EL

PT
Urban Utilities planning:

N
Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage
Dr. DEBAPRATIM PANDIT
ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONAL PLANNING, IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 08: Water carriage system
Lecture 36 : Water carriage system and sewerage layout
 Concepts Covered

 Water carriage system

EL
 Types of water carriage system

PT
 Combined system, Separate system and Partially separate system

N
 Pressurized sewer system
 Vacuum sewer system
 Pattern of sewage collection system
Water Carriage System
 Water is the cheapest alternative for collection and conveyance of sewage.
 Solid excreta(0.1%) is mixed with large quantity of water (99.9%) and conveyed through properly designed
sewerage systems.
 Solids remain suspended in the sewage and does not change the specific gravity of the water.
 High initial cost and maintenance cost.
 High volume of sewage is treated during monsoon.

EL
1. Hygienic.

PT
2. All sewage in closed sewers underground reduces rate of epidemics.
3. Self cleansing velocity is attained due to increased quantity of sewage.

N
4. Land required for disposal is less.
5. Buildings could be built as a compact unit.
6. Water supply to building is enough and no extra water required.
7. Sewage after treatment, could be reused.
8. No human agency involved.
Types of water carriage system
Combined system: Carries both sanitary sewage and storm water.
Separate system: Domestic and industrial sewage is taken in one set of sewers and storm water, sullage and
surface water in another network.
Partially Separate system: Portion of stormwater is allowed to enter the sewer carrying sewage and the
remaining amount flows in separate set of sewers.

Sewerage system is gravity based. However, in special cases: Pressurized sewer system, Vacuum sewer system

EL
PT
 Suited for areas with less rainfall.
 Self cleansing velocity is available.

N
 Laying of pipe is easy in crowded areas because only one pipe has to be laid.
Combined System  House plumbing easy as one set of pipe is required.
 Initial cost higher than separate system.
 Overflowing of sewers during heavy rains is dangerous for public health.
 Dry weather silting may take place.
  Suited for areas with heavy rainfall.
 Self-cleansing velocity is not available, so arrangements for flushing of sewer lines.
 Quantity of sewage treated is low, hence economical.
 Cheaper as storm water can be taken through open channels and only sewage through underground sewers.
Separate  During disposal, if sewage has to be pumped this system is economical.
System
 Difficult to lay two sets of pipelines in congested areas.
 Maintenance cost is high as two sets are to be maintained.

EL
 Less chance of pollution of disposal water bodies.
 Risk of storm water entering sanitary sewer resulting in heavy load and breakdown of treatment plant.

PT
N
 Suited for dry weather conditions.
Partially  No self cleaning velocity.
Separate  House plumbing is reduced as rain water from roof, sullage etc can be taken in same pipe.
System However other discharges are taken separately.
 Small portion of stormwater is being allowed in sanitary sewer thus reducing flushing needs.
 Cost of pumping and treatment is more than separate system.
Pressurized sewer system Sewage source
Boundary of
premises being
 Slope is not a concern in this system and these sewer sewered
lines can be laid on ground and firmly anchored.
 Smaller diameter pipes can be used. Road
 Manholes are not required. Gravity building Sewage
pump & vault Pressurized sewer
 Due to positive pressure chance of infiltration is less. sewer from source
lateral
 Leakage is detected easily. Profile of Pressurized Sewer System (Source: WERF)
 New pipes can be laid inside old pipes using

EL
trenchless technology thus reducing disruptions in
traffic etc.

PT
 A grinder pump is used to pump waste from the
residences to the low pressure sewer line.(Grinder

N
pump grinds up any solids before pumping.)
 Commercial plot should have grease interceptors
before the grinder pump.
 Costly system.
 Can pump sewage from basement.
(Source:https://ludwigpfeiffer.com/wp-
content/uploads/161114_Pipeline_and_S
(Source:https://jciind.com/grinder-pumps/) ewer_Rehabilitation_W.pdf)
 Vacuum Pipe Network
Vacuum Sewer System
 Collects sewage from different sources and conveys them to STP.
 A vacuum station maintains vacuum in the collection system.
 Limited capacity to lift water( upto 9 m).
 Pneumatic pressure-controlled vacuum valve in valve pit opens at
predetermined volume of sewage in sump. Collection
Chamber
 Difference in pressure between the valve pit (at atmospheric
pressure) and the main vacuum line (under negative pressure)

EL
pulls sewage and air. Vacuum Station
(Source:https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Guidelin
 Lines are installed in vertical zig-zag configuration.

