GLOBAL TRENDS

It is designed to provide an analytic framework for policymakers early in each administration as they
craft national security strategy and navigate an uncertain future.
The Philippine economy, like that of most other EMEs, has become increasingly integrated with the
global economy. This is evident in the general increase in trade in goods and labour migration. There is
also greater integration in finance, albeit at a relatively moderate pace.
MODERN PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

 There are five primary educational learning theories: behaviorism, cognitive, constructivism,

humanism, and connectivism.
 Additional learning theories include transformative, social, and experiential.
 Understanding learning theories can result in a variety of outcomes, from improving communication
between students and teachers to determining what students learn.

How educational learning theories can impact your education?

Teaching and learning may appear to be a universal experience. After all, everyone goes to school and
learns more or less the same thing, right? Well, not quite.

As the prolific number of educational theorists in learning suggests, there is actually an impressive
variety of educational approaches to the art and science of teaching. Many of them have been pioneered by
educational theorists who’ve studied the science of learning to determine what works best and for whom.

“Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and
influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and
worldviews,” notes the International Bureau of Education. “Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe
how this process takes place.”

Generally, there are five widely accepted learning theories teachers rely on:

 Behaviorism learning theory
 Cognitive learning theory
 Constructivism learning theory
 Humanism learning theory
 Connectivism learning theory

Educational theorists, teachers, and experts believe these theories can inform successful approaches for
teaching and serve as a foundation for developing lesson plans and curriculum.

What are learning theories?

 Theories in education didn’t begin in earnest until the early 20th century, but curiosity about how
humans learn dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They explored whether
knowledge and truth could be found within oneself (rationalism) or through external observation (empiricism).

By the 19th century, psychologists began to answer this question with scientific studies. The goal was to
understand objectively how people learn and then develop teaching approaches accordingly.

In the 20th century, the debate among educational theorists centered on behaviorist theory versus
cognitive psychology. Or, in other words, do people learn by responding to external stimuli or by using their
brains to construct knowledge from external data?

The five educational learning theories

Today, much research, study, and debate have given rise to the following five learning theories:

THEORY EXPLANATION APPLICATION

Learning is based on a system of

routines that “drill” information
As Simply Psychology puts it:
into a student’s memory bank, as
“Behaviorism is only concerned
well as positive feedback from
with observable stimulus-response
Behaviorism teachers and an educational
behaviors, as they can be studied in
institution itself. If students do an
a systematic and observable
excellent job, they receive positive
manner.”
reinforcement and are signaled out
for recognition.

Developed in the 1950s, this theory

moves away from behaviorism to
focus on the mind’s role in
learning. According to
the International Bureau of
Learning relies on both external
Education: “In cognitive
Cognitivism factors (like information or data)
psychology, learning is understood
and the internal thought process.
as the acquisition of knowledge: the
learner is an information-processor
who absorbs information,
undertakes cognitive operations on
it and stocks it in memory.”

“The passive view of teaching

The learner builds upon his or her views the learner as ‘an empty
previous experience and vessel’ to be filled with
Constructivism
understanding to “construct” a new knowledge,” explains Simply
understanding. Psychology,
“whereas constructivism states that
 learners construct meaning only
through active engagement with the
world (such as experiments or real-
world problem solving).”

With the understanding that people

are inherently good, humanism
focuses on creating an environment
A “learner-centric approach” in conducive to self-actualization. In
Humanism which the potential is the focus doing so, learners’ needs are met
rather than the method or materials. and they are then free to determine
their own goals while the teacher
assists in meeting those learning
goals.

Strongly influenced by technology,

connectivism focuses on a learner’s
Informed by the digital age,
ability to frequently source and
connectivism departs from
Connectivism update accurate information.
constructivism by identifying and
Knowing how and where to find the
remediating gaps in knowledge.
best information is as important as
the information itself.

Why are learning theories important?

It is part of the human condition to crave knowledge. Consequently, numerous scientists, psychologists,
and thought leaders have devoted their careers to studying learning theories. Understanding how people learn is
a critical step in optimizing the learning process.

It is for this reason that teacher colleges or educator preparation programs spend so much time having
teacher candidates study human development and multiple learning theories. Foundational knowledge of how
humans learn, and specifically how a child learns and develops cognitively, is essential for all educators to be
their most effective instructors in the classroom.

Pamela Roggeman, EdD, dean of University of Phoenix’s College of Education, explains her take on the
role learning theory plays in preparing teachers:

“Just as no two people are the same, no two students learn in the exact the same way or at the exact
same rate. Effective educators need to be able to pivot and craft instruction that meets the needs of the
individual student to address the needs of the ‘whole child.’ Sound knowledge in multiple learning theories is a
first step to this and another reason why great teachers work their entire careers to master both the art and the
science of teaching.”

Although espousing a particular learning theory isn’t necessarily required in most teaching roles, online
learning author and consultant Tony Bates points out that most teachers tend to follow one or another theory,
even if it’s done unconsciously.

So, whether you’re an aspiring or experienced teacher, a student, or a parent of a student (or some
combination thereof), knowing more about each theory can make you more effective in the pursuit of
knowledge.

Are there other theories in education?

