JET Manual 15

Introduction to
Fracturing and
Matrix Stimulation
Version 1.0
JET Manual 15 Introduction to Fracturing & Matrix Stimulation
InTouch Content ID# 4221748
Version: 1.0
Release Date: January 31, 2007
Owner: Well Services Training & Development, IPC

Schlumberger private

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 Table of Contents

1.0  Introduction 7
1.1 Objectives 7
2.0  Safety Considerations 9
2.1 Personnel safety 9
2.2 Safety meeting 9
2.3 Well control safety  10
2.4 Flammable fluids safety 10
2.5 Environmental safety 11
3.0  Job Roles 13
3.1 Job supervisor 13
3.2 Pump operator 13
3.3 POD blender operator  14
3.4 PCM operator  14
3.5 FracCAT operator 14
3.6 Valve operator 14
3.7 Laboratory technician  15
3.8 Sand Chief operator 15
3.9 Support functions 15
4.0 Fracturing 17
4.1 Propped fracturing 18
4.2 Acid fracturing 18
5.0  Fracturing Fluids 19
5.1 Fluid types 19
5.1.1 Water-based fluids  19
5.1.2 Oil-based fluids 20
5.1.3 Acid-based fluids 20
5.1.4 Foams  20
5.1.5 Emulsions 20
5.2 Fracturing fluid components 20
5.2.1 Gelling agents 20
5.2.2 Additives  22
6.0  Fluids Nomenclature 25
6.1 Example: YF140HTD  25

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  iii

 6.2 Field shortcut to N1 25
7.0  Proppants 27
7.1 Proppant properties 27
7.1.1 Grain size 27
7.1.2 Grain strength 27
7.1.3 Fines and impurities 27
7.1.4 Roundness and sphericity 27
7.1.5 Proppant density 27
7.2 Types of proppant 28
7.2.1 Sand  28
7.2.2 Resin-coated sand  28
7.2.3 Intermediate-strength proppants  28
7.2.4 High-strength proppants  28
8.0  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments 29
8.1 Programmable optimum density II blender 29
8.2 Precision continuous mixer 29
8.3 High pressure stimulation pump  30
8.4 Sand Chief  30
8.5 Sand truck  30
8.6 Manifold trailer  31
8.7 Laboratory truck  31
8.8 FracCAT unit 32
8.9 Downstream inline densitometer  33
8.10 Treating equipment 33
8.10.1 Hoses 33
8.10.2 Treating iron  34
8.10.3 Swivel joints 35
8.10.4 Valves 35
8.10.5 Bleedoff lines 36
8.10.6 Auxiliary equipment  37
8.10.7 Ball injectors  37
9.0  Fracturing Job Stages 39
9.1 Using DataFRAC 39
9.2 Job execution 39
10.0  Material Balance 41
10.1 Slurry yield 41
10.2 Clean fluid ratio, dimensionless 41
10.3 Clean fluid rate (bbl/min) 41

iv  |  Table of Contents

 10.4 Liquid additive rate (galUS/min) 42
10.5 Dry additive rate (ppm) 42
10.6 Proppant addition (lbm/min) 42
11.0  Locating and Rigging Equipment 43
12.0  Fracturing Key Service Quality Requirements 49
12.1 Design and preparation requirements  49
12.2 Wellsite execution requirements 50
12.3 Evaluation requirements 50
13.0  Matrix Stimulation 51
13.1 Matrix stimulation objective 51
13.2 Matrix acidizing  51
13.2.1 Carbonate acidizing 51
13.2.2 Sandstone acidizing 51
13.3 Matrix acidizing fluids 52
13.4 Additives 52
13.4.1 Corrosion inhibitors 52
13.4.2 Mutual solvents 52
13.4.3 Surfactants 53
13.4.4 Clay stabilizers 53
13.4.5 Iron control 53
13.4.6 Alcohols 53
13.5 Job execution 53
14.0 Matrix Stimulation Key Service Quality Requirements 55
14.1 Design and preparation requirements 55
14.2 Wellsite execution requirements 56
14.3 Evaluation requirements 56
15.0  References 57
16.0  Check Your Understanding 59