PT
e_VacuumSewerSystems_FraunhoferIGB_2016_0.pdf)
Gravity
Uninterrupted
Service Line from power supply.
Customer Vacuum

N
Vacuum Collection Tank Station
Sewage Pump Pumps

Vacuum
Interface Valve
Sewage
Pumps

Suction Pipe Vacuum Sewer Force Main

Sensor Pipe Flexible Main to
connector Treatment
Plant
Steps of wastewater transportation in a vacuum sewer system. (Source: PDH ENGINEER (2007))
Pattern of sewage collection System
Depends on: There are five patterns of
Topography and hydrological features of the area. collection system:
1. Perpendicular pattern
Location and methods of treatment plants. 2. Interceptor pattern
Type of collection system. 3. Radial pattern
4. Fan pattern

EL
Area /catchment area of sewage. 5. Zone pattern

PT
Perpendicular Pattern
 Sewers carrying stormwater are laid in such a way

N
to seek the shortest possible path to water course.
 Thus perpendicular pattern is good for separate
system where storm water is disposed without any
treatment.
 Large outlets are a difficulty in setting of STPs.
Interceptor Pattern
 Better than perpendicular pattern. Sewers are
intercepted by a large size sewer which carries
sewage to a common point where it is disposed
with or without treatment.
 Overflows are provided when stormwater is too
large
Zone Boundary
Radial Pattern
 This pattern is adopted when sewage is to be disposed off
on land around town.
 Many outlets are provided and sewers are laid radially
outward from the centre of the city.
 Many STPs are needed. However, suburbs can be served
better.

EL
With or without Disposal in river
Treatment
Laterals treatment works

PT
Irrigation
Main or fields

N
Submain
Interceptor
Pumping

Pumping station
Overflow

with or without
treatment Treatment River
works
Irrigation
River or fields
Fan Pattern
 Sewers are laid in such a way that whole sewage flows to a common
point where one treatment plant is located.
 Diameter of sewer lines increases.
 No high overall cost.

EL
PT
Zone Pattern
 In interceptor pattern only one interceptor.

N
 In zone pattern, each zone is provided with
one interceptor.
 Selected for sloped areas.
 Conclusion

In Indian cities we usually see a mix of different sewage collection system patterns.

EL
The decision to go for a combined system or a separate system is not only technical but depends on economic
concerns and existing system in place.

PT
N
 References

 Birdie, G. S., & Birdie, J. S. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai

EL
Publishing Company.

PT
 CPHEEO. (2013). Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems - Part A
Engineering. Retrieved May 2021, from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-sewerage-

N
and-sewage-treatment.php

 PHDengineer. (2007). Vacuum Sewers - Design and Installation Guidelines . Alexandria,

Virginia: Water Environment Federation.
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Urban Utilities planning:

N
Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage
Dr. DEBAPRATIM PANDIT
ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONAL PLANNING, IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 08: Water carriage system
Lecture 37 : Quantity of sanitary sewage
 Concepts Covered
 Sewer design

EL
 Sources of discharge

PT
 Population estimate and forecast

N
 Per capita sewage flow
 Daily and seasonal variation in per capita sewage flow
 Sewage from other sources
 Net quantity of sewage
Sewer Design
 Discharge or flow i.e., quantity of sewage per unit time is used to estimate sewer size for the entire design period.

 The design period is the time up to which the capacity of the sewer will be adequate.
(Useful life of structures and equipment)

 Flow is largely a function of the population served, population density, water consumption.

EL
 High discharge estimate will lead to larger sewer size affecting COST, and lower discharge may not meet the
criteria of the self cleansing velocity.

PT
 Thus, in under developed areas although right of way for trunk sewers should be reserved alternative

N
sewage systems could be initially laid.

 Lateral and sub main sewers are usually designed for peak flows of the population
(Carrying capacity as per master plan)

 Trunk sewers, interceptors, and outfalls are designed for longer period.(difficult to change)
Sources of discharge
Groundwater infiltration, Unauthorised and authorized entrance

 Water supplied by urban local body for domestic, industrial and various public uses
 Water drawn from other sources such as, wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc.

 Water entering the sewers through cracks and leaky joints.

(depends upon the height of the water table above the sewer invert level and permeability of the ground soil)

EL
Groundwater infiltration: Values of infiltration taken for the design of sewers:

PT
Groundwater infiltration

N
Minimum Maximum
Litres/ha/day 5,000 50,000
Litres/km/day 500 5,000
Litres/day/manhole 250 500
Source: CPHEEO, 1993

Design infiltration value shall be limited to a maximum of 10% of the design value of sewage flow.
Population estimate and forecast
 In absence of master plan and other data some thumb rules can be followed.
Density of population per hectare
Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor
Area Ratio (FAR)
Densities of population vs. Populated areas
Size of town (population) Density of population per hectare
Up to 5,000 75 – 150
Above 5,001 to 20,000 150 – 250
EL
Above 20,001 to 50,000 250 – 300
Above 50,001 to 1,00,000 300 – 350
PT
Above 1,00,001 350 – 1,000
Source: CPHEEO, 1993
N
Landuse categories of the urban area
Actual total floor area = Area for residential development x FSI
Assuming floor area of 9 m2 /person
Density of population per hectare = Actual total floor area/ 9
 Per capita sewage flow
Dry weather flow quantities are less than the per capita water consumption.
(evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage etc.)
In arid regions: 40% of consumption
In developed areas: 90% of consumption.

