate the
armature resistance. What is the efficiency at 3⁄4 full load assuming
voltage to be constant at 110 V. What load current will the efficiency
be maximum?
Given:

Solution:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A DC GENERATOR
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
2. Internal or Total Characteristic
3. External Characteristic

I. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

At a given fixed speed, this characteristic illustrates the relation
between generated emf at no load (EO) and the current field (IO). This
condition is the same for all type of DC generators. The data for O.C.C.
curve is obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping a
constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the
corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection
arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below.
For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is
disconnected from the machine and connected across an external
supply.

We all know that:

NΦ PZ PZ NΦ PZ
E g= ; The is constant ; =k
A × 60 A × 60 A × 60
now if we' re plotting the circuit at constant speed then N is also constant
E g=kΦ N
Now we know that E g=kΦ Hence, the generated emf should be directly
proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is
generated (represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf
is due to the fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field poles.
Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the armature.
This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence, increasing
the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C.
follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get
saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the
If further, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the
O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
EαΦ
Eg α I f
Flux increases with increase in field current. So it’s clear that when field
current I f increases, the no load emf Eo also increases.
( E¿¿ o=noload emf )¿

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit
characteristics for all types of DC generators.
II. Internal Characteristics
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-
load generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load
generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the armature reaction.
Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore,
internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve

Let us consider a separately excited DC generator, operated at no-

load condition. At this condition, if there is no armature reaction and
armature resistance drop, then the obtained no-load voltage E0 for a
certain field current remains constant. It is shown in the below graph
as a horizontal line AB.

Now, when a generator is loaded from no load to full load, the

armature current or load current increases steadily and reaches the
rated current. At this loaded condition, the armature reaction and
armature resistance will come into effect, thereby causing the voltage
to drop.
 The induced emf will drop slightly due to the armature reaction. It is
obtained by subtracting the drops due to armature reaction from no-
load voltage as shown in the graph below. It is called as internal
characteristics or total characteristics.

Internal characteristics is drawn between the induced emf Eg and the

armature current Ia. It lies below the ideal characteristics
represented by a curved line AC.

III. External Characteristic (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal
voltage (V) and the load current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than
the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal
characteristic curve. External characteristics are very important to
determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as
performance characteristic or load characteristic. Internal and
external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of
generator.
Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator
ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

I TURNED
MYSELF

INTO A
NOTEBOOK,
Module 1
Title: Electrical Machines 2
Title of the Lesson: Alternating Current Generator
I. Introduction
Nowadays, electric supply used for commercial as well as domestic
purposes, is of alternating type. Like dc machines, the ac machines
associated with ac voltages are also classified as generators and
motors.
The machines that generate AC e.m.f. are called alternators or
synchronous generators. While the machines accepting input from ac
supply to produce mechanical output are called synchronous motors.
They must be driven at a specific constant speed called synchronous
speed and therefore in general called synchronous machines.
1.1 Alternator Working Principle
AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The AC Generator’s input supply is mechanical
energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and combustion
engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of
alternating voltage and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that electromotive force – EMF
or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a
uniform magnetic field.
This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a static
magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary
conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary
because it is easier to draw induced alternating current from a
stationary armature coil than a rotating coil.
Remembering that
generators action depends upon
the relative motion of
conductors with respect of line
of force (pertaining to Faraday’s
law/cutting of magnetic flux) it
should be clear that it is
possible to construct an
alternator with stationary field
and moving armature (DC
generators) and stationary
armature moving field.(AC
generator)
Advantages of having stationary armature (and a rotating field
system) are:
1. Alternating current is used everywhere, the ac voltage generated maybe
higher as 11 kV to 33 kV. For stationary armature large space can be provided
to accommodate great number of conductors and it is easier to insulate.
2. Protecting high voltage winding from the effect of short circuit current and
high centrifugal forces is always better. With stationary armature, windings
can be more easily fixed to avoid any deformation.
3. The output current from fixed terminals on the stator (or armature winding)
can be ran directly to the load circuit, without having to pass it through brush-
contacts.
4. The sliding contacts i.e. slip rings are shifted to the low voltage, low power dc
field circuit hence, it can be easily insulated.
 5. By keeping armature as stationary which is high voltage circuit and low
voltage rotating field. The problem of sparking at the slip rings can be
avoided.
6. Stationary armature makes overall construction very simple. With simple,
strong mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at
high speeds. So larger output can be obtained from an alternator of given size.
7. In stationary armature, the ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can
be improved. With all these reasons, most of the alternators in practice use
stationary armature type of arrangements. For small voltage rating
alternators, rotating armature arrangement may be used.
The value of the voltage generated depends on
1. The number of turns in the coil.
2. The strength of the field.
3. The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
1.2 Details of Construction
Stator Frame
The stator frame is used to hold the armature windings in alternators, and in case
of larger diameter alternators (which are slow speed) the stator frame is cast out of
sections and there are holes for ventilation in the casting itself.