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  

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vi  |  Table of Contents


Stimulation is a chemical or mechanical method
of increasing flow capacity to a wellbore. This
objective can be achieved by creating an easy
flow (highly conductive) path in the formation.
It can also be achieved by bypassing or
dissolving the damaged portion of the formation
that is not allowing the hydrocarbons to flow
to the well. The damage could be due to
scale deposits, sand fill, plugged perforations,
paraffin plugging, asphalt deposits, drilling mud,
cement, completion fluids, production at high
rates, or clays and fines deposits.
This job execution training (JET) manual
introduces two stimulation techniques: hydraulic
fracturing (propped and acid fracturing) and
matrix acidizing. It is intended as an introduction
to anyone who might be involved in a fracturing
treatment.
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  
1.0  Introduction
1.1 Objectives
The objective of this manual is to introduce you
to well stimulation by hydraulic fracturing and
matrix acidizing. After reading this manual, you
should
• know safety considerations during
stimulation treatments
• be able to identify the effects of fracturing
and be able to differentiate between
propped fracturing and acid fracturing
• know the job roles during fracturing
treatments
• know basics about fracturing fluids,
proppant, and additives
• learn typical fracturing job stages
• understand the basics of DataFRAC*
• be able to identify fracturing equipment and
know the applications of each
• understand how to spot the equipment
• be able to perform basic mass balance
calculations
• know the difference between hydraulic
fracturing and matrix acidizing.
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  |  Introduction
 2.0  Safety Considerations
Well Services (WS) Safety Standards 5
(InTouch Content ID #3313681), 9 (InTouch
Content ID# 3283959), and 11 (InTouch Content
ID# 3283975), among others, must be followed
for safe, smooth, and relatively predictable
operation. Section 15, References, contains a
list of the minimum documentation that should
be referred to.
Note:
Hydraulic fracturing treatments can
never be considered a success
if an accident results in injury
to personnel or destruction of
equipment.
At no time should the safety aspects of a
treatment be compromised. Safety guidelines
have been developed from experience from
previous incidents. Many of these incidents
have had great potential to seriously injure
personnel or destroy equipment. The inherent
risk of dealing with high pressure can be greatly
minimized by following safety procedures.
2.1 Personnel safety
Each person on location should wear
appropriate safety equipment (Fracturing Key
Service Quality Requirement 2.1, InTouch
Content ID# 4147789) to minimize the risk of
personal injury.
It is the responsibility of the employee to follow
rules governing location behavior and wear
the appropriate minimum personal protective
equipment (OFS QHSE Standard 003: PPE,
InTouch Content ID# 3260259):
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |    
• fire retardant uniforms with long sleeved
NOMEX®. Sleeves must be rolled down.
• hard hat
• safety glasses with side shields
• steel-toed boots
• hearing protection
• appropriate additional PPE, depending on
the type of job (fluids, chemicals).
Personal restrictions include the following:
• Remove all finger rings.
• Do not wear contact lens.
• Do not wear wrist chains.
• When breathing apparatus (such as dust
masks) is required, facial hair must be
groomed to allow proper fit and function.
• Do not wear loose clothing or headgear.
2.2 Safety meeting
The pretreatment safety meeting (Fracturing
Key Service Quality Requirement 2.2) is the
principal means of communication for giving
final instructions to all personnel. Holding a
pretreatment safety meeting ensures that all
personnel on location are aware of specific
dangers and required procedures relative
to the treatment. A well-organized safety
meeting helps ensure that the treatment is
an operational success without threatening
anyone’s safety or health.
• Each person on location should clearly
understand his or her role during
the treatment as well as individual
responsibilities if an emergency occurs.
 • A head count must be taken of everyone closed to control the well. The main wellhead
on location. valve should be flanged to the casing head.
• An escape route and meeting place where
all personnel will gather in an emergency
should be agreed upon.
• Personnel who are not directly involved in
the treatment should have limited access
to the location during the actual pumping
operations.
• Everyone should be aware of the unique
dangers of each treatment. Some locations
may have hydrogen sulfide (H2S) present,
or possibly the fluids being pumped are
highly flammable. As many of the potential
safety problems or concerns as can
be thought of should be brought to the Figure 2-1. Example of Wellhead
attention of everyone.
2.4 Flammable fluids safety
• Maximum pressure limits should be set at
Several steps can be taken for safety with
this time, and every high-pressure pump
flammable fluids.
operator must be aware of these limits.
• Instructions for pressure-testing the treating • Oil-based fluids should be tested for
iron must also be covered. volatility before they are accepted as a
• The high-pressure treating line, up to the fracturing fluid.
wellhead valve, should be tested to slightly • Storage tanks for flammable fluids should
above the treating pressure. Please refer to be diked and spotted at least 150 ft from
Well Services Safety Standard 5 (InTouch the wellhead. Spotting the fluids in this
Content ID# 3313681), Section 4.2, for manner helps minimize exposure of the
more information. wellhead to fire if problems occur during
• The pressure rating of the wellhead should pumping.
be checked to ensure it exceeds the • All low-pressure hoses should be enclosed
treating pressure. If the wellhead has a in a hose cover to prevent oil from spraying
lower pressure rating than the anticipated on hot engine components of the trucks
treating pressure, a wellhead isolation toll should a hose leak.
will be necessary.
• No smoking on location!