In absence of data:
Minimum sewage flow can be considered as 100 liters per capita per day(conventional sewage system).

EL
Based on Rate of water supply and Population

PT
Sl. No. Population of city Per capita demand in litre/day Sewage produced per

N
capita in litre/day
1 Up to 50,000 135 115
2 50,000-2,00,000 135-160 125
3 2,00,000-5,00,000 160-180 135
4 5,00,000-10,00,000 180-200 160
5 More than 10,00,000 200-225 180
Seasonal and daily variation in per capita sewage flow
 The flow in sewers varies hourly, daily and seasonally.
 Similar to water supply peak flow rates are adopted.

Peak factor: Ratio of maximum to average flows

Peak factor for Contributory Population
Contributory Population Peak Factor Peak factor also depends upon:
Density of population

EL
Up to 20,000 3.00
Above 20,001 to 50,000 2.50 Topography of the site
Hours of water supply

PT
Above 50,001 to 7,50,000 2.25
Above 7,50,001 2.00

N
Source: CPHEEO, 1993
Seasonal maximum rate of flow: 1.3 times of average flow.
Monthly maximum rate of flow :1.4 times the average flow.
Daily maximum rate of flow : 1.8 times daily flow
Minimum flow: 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow. Flow rate at night : 60%-70% of the average flow.
Seasonal and daily variation in per capita sewage flow
 If the flow is measured near its origin, peak flow is quite pronounced.
 For smaller cities this variation will be more pronounced due to lower length and travel time.

Peak rate of flow: Less for bigger cities and bigger sewers
125 cm diameter trunk sewers :1.5 times
100 cm diameter main sewers:2 times

EL
Branch sewer 50 cm:3 times , 25 cm sewer: 4 times

PT
 The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is more in the laterals and less in
the main or trunk sewers.

N
This ratio may be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3 in case of main sewers.
Sewage from other sources Institutional needs for potable water
 Sewage flow is estimated area/zone No. Institutions
Water Supply
Existing and projected
(litres)
wise. While some zones are primarily LAND USE map
1 Hospital including laundry and beds exceeding 100 450 per bed
residential others are mixed or of Building use map
2 Hospital including laundry and beds not exceeding 100 340 per bed
other use. Is required to estimate
3 Lodging houses/hotels 180 per bed
 Sewage from institution and sewage flow.
4 Hostels 135 lpcd
commercial buildings are estimated
5 Nurses homes and medical quarters 135 lpcd
as per the water supplied to them

EL
6 Boarding schools/colleges 135 lpcd
 Industrial effluent in public sewers
7 Restaurants 70 per seat
may be harmful to sewage

PT
8 Airports and Seaports, duty staff 70 lpcd
treatment(secondary/biological
9 Airports and Seaports, alighting and boarding persons 15 lpcd
treatment)

N
10 Train and Bus stations, duty staff 70 lpcd
 Polluting industries within city limits
11 Train and Bus stations, alighting and boarding persons 15 lpcd
should reuse effluents after
12 Day schools/colleges 45 lpcd
treatment.(Zero liquid discharge)
13 Offices 45 lpcd
(automobile service stations and machine
14 Factories, duty staff 45 lpcd
shops release oil & grease)
15 Cinema, concert halls and theatres 15 lpcd
Net quantity of sewage
Additions:
 Type of area served
 Residential landuse In case of combined
 Population density/FSI, Per capita sewage flow, Fluctuation in flow sewers storm water also
has to be estimated.
 Other land use/building use
 Water supplied to building
 Groundwater infiltration

EL
Substractions:

PT
 Wastage and leakage in the pipe line during distribution
 Water used in drinking, washing, gardening, etc

N
 Evaporation(20-30 percent)
Net quantity of sewage =
Accounted quantity of water supplied from the waterworks + Addition due to unaccounted private
water supplies + Addition due to infiltration – Subtraction due to water losses - Subtraction due to
water not entering the sewerage system

Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of sewage produced.

 Conclusion

Sewer designs are based on peak flow rate.

EL
Net quantity of sewage is estimated for different zones and different landuse separately.

PT
N
References

 Birdie, G. S., & Birdie, J. S. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai

EL
Publishing Company.

PT
 CPHEEO. (2013). Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems - Part A
Engineering. Retrieved May 2021, from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-sewerage-

N
and-sewage-treatment.php
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Urban Utilities planning:

N
Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage
Dr. DEBAPRATIM PANDIT
ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONAL PLANNING, IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 08: Water carriage system
Lecture 38 : Storm water drainage planning Part 1
 Concepts Covered
 Storm water drainage issues

EL
 Case study: Kolkata’s brick sewer renewal

PT
 Storm water drainage planning

N
Storm water drainage issues
 Incidences of urban flooding water logging are on the rise in India.
Unplanned development and increase in impervious area.
Encroachment of existing natural drainage channels
 This is because storm flows are not regulated or routed to safe disposal points,
Health effect(mortality and morbidity)
Economic effects (degradation of urban infrastructure and individual property)

EL
Major issues:
 Old brick masonry conduits are still in use in many core city areas.