Stator
The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the
slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a dc generator.
The stator core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel
stampings insulated from each other with varnish or paper. The laminated
construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses. Generally, choice
of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.

Fig 1.3 Section of an alternator stator

The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its
periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and
serves as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast
in frame. The section of an alternator stator is shown in Fig. 1.3.
Rotor
It is the rotating component of the alternator. It is driven by the generator’s prime
mover, which may be a steam turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. This component
may be the armature or the field, depending upon the type of generator. The rotor will
be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor will be the field if the
field excitation is applied there.
Two Types of rotors used in alternators
1. Salient Pole
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are
projected out from the surface of the rotor. The poles are built up of
thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in
the Fig. 1.4. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field
winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large
diameter and small axial length. The limiting factor for the size of the
rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member of the
machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is
preferred for low-speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500
r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such rotor are generally
water turbines and I.C. engines.

2. Smooth Cylindrical Type

This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or
round rotor construction. The Fig. 1.5 shows smooth cylindrical type
of rotor. The rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having
number of slots to accommodate the field coil. The slots are covered
at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted
portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not
projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which
maintains uniform air gap between stator and the rotor. These
rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep
peripheral
speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are
mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high-speed
alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high-speed
alternators are called 'turboalternators'. The prime movers used to
drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric
motors.
 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor
Sr. No. Salient Pole Smooth Cylindrical
Type Type
1 Poles are Unslotted portion of the
projecting out cylinder acts as poles
from the surface hence poles are non-
projecting.
2 Air gap is non- Air gap is uniform due to
uniform smooth cylindrical
periphery
3 Diameter is high Small diameter and large
and axial length axial strength is the
is small feature
4 Mechanically Mechanically strong
weak
5 Preferred for Preferred for high-speed
low-speed alternators
alternators
6 Prime mover Prime mover used are
used are water steam turbines, electric
turbines, I.C. motors
engines
7 For same size, the For same size, rating is
rating is smaller higher than salient pole
than cylindrical type
type.
8 Separate damper Separate damper winding
winding is isn’t necessary
provided