Like students themselves, learning theories in education are varied and diverse. In addition to the five
theories outlined above, there are still more options, including:

 Transformative learning theory: This theory is particularly relevant to adult learners. It posits that new
information can essentially change our worldviews when our life experience and knowledge are paired
with critical reflection.
 Social learning theory: This theory incorporates some of the tacit tenets of peer pressure. Specifically,
students observe other students and model their own behavior accordingly. Sometimes it’s to emulate
peers; other times it’s to distinguish themselves from peers. Harnessing the power of this theory involves
getting students’ attention, focusing on how students can retain information, identifying when it’s
appropriate to reproduce a previous behavior, and determining students’ motivation.
 Experiential learning theory: There are plenty of clichés and parables about teaching someone
something by doing it, although it wasn’t until the early 1980s that it became an official learning theory.
This approach emphasizes both learning about something and experiencing it so that students can apply
knowledge in real-world situations.

How educational theories influence learning

Educational theories influence learning in a variety of ways. For teachers, learning theory examples can
impact their approach to instruction and classroom management. Finding the right approach (even if it’s
combining two or more learning theories) can make the difference between an effective and inspiring classroom
experience and an ineffective one.

Applied learning theories directly impact a classroom experience in a variety of ways, such as:

 Providing students with structure and a comfortable, steady environment.

 Helping educators, administrators, students and parents align on goals and outcomes.
 Empowering teachers to be, as Bates says, “in a better position to make choices about how to approach
their teaching in ways that will best fit the perceived needs of their students.”
 Impacting how and what a person learns.
 Helping outsiders (colleges, testing firms, etc.) determine what kind of education you had or are
receiving.
 Allowing students a voice in determining how the class will be managed.
 Deciding if instruction will be mostly teacher-led or student-led.
 Determining how much collaboration will happen in a classroom.

How to apply learning theories

So, how do learning theories apply in the real world? Education is an evolving field with a complicated
future. And, according to Roggeman, the effects of applied educational theory can be long-lasting.

She explains:

“The learning theories we experienced as a student influence the type of work environment we prefer as adults.
For example, if one experienced classroom based heavily on social learning during the K-12 years, as an adult,
one may be very comfortable in a highly collaborative work environment. Reflection on one’s own educational
history might serve as an insightful tool as to one’s own fulfillment in the workplace as an adult.”

Educational theories have come a long way since the days of Socrates and even the pioneers of behaviorism and
cognitivism. And while learning theories will no doubt continue to evolve; teachers and students alike can reap
the benefits of this evolution as we continue to develop our understanding of how humans most effectively
learn.
 Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to know, there are
four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or world philosophies just
discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms the world over. They
are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus
heavily on WHAT we should teach, the curriculum aspect.

Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great
ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to
teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and
human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical.
Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the
highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy,
stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized–
the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy
are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further
developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.

Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in
a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral
standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic
rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the
idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become
valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training
students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence
policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help
students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in
reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist
approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner
(1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the
teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning
is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The
learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the
physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by
progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis
is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from
the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the
school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools.
Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are
tools, rather than authority.
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory Social reconstructionism
It is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society
and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as
the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction
against the realities of World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through
technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human
compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for
creating this new social order. Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be
changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian
whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress others. To
do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and
oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads,
Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social
action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies
for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and
multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom are
also strategies.
Eclecticism
It is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but
instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies
different theories in particular cases. It can be inelegant, and eclectics are sometimes criticised for lack of
consistency in their thinking, but it is common in many fields of study. For example, most psychologists accept
parts of behaviorism, but do not attempt to use the theory to explain all aspects of human behavior. A
statistician may use frequentist techniques on one occasion and Bayesian ones on another. An example of
eclecticism in economics is John Dunning's eclectic theory of international production.

Existentialism
"Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is playing and no child ever gets enough play. The Summerhill
theory is that when a child has played enough he will start to work and face difficulties, and I claim that this
theory has been vindicated in our pupils' ability to do a good job even when it involves a lot of unpleasant
work."

Existentialism as a Philosophical Term

The existentialist movement in education is based on an intellectual attitude that philosophers term
existentialism. Born in nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism is associated with such diverse thinkers as
• Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate Christian, and
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1811 1900) who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and coined the phrase God
is dead. While the famous existentialists would passionately disagree with one another on many basic
philosophical issues, what they shared was a respect for individualism. In particular, they argued that traditional
approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the unique concerns of each individual. Jean Paul Sartre's
classic formulation of existentialism--that "existence precedes essence"-- means that there exists no universal,
inborn human nature. We are born and exist, and then we ourselves freely determine our essence (that is, our
innermost nature). Some philosophers commonly associated with the existentialist tradition never fully adopted
the "existence precedes essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental to the educational
existentialist movement.

Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism
sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the
existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead,
individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is "true" or "false," "right" or "wrong,"
"beautiful" or "ugly." For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the
free will to develop as we see fit.
In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand and
appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and
actions. The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they
may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since
feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the existentialist demands the education of the whole
person, not just the mind.
Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other
educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an existentialist
curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.
To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities are commonly
given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences that
will help unleash their own creativity and selfexpression. For example, rather than emphasizing historical
events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models
for the students' own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be
deemphasized, presumably because their subject matter would be considered "cold," "dry," "objective," and
therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is regarded more as a means of
teaching students about themselves and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching art,
existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established
models.
Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of
individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly. Although elements of
existentialism occasionally appear in public schools, this philosophy has found wider acceptance in private
schools and ill alternative public schools founded in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Comparison of Attributes of Educational Philosophies