PT
Combined system not able to handle the heavy rainfall in many cities(Mumbai : 2,932 mm annually)
Need for augmentation and rehabilitation(technically and financially challenging).

N
 Solid waste dumping in the drains(even construction and demolition waste).
 Inadequate maintenance (preventive or otherwise)
 In India only 20 % of road network and allied catchments have storm water drainage network (2011)
 Rainfall intensity considered(1/2 year return period otherwise, 12-20 mm/hr)is inadequate
particularly considering climate change and extreme weather patterns.
 Other specific issues: Cities with flat terrain, tidal fluctuations in coastal areas,
landslides in hilly areas leading to blockage of drains.
 Case study: Kolkata's brick sewer renewal
 Clark’s scheme or ‘town scheme’ : Combined system
 Slope: From River Hooghly to east Kolkata wet lands and salt lakes.
Beadon
 Two main intercepting sewers.
st. sewer
Main outfall sewer (the ‘Town Outfall’) conveyed to
Palmer’s Bridge pumping station.
Kolutola st. sewer

Canning
The total catchment area : 19·1km2
st. sewer
Estimated sewage flow : 1·27 m3 /s (Population:500 000)

EL
Self-cleansing velocity: Allowing tidal water into the sewers.
Moulali

PT
Lenin Sarani sewer crossing
Palmer’s Bridge:
AJC Bose road sewer

Lifting flow into a

high-level sewer

N
for disposal at
Tangra Creek,
3·2 km
Legend away.
_____ Major brick sewer

50000 m3 of solidified silt removed Utilities cutting through resulting in

Layout of five major brick sewers (British design (1886) (26 km of brick sewers structural collapses
Map source: CMS (1862) as cited by Basu et. al. 2013) (Source:Basu, Nilangshu & Dey, Ayanangshu & Ghosh, Duke. (2013))
 Case study: Kolkata's brick sewer renewal
 Sewer renewal project (26 km of brick sewers )(Phase 1) (2008-2014)Global tender.
 Approval under Jawaharlal Nehru national urban renewal mission (2006–2007)
 Funding(70 million pounds): 35% central , 35% state government and 30% from municipal corporation.
 Designed and supervised by KMC’s planning and development department along with sewer rehabilitation consultants.
Trenchless technology 180 km of brick sewers in Kolkata.
88 km (Above 1·07 m diameter)
and allows entry of workers.

EL
Wastewater and storm-water

PT
flow are pumped via
dry-weather flow and

N
storm-water flow
channels
respectively to
Kulti River
36 km away.

Horseshoe-shaped brick sewer after de-silting Liner sections Liner section placed inside sewer
(Source:Basu, Nilangshu & Dey, Ayanangshu & Ghosh, Duke. (2013)) (access manhole)
Case study: Kolkata's brick sewer renewal
 Prefabricated glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) liners inserted inside the existing sewers.
 Socket and spigot type joints are used. Field-jointed with a rubber gasket.
 Liner thickness: Estimated loading and tested for flotation, external pressure grouting,
hydrostatic, and ground and traffic loadings.
 Flow diversion: In absence of alternative sewer as ‘bypass’, high-density polyethylene
pipes were used.(laid along main roads parallel to the sewers)

EL
Health-related benefits
Water-borne & Vector-borne diseases

PT
Savings in income loss due to a reduction in flooding.
Problems in carrying out usual business and
accessing workspace.

N
Cleaning of houses, establishments, cars.
Commuting in flooded areas.
Improved environment & aesthetics
Reduced traffic congestion and
emission
Personnel working inside the sewers Egg-shaped brick sewer
(Source:Basu, Nilangshu & Dey, Ayanangshu & Ghosh, Duke. (2013))
Storm water drainage planning
 Combined collection system in case of heavy rainfall:
Operation and maintenance issues.
Has to be diverted from treatment plants thus increasing environmental problems.
 Sewage flow should be separated from the storm water drainage to ensure proper collection and treatment.
 All storm water open channels has to be covered (to prevent dumping and encroachment).
 This also creates extra space.

EL
 Separate plans are prepared for sewage and storm water drainage.

PT
 Catchment areas, drainage zones, gradients(direction) and disposal points are first marked.
 Topographic layout is prepared along with location of pumping stations.

N
 Storm water drainage, retention, detention and recharge strategy for the urban area
considering aesthetics, public safety and ecology of the landscape, waterways including
recreational open spaces.
Aesthetic aspects should be stressed both in the engineering design and landscaping
towards a holistic, symmetrical vision considering the surrounding spatial environment.
Storm water drainage planning
 Prevention of solid waste including C & D waste dumping at vulnerable stretches.
 Prevention of pollutants in runoff to enter water bodies.
 Storm water drainage brings a lot of garbage and debris into receiving water bodies.
 In small streams this may result in blockage which results in flooding and erosion.
 In larger water bodies this results in an unpleasant aesthetic experience.
 In coastal areas beaches may get affected.
 Thus these garbage must be trapped and removed.