Damper Windings
In most of the alternators, where the oscillation or the hunting effect is very high, the
damper winding in the pole faces is provided. The copper bars short circuited at both
ends are placed in the specially holes. The relative velocity of the damping winding
with respect to main field will be zero when the speed is steady but as soon as it
departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative motion between the damper
winding and the main field. This will induce current in them. This induced current will
exert a torque in such a way as to bring the alternator to operate at synchronous speed.
The damper winding also tends to maintain balanced 3 phase voltage under
unbalanced load conditions. (Fig. 1.6)
Armature Windings
The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is produce. This
component consists of many coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load
current of the generator. Armature windings are the essential features of electric
machines.
The field windings are simple arrangements with concentrated coils (i.e. coils in which
all the turns have the same magnetic axis). Armature windings on the other hand
comprise a set of coils embedded in the slots.
Field
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and
produce magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a
voltage. This voltage is the output voltage of the AC generator.
Prime Mover
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime
mover could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and from the rotor of an
AC generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a
stationary device to a rotating one.
1.3 Frequency of Alternating Current Generators
The speed in revolution per second (rpm/60)
The number of pairs of poles, P/2.
The relationship maybe written in the form of the equation
P N PN
f= × =
2 60 120
Where: f = generated frequency, hertz
N= rotor speed
P=number of poles on the rotor
*N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at which an alternator
must run in order to generate an emf of the required frequency. In fact, for a given
frequency and given number of poles, the speed is fixed.
For producing a frequency of 60 Hz, the alternator will have to run at the following speeds.
Number 2 4 6 12 24 36
of poles
Speed 3600 1800 1200 600 300 200
(rpm)
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. An alternator has 6 poles and operates at 1200 rpm.
(a) What frequency does it generate?
(b) At what speed must the machine be operated if it’s to have frequency of 25 cycles, 50 cycle
Given: P=6 poles
N=1200 rpm
Solution:
A. B. @25 cycles B. @50 cycles

( ) P 120 ( P )
( )
PN 120 PN 120
f= f=

f=
120
( 6 ) ( 1200 ) ( )
120
P
f=
PN 120
120 P
120 120 ( f )
f =60 Hz 120 ( f ) N=
N= P
P
120 ( 50 )
120 ( 25 ) N=
N= 6
6
N=1000 rpm
N=500 rpm

2. What is the maximum speed at which the field of an alternator can be operated to
develop 60 cycles? 25 cycles? 50 cycles?
Given: P=2 poles
N=3600rpm
A. @ 60 cycles B. @25 cycles C. @50 cycles
120 ( f ) 120 ( f ) 120 ( f )
N= N= N=
P P P
120 ( 60 ) 120 ( 25 ) 120 ( 50 )
N= N= N=
2 2 2
N=3600 N=1500 N=3000

I.4 AC Windings
The windings used in rotating electrical machines can be classified as:
 Concentrated Windings
 Distributed Windings

Concentrated Windings
•All the winding turns are wound
together in series to form one
multiturn coil
• All the turns have the same magnetic
axis
• Examples of concentrated winding
are
 field windings for salient-
pole synchronous machines
 D.C. machines
 Primary and secondary
windings of a transformer
Distributed Windings
• All the winding turns are
arranged in several full-pitch or
fractional-pitch
coils
• These coils are then housed in the
slots spread around the air-gap
periphery to form phase or
commutator winding
• Examples of distributed winding
are
 Stator and rotor of
induction machines
 The armatures of both
synchronous and D.C.
machines
Armature windings, in general, are classified under two main heads, namely
Closed Windings
There is a closed path in the sense that if one starts from any point on thewinding and
traverses it, one again reaches the starting point from where one had started. Used
only for D.C. machines and A.C. commutator machines
Open Windings
Open windings terminate at suitable number of slip-rings or terminals. Used only for
A.C. machines, like synchronous machines, induction machines, etc. some of the terms
common to armature windings are described below:
1. Conductor→A length of wire which takes active part in the energy conversion
process is a called a conductor.
2. Turn→One turn consists of two conductors.
3. Coil→One coil may consist of any number of turns.
4. Coil–side→One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides
Two types of armature windings most commonly used for 3-phase
alternators:
single -layer winding (half-coiled)
double -layer winding (whole-coiled)

Single layer Armature Winding

In this type of winding, the complete slot is containing only one coil side of a
coil. This type of winding is not normally used for machines having
commutators. It is shown in the Fig. 1.9.

In single layer windings permit the use of semi-enclosed and closed types of
slots. Also the coils can be pushed through the slots from one end of the core
and are connected during the process of windings at the other end. Here the
insulation can be properly applied and consolidated which is advantageous in
large output machines with high voltage.The single layer windings used in high
voltage machines use small groups of concentrically placed coils. The
interlinking between these coils is in such a way so as to minimize the space
taken up outside the slot and in the overhang connections .
Double Layer Armature Winding
It is shown in the Fig. 1.10. It consists of identical coils with one coil-side of
each coil in top half of the slot and the other coil-side in bottom half of another
slot which is nearly one pole pitch away. In the Fig. 1.10(a) there are two coil-
sides per slot while in (b) there are eight coil-sides per slot. Each layer may
contain more than one coil side if large number of coils are required. For
placing double layer windings, usually open slots are used.
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
From the following test result determine the voltage
regulation of a 2000 V 1 phase alternator delivering a
current of 100 A at 0.707 lagging PF.
Test results: Full load current of 100 A is produced on
short circuit by field excitation of 2.5 A. An emf of 500 V
is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The
armature resistance is 0.8Ω.
GIVEN
Vph=2000v
Pf=0.707 lagging
SC=100 A
OP=500v
Ra=0.8Ω
SOLUTION
VOLTAGE
Eph- Vph
Reg%= Vph X100

Eph=√ ( Vphcosθ+ IaRa ) 2 + ( Vphsinθ + IaXs )2

Xs=√ Zs2 - Ra 2
OC 500v
Zs= = =5Ω
SC 100A
Xs=√ ( 5 Ω )2 ( 0 . 8 Ω )2
Xs=4.936 Ω
Eph=[(2000v)(0707)+(100)(0.8Ω)]2+[(2000v)(0.707)+(100)
(4.936)]2
Eph=(1414+80)2+ (1414+493.6)2
Eph=2423.009v
 2423.009v-2000v
VG%=2000v X100

=21.150%
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
A 230v three phase star connected alternator gives an open
circuit emf of 230v for a field current of 0.38A The same
field current on short circuit causes an armature current of
12.5A. The armature resistance measured between two lines
is 1.8ohms. Find the regulation for the current of 10 amps at
0.8 lagging power factor.
GIVEN
VL=230v
OC=230v
SC=12.5v
Ra=1.8Ω
Pf=0.8
Ra=0.9 Ω
2
VL
Vph=
√3
230
Vph=
√3
Vph=132.791v
Zs=132.791v = 10.623 Ω
12.5
Xs= (10.623 Ω)2+(0.9 Ω)2
Xs=10.585Ω
Eph= [(132.791)(0.8)+(10)(0.9)]2+[132.791)
(0.6)+(10)(10.585)]2
Eph= 13278.598+34419.377
Eph=218.399
VG%=218.399-132.791 X 100
132.791v
=64.47%
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
A full load current of 100A requires an excitation current
of 3A when a single phase 1200v alternator is short circuit
by an ammeter of resistance 0.01 ohms. On open circuit the
same excitation produces 350v. The resistance of armature
is 0.5ohms Calculate the regulation of the alternator at 0.8pf
leading.
GIVEN
SC=100A
OC=350v
Ra=0.5Ω
Pf=0.8 leading
Vph=1200v
SOLUTION
Eph- Vph
VG%= Vph X100

Eph=√ ( Vphcosθ+ IaRa ) 2 + ( Vphsinθ + IaXs )2

Xs=√ Zs2 - Ra 2
OC 350v
Zs= = =3. 5 Ω
SC 100A
Xs=√ ( 3 .5 Ω )2 ( 0 .5 Ω )2
Xs=3.464 Ω
Eph= [(1200v)( 0.8)+(100)(0.5Ω)]2+[(1200v)(0.6)+(100)
(3.464)]2
Eph= (960+50)2+ (720+346.4)2
Eph=1076.883v
( 1076 . 883v )-(1200v)
VG%=1200v X100