EL
 Too much nitrogen and phosphorus in storm water may cause eutrophication (excessive algal growth)

PT
 Rehabilitation of old drainage conduits.
 Disaster mitigation plan protection of urban areas from flooding.

N
 Strategy to manage runoff from upper reaches outside city boundary by either diverting or handling.

Environmental Assessment (EIA):

EIA in accordance with Environment (Protection) Rule 2006 and 2009, GOI.
Cost and financial viability assessment
Conclusion

Planning and operation & maintenance of storm water systems should follow a

EL
holistic sustainable approach integrating storm water drainage, retention, detention
and recharge strategy for the urban area considering aesthetics, public health and

PT
safety and ecology of the landscape and waterways.

N
 References

 Basu, Nilangshu Bhusan; Dey, Ayanangshu; Ghosh, Duke. (2013). Kolkata’s brick sewer renewal:

EL
history, challenges and benefits. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 166(2), 74–81.
https://doi.org/10.1680/cien.12.00016

PT
 Birdie, G. S., & Birdie, J. S. (n.d.). Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (8th Edition). New Delhi:
Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company.

N
 CPHEEO. (2013). Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, Part A Engineering Design.
Retrieved from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-sewerage-and-sewage-treatment.php%0A
 CPHEEO. (2019). Manual on storm water drainage systems. Retrieved from
http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-storm-water-drainage-systems---2019.php
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Urban Utilities planning:

N
Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage
Dr. DEBAPRATIM PANDIT
ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONAL PLANNING, IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 08: Water carriage system
Lecture 39 : Storm water drainage planning Part 2
 Concepts Covered
 Storm water volume

EL
 Rainfall intensity duration frequency relationship

PT
 IDF curve generation

N
 IDF curve generation using Bernard equation
 IDF curve generation using probabilistic method
 IDF curve generation using Gumbel distribution
 Storm water runoff estimation
Storm water volume
Only a part of the rainfall generates surface flow.
Infiltration and infiltration capacity
Depression storage, surface detention and surface flow:
 The accumulated water on the surface flows overland and reaches streams and river and is
known as surface run-off.

EL
Factors or characteristics of catchment affecting runoff: Losses:
(Size and shape, Elevation and slope, drainage density , type of Evaporation, Percolation , Absorption

PT
soil, land use and land cover, topography (Depression
storages/ponds/ lakes), soil wetness, groundwater level etc.)

N
Estimated Runoff :
𝑸 = 10 C . i . A
Rational Method Q = quantity of storm water discharge in m3/hr
C = coefficient of runoff
i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hour
Cross –section A = drainage area in hectares (104)
velocity method
Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency relationship
 Runoff from tributary catchment reaching inlets of the storm water drains are estimated in storm water drainage.
 Rainfall intensity varies in magnitude and duration in different areas. This variation needs to be considered
otherwise we may end up designing inadequate drainage systems leading to flooding.
Rainfall can be classified as: 125
 Usually higher intensity
Very light Rain (0.1- 2.4 mm/day) rainfall are of lower duration.
Light Rain (2.5 – 15.5 mm/day)  Usually duration is given and
100

EL
Moderate Rain (15.6 – 64.4 mm/day) we have to choose intensity
Heavy Rain (64.5 – 115.5 mm/day) 40 year curve
for the right frequency or

PT
Very Heavy Rain (115.6 – 204.4 mm/day) 75 30 year curve

Rainfall in mm / hr
return period.
Extremely Heavy Rain (>204.5 mm/day). 20 year curve
 In urban catchments

N
50 duration is small.
Variation in intensity, duration and frequency (rainfall to runoff
of occurrence can be determined by Intensity time is small: time
25 10 year curve
Duration Frequency (IDF) curves for an area. of concentration)
5 year curve

IDF curve are developed based on rainfall data of 0

the area (daily rainfall charts of Self-recording 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Duration in minutes
Rain Gauge (SRRG) stations of Indian
Rainfall Intensity Curves
Meteorological Department (IMD)).
Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency relationship
 IDF curves are not readily available for all areas.
 This requires analysis of rainfall records to prepare IDF curves to establish intensity-duration frequency relationship .
“The frequency or return period of a storm event may be defined as the average recurrence interval between events equal to
or exceeding a specified magnitude.” CPHEEO,2019
 Rainfall analysis is carried out using continuous recorded data for intensity and duration of rainfall events at a
station for last 25 - 30 years or more to prepare IDF curves.