VG%=-10.260%
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
From the following test result determine the voltage
regulation of a 2000v 1 phase alternator delivering a
current of 100A at 0.8 leading Pf.
GIVEN
Vph=2000v
SC=100A
OC=500v
Pf=0.8 leading
Ra=0.8Ω
SOLUTION
VOLTAGE= Eph-Vph
Reg% Vph
Eph=√ ( Vphcosθ+ IaRa ) 2 + ( Vphsinθ + IaXs )2
Xs=√ Zs2 - Ra 2
OC 500v
Zs= = =5Ω
SC 100A
Xs=√ ( 5 Ω )2 ( 0 . 8 Ω )2
Xs=4.936 Ω
Eph= [(2000v)( 0.8)+(100)(0.8Ω)]2+[(2000v)(0.6)+(100)
(5)]2
Eph= (1600+80)2+ (1200+500)2
Eph=1820v
VOLTAGE= (1820v)-(2000v)
Reg% 2000v
VOLTAGE= -0.09(100)
Reg%
VOLTAGE= -9%
Reg%
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
The following test results are obtained from a 3, 6000 kVA,
6600 V star connected, 2 pole, 50 Hz turbo alternator. With
field current of 125 A, the open circuit voltage is 800V at
the rated speed, with the same field current & rated speed,
the short circuit current is 800 A. At rated full load the
resistance drop is 3%. Find the regulation of the alternator
on full load at 0.8 PF lagging.
GIVEN
Ra= 114.315v
Po=6000kVA
524.864A
VL=6600v Ra=0.534Ω
P=2
Xs=√ ( 577 Ω )2 ( 0. 218 Ω )2
F=50Hz
Xs=0.534 Ω
SC=800A
Eph= [(3810.512v)(0.8)+(524.864)
Pf=0.8 lagging
(0.218Ω)]2
Ia=125A
+[(3810.512v)(0.6)+( 524.864)
OC=800v
( .534)]2
Rdrop=3%
Eph= (10003493.61v) + (6587353.429v)
SOLUTION
Eph=4073.186v
%reg=Eph-Vph X 100
VOLTAGE= (4073.186v)-(3810.512v) X
Vph
Vph= 6600 =3810.512v
√3
Lagging∴
Eph=√ ( Vphcosθ+ IaRa ) 2 + ( Vphsinθ + IaXs )2
Xs=√ Zs2 - Ra 2
OC 800v √3
Zs= = =. 577 Ω
SC 800A
3% of Vph=(3810.512)(3%)
=114.315v
kVA=VrIr√ 3 Ia=IL
IL=6000X103VA = 524.864A
6600v(√ 3)
V=IR R=V/I
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
A 2000 kVA 2300 V, 3 synchronous generators has a dc
armature winding resistance of 0.068 Ω between terminals.
The field takes 35 A from a 220 V dc supply. Friction and
windage loss are 22.8 kW, and core loss including stray
load losses is 41.2 kW. Calculate the efficiency of the
generator at full-load and a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
Assume a Y-connected generator. The effective armature
resistance may be taken as 1.25 times its dc value.
GIVEN
P=2000kVA
Ra=0.068Ω(DC)
I=35A @ 220v
Friction and Windage=22.8kW
Core or stray losses=41.2kW
Pf=0.8 lagging
VL=2300v
SOLUTION
Ear=1.25(0.068) = 0.043 Ω
2
Po=2000X103(0.8)=1600000W/1600kW
kVA=ILVL√ 3
IL=Ia
IL= kVA =Ia
VL√ 3
Ia= 2000X103 =502.044A
(2300v)( √ 3)
Field Cu loss=(35A)(220V)=7.7kW
Armature Cu loss=nIa2Ra
=(3)( 502.044)( 0.043)
 =32514.215w or 32.514w
Total loss=(7.7kW)+(32.514)+(22.8)+(41.2)
=104.214kW
Pin=POUT+LOSSES
Pin=1600kW+104.214kW
Pin=1704.214kW
eff%=POUT
pIN
eff%= 1600kW X 100 eff%= 93.885%
1704.214
MADELO ALLYSA MAE M
2019110973
BSEE-3D ELECTRICAL
MACHINES 2
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
From the following test result, determine the voltage
regulation of a 2000 V, 1 phase alternator delivering a
current of 100 A at (a) unity PF

Test results: Full load current of 100 A is produced on

short circuit by field excitation of 2.5 A. An emf of 500 V
is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The
armature resistance is 0.8Ω.
GIVEN
SC=100A
OC=500v
Pf=1
Ra=0.8Ω
Vph=2000v
Voltage reg=Eph-Vph x 100
Vph
Eph=√ ( Vphcosθ+ IaRa ) 2 + ( Vphsinθ + IaXs )2
Xs=√ Zs2 - Ra 2
 OC 500v
Zs= = =5Ω
SC 100A
Xs=√ ( 5 Ω )2 ( 0 . 8 Ω )2
Xs=4.936 Ω
Eph= [(2000v)(1)+(100)(0.8Ω)]2+[(2000v)(0)+(100)
(4.936)]2
Eph= (2080)2+ (493.6)2
Eph=2137.765v
VOLTAGE= (2137.765v)-(2000v) x 100
Reg% 2137.765v
VOLTAGE= 6.888%
Reg%
Module 3
Title: Electrical Machines 2
Title of the Lesson: Parallel Alternators
Introduction
As every field of life becomes more dependent on electric
power to operate and grow, backup power systems, like generators, are
playing a progressively vital role in guaranteeing uninterrupted supply of
power. Generator selection greatly depends on the amount of backup power
needed for a specific application. An application may need minimal supply
of backup power to ensure uninterrupted functioning, or it may need full
power of the backup system. It is hard to find a generator that matches the
application requirement exactly. This is one area where parallel generators
can shine.
When the load on a system exceeds the amount of power that
a single or existing number of generators can deliver, an additional
generator is connected to the system to deliver required power. This
method of adding
an alternator in the existing system is called ‘parallel operation of
alternators. It is essential to know that the incoming alternator must be
paralleled such that each machine is supplying a proportionate amount of
active and reactive power to the common load. For which certain rules are
to be kept in mind.
Objectives:
After thoroughly studying this module, the student should be able to:
1. To be able to know the importance of paralleling generators.
2. Enumerate the conditions of alternators in parallel.
3. To determine the load sharing of each generator connected in parallel
Lesson Proper
III.1 Need of Paralleling of Generators
In most commercial power plants, several small units supply the
power rather than single large unit. This is called as parallel
operation of generators. The reasons for preferring this practice are
enumerated below.
Reliability
Several small units are more reliable than single large unit.
This is because, if one alternator is failed, other alternators are still
active and hence the whole system will not be shutdown.

Continuity of Service
In case of periodic maintenance, break-down, or repairs of
one alternator, it must be shutdown and removed from service.
Since the other machines are operating in parallel, the interruption
to supply the load is prevented.

Load Requirements
The load requirements in the central station changes
continuously. During light-load periods only one or two generators
are operated to supply the load demands. During peak-load
demands, other alternators are connected in parallel to meet the
demand.

High Efficiency
Generators run most efficiently when they are loaded at their
rated values. Due to the operation of few generators at light-loads
and more generators at high peak loads efficiently loads the
generators.

Expanded Capacity
As the demand for electric power is increasing continuously,
utility companies have been increasing the physical size of the
generating plants by adding more alternators. So, these alternators
have to be connected in parallel with the existing generator
equipment.
III.2 Conditions for Synchronization or Paralleling of
Generators
There are certain requirements that must be met for
successful paralleling of alternators. The following conditions must
be met in order to synchronize a generator to the grid or with other
generators.

Phase Sequence
The phase sequence of the three phases of the alternator
which is being connected to the power system bus must be same as
the phase sequence of the three phases of the bus bar (or electric
grid). This problem comes mainly in the event of initial installation
or after maintenance.