EL
 These are updated every 5 – 10 years. 4
5

 Average intensity is used (Precipitation/time). 3 9

PT
 Return period depends on criticality of 2
11

8
infrastructure. 1
7 10

N
Rainfall is measured by rain gauges: 6

Self-recording type, Non-recording type (Source: CPHEEO,2019)

Rain Gauge Density:

Ratio of the total area of the catchment to the total number of rain gauge stations in the catchment.
Cities with population >10 lakh: 1 rain gauge per 5 - 10 Sq.km
1 -10 Lakh : 1 rain gauge per 10 - 20 Sq.km.
<1 Lakh : 1 rain gauge per town.
IDF curve generation Step 2: Intensity Duration for
Storm of once in 5 year
Duration (min) Intensity (mm/hr)
116.83 25
112.87 30
94.12 35
87.3 40
75.5 45
64.12 50
60.5 55

EL
25.25 60
16.75 75

PT
8.5 90

Step 1: Stepped line for number of storms for 5 year storm return period (Source: CPHEEO,2019) (Source: CPHEEO,2019)

N
“The required numbers of storm events having intensity equal to or more than design Step 3: Establish Intensity
intensity for once in 5 year occurrence for 29 years rainfall data will be 29/5 i.e. 5.8 Duration Frequency
times on an average may exceed over a period of 29 years.” CPHEEO,2019 relationship

The time-intensity values for this frequency are obtained by interpolation.

IDF curve generation using Bernard equation Duration Intensity
(min) (mm/hr)
5 123.28
140.00

120.00

Intensity (mm/hr)
10 92.4
15 78.06 100.00
Bernard equation: Where: 20 69.25
I : Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) 25
30
63.11
58.5
80.00

𝐼 = 𝑎 /𝑡𝑛 for Indian conditions. T : Rainfall duration (min) 35 54.87 60.00

40 51.91
a and n : Constant 45 49.42 40.00
50 47.3
60 43.85 20.00
Curve fitting exercise is undertaken to determine the constants. 70 41.13
0.00
80 38.9 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135
90 37.04
Duration (min)
Straight line equation: log 𝐼 = log 𝑎 − 𝑛 log 𝑡 100 35.45
IDF for Storm of Once in a 5 Year

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110 34.08
120 32.87
Slope of this line :n and intercept on Y-axis : a. (Source: CPHEEO,2019)

 Once constants are known, Bernard’s equation can be used to determine intensities for various durations

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thus generating the IDF curve for a particular return period.

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Empirical formula for rainfall intensity: 𝑎
𝑖=
25.4 𝑎
mm/hour 𝑖= mm/hour
𝑡+𝑏
𝑡+𝑏
t = Duration of storm in minutes a and b are constants
a = 30 & b = 10, when duration of storm is 5 to 200 minutes.
0 which can be determined
a = 40 & b = 20, when duration of storm is 20 to 100 minutes. by a curve fitting exercise.
 IDF curve generation using probabilistic method
 Variability of hydrologic data is partly deterministic and partly random which can be predicted by probabilistic methods.
Normal Distribution
Log-Normal Distribution
Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution (Most commonly used in India)
Log Pearson Type III Distribution

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Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution:
Extreme value distribution.

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Suitable for predicting extreme values in hydrologic and meteorological studies (maximum rainfall etc. )
𝑋𝑇 = 𝑢 + 𝛼 𝑦𝑇

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XT :Intensity for return period T years
Where, ̅ : Mean of the N observations
𝑢 = ̅ − 0.5772𝛼 σ : Standard deviation =√ ((𝑿− ̅) 𝟐 /(𝑵−𝟏))
X : Rainfall Event
𝛼 = ( √6/ 𝜋 ) 𝜎
T : Return Period
𝑦𝑇 = −𝑙𝑛 [𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑇/ 𝑇−1 )] N : Sample size
IDF curve generation using Gumbel distribution 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 75 min 90 min

Mean (X) 22.96 33.45 40.97 44.62 44.78 51.12

Maximum annual series Rainfall Depth (mm) Standard deviation

(𝝈)
7.12 10.38 16.74 22.38 29.14 35.57

Year 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 75 min 90 min √6 5.549 8.09 13.05 17.44 22.71 27.72
𝑎 = ( )𝜎
𝜋
1979 21.5 25.5 32.5
𝑢 = 𝑋 − 0.5772𝛼 19.76 28.78 33.44 34.55 31.67 35.12
1980 16.5 26 38 40.2 25.3 28.6
For T = 5 years
1981 13.5 18 24 19.5 23 26
𝑇 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1998 30 50 70 82 86.5 91.5 𝑦𝑇 = − ln(ln( ))
𝑇−1
1999 18 𝑋𝑇 = 𝑢 + 𝛼 𝑦𝑇 28.08 409.2 53.01 60.72 65.74 76.7

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2000 20 32.5 50.3 60.3 55 61.5 Intensity in mm/hr 112.3 81.83 70.68 60.72 52.59 51.13

(Source: CPHEEO,2019)

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(Source: CPHEEO,2019)
Gumbel distribution method
120

Intensity (mm/hr)
Maximum depth of rainfall of each rainfall

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100
event corresponding to 15, 30,....90, 80

minutes interval occurring on one day and 60

40
then for entire year is recorded for 25 years. 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thus, Gumbel distribution is applied to Duration (min)
IDF curve for 5 year Return Period
determine IDF curve for a return period. (Source: CPHEEO,2019)
Storm water run-off estimation
Time of Concentration
Time required for water to travel from the most hydraulically distant point in the total contributing
catchment to the point of consideration.
We generally assume intensity of rainfall as per this time of concentration. (IDF relationship)

Maximum flow(peak discharge) may occur when only part of the upstream catchment is contributing.
Runoff coefficient x lesser catchment area x higher rainfall intensity (lower tc ) >

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Runoff coefficient x full catchment area x lower rainfall intensity(higher tc).