Voltage Magnitude
The RMS voltage of the incoming alternator should be same
as the RMS voltage of the bus bar or electric grid. If the incoming
alternator voltage is more than the bus bar voltage, there will be a
high reactive power that flows from the generator into the grid. If
the incoming alternator voltage is lower than the bus bar voltage,
generator absorbs the high reactive power from the bus bar.

Frequency
The frequency of the incoming generator must be equal to the
frequency of the bus bar. Improper matching of frequency results
high acceleration and deceleration in the prime mover that
increases the transient torque.

Phase Angle
The phase angle between the incoming generator voltage and
voltage of the bus bar should be zero. This can be observed by
comparing the occurrence of zero crossing or peaks of the voltage
waveforms.
3.3 Procedure for Connecting Alternators in
Parallel
When the above stated methods are fulfilled, the alternators
are said to be in synchronism. The actual process of
synchronization or paralleling generators includes the following
steps.

Synchroscope

Synchronizing lamp
• Consider that alternator-1 is supplying power to the bus bars at
rated voltage and frequency.
• Now, an incoming alternator-2 is to be connected in parallel with
alternator-1 for the first time. By increasing the speed of the
alternator, its frequency is varied and hence the speed is adjusted
till it matches with bus bar frequency (or the frequency of
alternator-1). Also, by varying the field rheostat, the voltage of the
alternator-2 is varied and hence it is adjusted till the voltage
matches with bus bar voltage.
• The three voltages generated by the alternator-2 must be in phase
with the respective voltages of the bus bar (or alternator-1). This is
achieved by maintaining the same phase sequence and frequency of
alternator-2 with bus bar or alternator-1. For achieving these
relationships, synchronizing lamps technique is used.
3.4 Techniques for Synchronization
There are different techniques being available for the
synchronization of alternators. The primary purpose of these
techniques is to check all four conditions discussed above. The
common methods used for synchronizing the alternators are given
below.
1. Three Dark Lamps Method
2. Two Bright, One Dark Method
3. Synchroscope Method
Three Dark Lamps Method
The figure below shows the circuit for bright lamp method
used to synchronize the alternators. Assume that alternator is
connected to the load supplying rated voltage and frequency to it.
Now the alternator-2 is to be connected in parallel with alternator-
1.
Three lamps (each of which is rated for alternator terminal
voltage) are connected across the switches of the alternator-2. From
the figure it is clear that the moment when all the conditions of
parallel operation are satisfied, the lamps should be more or less
dark.
To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime
mover of the alternator-2 is driven at speed close to the
synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number
of poles of the alternator.
 Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till
voltage across the machine terminals is equal to the bus bar voltage
(by observing the readings on voltmeters).
If lamps go ON and OFF concurrently, indicating that the phase
sequence of alternator-2 matches with bus bar. On the other hand,
if they ON and OFF one after another, it resembles the incorrect
phase sequence. By changing the connections of any two leads of
alternator-2 after shutting down the machine, the phase sequence
can be changed.

Depending on the frequency difference between alternator-2

voltage and bus bar voltage, ON and OFF rate of these lamps is
decided. Hence, the rate of flickering has to be reduced to match
the frequency. This is possible by adjusting the speed of alternator
by its prime mover control.
When all these parameters are set, the lamps become dark
and then the synchronizing switch can be closed to synchronize
alternator-2 with alternator-1.
The main disadvantage of this method is that rate of
flickering only indicates the difference between the alternator-2
and the bus bar. But the information of alternator frequency in
relation to bus bar frequency is not available in this method.
Suppose, if the bus bar frequency is 50Hz, the rate of
flickering of lamps is same when the frequency of the alternator is
either 51 or 49 Hz, as the difference in these two cases is 1Hz.
Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method
The connections for this method are shown in figure below
and it is useful in finding whether the alternator frequency is lower
or higher than the bus bar frequency.
Here, the lamp L2 is connected across the pole in the middle
line of synchronizing switch as similar to the dark lamp method,
whereas the lamps L1 and L3 are connected in a transposed
manner.
 The voltage condition checking is similar to the previous
method and after it, the lamps glow bright and dark one after
another. The lower or higher value of alternator frequency in
comparison with bus bar frequency is determined by the sequence
in which the lamps become dark and bright.

The sequence of becoming bright and dark L1- L2 – L3 indicates

that the incoming generator frequency is higher than the bus bar
frequency. Hence, the alternator speed has to be reduced by prime mover
control till the flickering rate is brought down to a small. On the other
hand, the sequence flickering L1- L3 – L2 indicates that incoming
alternator frequency is less than that of bus bar.
Hence, the speed of the alternator is increased by the prime mover
till the rate of flickering is brought down to as small as possible. The
synchronizing switch is then closed at the instant when lamps L1 and L3
are equally bright and lamp L2 is dark.
The disadvantage of this method is that the correctness of phase
sequence cannot be checked. However, this requirement is unnecessary
for permanently connected alternators where checking of phase sequence
is enough to be carried out for the first time of operation alone.
Synchroscope Method
It is similar to the two bright and one dark lamp method and
indicates whether the alternator frequency is higher or lower than the bus
bar
frequency. A synchroscope is used for better accuracy of synchronization
and it consists of two pairs of terminals.
One pair of terminals marked as ‘existing’ has to be connected
across the bus bar terminals or to the existing alternator and other pair of
terminals marked as ‘incoming’ has to be connected across the terminals
of incoming alternator. The synchroscope has circular dial over which a
pointer is hinged that is capable of rotating in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions.
 After the voltage condition is checked, the operator has to check
the
synchroscope. The rate at which the pointer rotates indicates the
difference of frequency between the incoming alternator and the bus bar.
Also, the direction to which the pointer rotates (to either fast or
slow) gives the information, whether the incoming alternator frequency is
higher or lower than the bus bar frequency and hence the pointer moves
either fast or slow.
The appropriate correction has to be made to control the speed of
the alternator so as to bring the rate of rotation of pointer as small as
possible.Therefore, synchroscope along with voltmeters are enough for
synchronization process. However, in most of the cases a set of lights
along
with synchroscope is used as a double-check system.
These are the methods of synchronizing the generators. This
process must be done carefully to prevent the disturbances in the power
system as well as to avoid a serious damage to the machine. Only three
lamps methods are not preferred today due to less accuracy and manual
operation.
These processes need a skilled and experienced person to handle
the
equipment while synchronizing. In most cases synchroscope method with
set of lamps is used as mentioned above.
Modern synchronization equipments automate the whole
synchronization process with the use of microprocessor based systems
that avoids manual lamps and synchroscope observations. These methods
are easier to manage and more reliable.
3.5 Sharing of Load Currents by Two Alternators in Parallel
Consider two alternators with identical speed/load characteristics
connected in parallel as shown below. The common terminal voltage 𝑉 is
given by
The circulating current under no-load condition is
𝐼𝑐 = (𝐸1 − 𝐸2)/(𝑍1 +𝑍2)
Problem 1] Two single phase alternator operating in parallel have induced
emfs on open circuit 230∠0° and 230∠10° and respective reactance of 51
𝑗2Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗3Ω . Calculate
(a) terminal voltage
(b) currents
(c) power delivered
by each of the alternators to a load of impedance 6Ω (resistive).
Given:

Solution:

Problem 2] There are two alternators, 100 kW, 3∅ in parallel are driven
shunt motors whose speed load characteristics are as follows; Alternator
No. 1, no-load speed 600 rpm and full-load speed 530 rpm, while
alternator
No. 2, no-load speed 590 rpm and full-load speed 550 rpm. For what load
will the alternator divides the load equally?