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This is known as the ‘partial area effect’.

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Methods of Runoff Estimation
 Rational Method
 Time Area Method
 Unit Hydrograph Method
 Rainfall-Runoff process simulation
 Conclusion

IDF curves are not readily available for all areas. In absence of data empirical formulas can

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be adopted.
Maximum discharge is estimated based on time of concentration and contributing

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catchment area.
Intensity of rainfall is adopted as per this time of concentration.

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Intensity of rainfall also varies as per the return period adopted.
 References

 Birdie, G. S., & Birdie, J. S. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (8th Edition). New Delhi:

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Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company.
 CPHEEO (2013). Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, Part A Engineering Design,

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Retrieved from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-sewerage-and-sewage-treatment.php
 CPHEEO (2019). Manual on Storm water drainage Systems, Part A Engineering Design. Retrieved

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from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-storm-water-drainage-systems---2019.php
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Urban Utilities planning:

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Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage
Dr. DEBAPRATIM PANDIT
ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONAL PLANNING, IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 08: Water carriage system
Lecture 40 : Storm water drainage planning Part 3
 Concepts Covered
 Data and Surveys

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 Catchment area

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 Components of storm water drainage

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 Cost and financial viability of project
 Other aspects of storm water drainage planning
 Storm water drainage indices
 Data and surveys
In addition to Physical Characteristics data (sanitation)

Rainfall  Rainfall data from automatic rain gauge station for 30 years or more (IMD specified format).
Characteristics (Annual average daily and monthly rainfall and no of rainy days)
 Data on historical flood events.

 Physical condition and characteristics of existing (size, slope, and material) storm water channels.
 Existing drainage channels (natural and engineered), water bodies and rainwater harvesting

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structures(+proposed).
Waterway
 Water quality & quantity in existing storm water channels and receiving water bodies

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Characteristics
(wet and dry condition)
 Capacity of water receiving the body and its characteristics like HFL .

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 Tidal influence on receiving water bodies within catchment

Storm water use potential.

Problems related to dumping of solid waste.
Monitoring of dumping and waste generation sites.
Monitoring of pollution sources.
Monitoring of encroachment.
 Data and surveys
 Surveys are conducted considering the alignment of the final proposed drainage network.
 Alignment of drains/maps with suitable ground levels.

Topographical survey(traversing along the centre line of alignment) for topographical maps(1:1000)
Total Station Survey / Mobile LiDAR/ Drone / aerial survey etc. along alignment.(Coordinates and levels of
important locations are collected)
 Contour maps are prepared.

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 Locations of temporary/ permanent structures within 15 m of the banks.
 Location of electric cables, telephone lines, water supply, and sewer lines in the vicinity.

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 Longitudinal cross-sections at specified intervals(30-50 mt) and cross-section at 1 mt
interval inside drain and 2-5 mt outside the drain.

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ESRI shape file format (projection system and surveyed attributes) for GIS representation of layout.
Urban catchment demarcation (sectors, zones and subzones for layout of Primary, Secondary & Tertiary drains).
Marking of vulnerable points(silting, erosion, dumping),Water harvesting structures, detention tanks, etc.
Potential recharge areas around drainage channels (Type of soil, Permeability, Ground Water Table, etc.)
Components of Storm water drainage
Demarcation of catchment areas
 Based on topography, road alignment, railway lines, culverts, bridges, contour and existing drainage plan of the area.

Location of inlets
 Inlets (Catch pits / Catch-Basins) are provided to allow entry of storm water from paved surfaces (kerb & channels),
parks, open areas to subsurface drains.
 Inlets are connected to open drains by means of interconnection pipes.

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 The inlets need to be hydraulically designed and suitably spaced to efficiently drain storm water runoff into main
drainage system.

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Manholes

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Outfall Structures
 Selected considering level of the surface water of
receiving water bodies (low water level, high water
level, and normal water level)
 Outfall level higher than High Flood Level and
backflow prevention if not feasible. (Source: https://www.healthwire.co/uk-india-sewage-surveillance-
research-partnership-calls-for-global-technology-and-investment-in-
early-warning-of-virus-outbreaks/)
Components of Storm water drainage
Pumping of storm runoff
In general storm water follows the terrain in the drainage catchment.
Pumping arrangement is required :
For lifting water from low lying areas.
Areas of flat terrain where depth of engineered channel becomes unfeasible.
Detention or storage reservoirs.

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Pumping station design:
Pumping points and space availability

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Distance/route of the rising main alignment
Estimation of design runoff at the pumping station

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Capacity of the wet well(detention time in minutes for peak load) and additional storage capacity
Pumping arrangement

Flood protection measures

Cost and financial viability of project
 Financial viability and technical viability of a project are equally important .
 Operating and maintenance cost is more important than the capital cost.
Capital cost: Annual O& M cost:
Cost of civil construction Direct operating cost Fixed costs
Cost of drains and appurtenances Staff Amortization
Cost of pumping machineries and their installation Chemicals cost Interest on capital
and erection Fuel and electricity borrowed

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Opportunity cost (land cost) Transport
Maintenance and repair
Engineering design and supervision charges

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Insurance
Interest charges on loan. Overheads etc.
 O & M funds can be collected in form of storm water drainage cess. (area of premises and level of construction)

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Benefits of storm water drainage projects:
Social, health, and other benefits are assessed.
Annual benefits:
Direct revenue through development and betterment taxes.
Different level of tax and tariff structure considering economically weaker sections.
Indirect benefits: Public health (socio-environmental) benefits.
Other aspects of storm water drainage planning Indicator Unit Definition

Service level benchmark Aggregate number of Number The number of times water logging is reported
incidents of water logging per year in a year, at flood prone points within the city
Indicator Unit Definition reported in a year

Coverage of storm water % Coverage is defined in terms of the % of road length Data requirements
drainage network covered by the storm water drainage network
Data required Unit Remarks
Data requirements
Identification of flood Number Flood points should be locations hat experience
Data required Unit Remarks points – A1, A2..An water logging at key road intersections, or along
a road of 50m or more, or in a locality affecting
Total length of the road Km Consider roads with carriageway width > 3.5m 50 households or more
network

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Number of occasions of Number An incident which affects transportation and
Total length of primary, Km Consider drains that are trained, covered and of flooding/water logging in normal life – stagnant water for more than 4
secondary and tertiary pacca construction a year - X hours of a depth more than 6 inches

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drains
Aggregate number of incidents of water X at A1 +X at A2 + ….+ X at An
Total length of primary, secondary and tertiary drains logging reported in a year
Coverage = x 100
Total length of the road network

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Minimum frequency of measurement of performance indicator Annually
Smallest geographical jurisdiction for measurement of performance Ward level

Institutional Capacity Building Citizen Awareness

Decentralizing of administration. Solid Waste dumping
Professionals in administration. behavior.
Training of existing staff.
Storm water drainage indices
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
1. Master Plan Index (Master drainage plan for all cities.)
2. Natural Drainage System Index:
Ratio of operational natural drainage systems to the total natural drainage systems.
3. Drainage Coverage(Constructed) Index:
Ratio of the length of existing constructed drains to the length of total constructed drains required for an area.
4. Permeability Index (% of the catchment which is impervious).

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5. Water bodies Rejuvenation Index:
Ratio of water bodies planned for rejuvenation(area) to the total area of water bodies.

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6. Waterbody vulnerability index:
Ratio of encroached water bodies (area) to the total area under water bodies.

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7. Waterlogging Index (Area inundated for four hours or more and having water depth more than 6”)
8. Area vulnerability Index (Ratio of total flood prone area to total area)
9. People vulnerability Index
10. Flood moderation Index(Lakes/ponds)
Storm water drainage indices
11. Drainage cleaning Index:
3 times a year. (Before monsoon, After first heavy shower, After monsoon)
12. Complaint Redressal Index
13. Climate Change stress index (20% increase in calculated discharge for designing future storm water drain)
14. Storm water discharge quality index:
Ratio of the measured value of (TSS)/ (BOD) to the prescribed limits
15. Sewage Mixing Index: Ratio of the volume of sewage in storm water.

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16. Preparedness Index/ Early Warning Index (Real time rainfall intensity)
17. Rainfall Intensity Index:

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Ratio of the observed rainfall intensity to the rainfall intensity which will causes flooding
18. System Robustness Index :

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Ratio of rate of incoming storm flow to rate of pumping.
19. Tidal Index:
Ratio of tidal level for which the present protection is adequate to the maximum tidal level observed.
20. Rain water Harvesting/Artificial Ground water Recharge Index:
Ratio of the rainwater volume stored/harvested to the measured rainfall volume.
(2 to 5% of area reserved for water bodies: recharge)
 Conclusion

Storm water drainage planning is a complex task requiring huge quantity of data as well as

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observations.
While the cost of planning and storm water infrastructure development is high so are the

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benefits for designing the same.
National mission on sustainable habitat has proposed several indices to assess the status

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of drainage which can be used by urban planners to make rapid assessment of an area.
References

 Birdie, G. S., & Birdie, J. S. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (8th Edition).

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New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company.
 CPHEEO (2013). Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, Part A

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Engineering Design. Retrieved from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-
sewerage-and-sewage-treatment.php
 CPHEEO (2019). Manual on Storm water drainage Systems, Part A Engineering

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Design. Retrieved from http://cpheeo.gov.in/cms/manual-on-storm-water-
drainage-systems---2019.php
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