2.3 Well control safety • All fire extinguishers must be on location

To ensure that well control is always
maintained, the valve arrangement at the
wellhead should consist of at least two valves.
See Fig. 2-1 for a view of a wellhead. A fracture
or master valve should be installed above the
main wellhead valve. If one valve fails to hold
the pressure, the other valve can quickly be
behind the units ready to be operated. A
small fire may be contained before it has
a chance to spread and become a major
disaster (Well Services Safety Standard 30
TBT: Pumping Combustible & Flammable
Fluids, InTouch Content ID# 3284196).

10  |  Safety Considerations

For more information, please refer to Well
Services Safety Standard 30: Pumping
Combustible and Flammable Fluids, InTouch
Content ID# 3313709.

2.5 Environmental safety

Fracturing treatments should be done with
minimal contamination of air, water, and soil.
All operations should comply with all applicable
environmental laws and regulations. Hazardous
material spills should be cleaned up quickly in
accordance with a spill plan. Your facility should
have a spill plan available for review. All waste
and unused materials should be handled and
disposed of in an environmentally safe manner.
Be sure to comply with local regulations
regarding waste disposal.

Refer to these standards for further information:

• Well Services Safety Standard 17: Storage

and Handling of Oxidizers, InTouch Content
ID# 3313693
• Well Services Safety Standard 18:
Chemical Hazard Communication
(HAZCOM) and Material Handling, InTouch
Content ID# 3313694.

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |    11

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12  |  Safety Considerations


A well stimulation is a complex process
involving many pieces of equipment and many
procedures. A good understanding of job
execution is necessary for making decisions on
the applicability and risk of various treatments.
Operators and specialists must work together
for safe and proper job execution. It is important
to know the roles and responsibilities of each
employee present on the job.
3.1 Job supervisor
Everything that happens at the job site is the
job supervisor’s responsibility. Specifically, the
job supervisor
• must understand the entire fracturing
procedure
• must know how to operate all of the
equipment, and how to locate and rig up all
of it
• is responsible for making sure all the
operators are doing their jobs properly
• checks that all materials are present for the
particular job (per Fracturing KSQR 1.12,
InTouch Content ID# 4147789).
• before beginning a fracturing job, holds
a safety meeting to ensure that everyone
is aware of the procedures and safety
precautions (per Fracturing KSQR 2.2)
• loads the appropriate software and job
parameters into the computer system to
monitor and run the job properly
• follows the pumping schedule for the job,
and signals the operators when to add
materials such as proppant
• monitors everything that is happening
during the job and makes any necessary
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  13
3.0  Job Roles
changes with the help of Schlumberger
engineers and client representatives
• after the job, prints a postjob report for the
customer
• oversees crew during the rigging down of
the equipment after the job.
Per Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirement 1.7, the job supervisor must have
performed the same or similar types of jobs
previously and/or have completed training and
be deemed competent by the line manager.
3.2 Pump operator
The pump operator
• follows the job supervisor’s instructions in
operating the pump throughout the job
• sets up and performs all pumper operations
• must know all the systems and controls
of the pumper and be able to use them
properly
• must be familiar with the remote control
panel and the data displayed to recognize
any unusual circumstances
• troubleshoots the pump throughout the
fracturing job, under the direction of the job
supervisor.
Per Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirement 1.7, the pump operator must have
performed the same or similar types of jobs
previously and/or have completed training and
be deemed competent by the line manager.
3.3 POD blender operator
The POD* programmable optimum
density blender operator (see Fig. 3-1)
• sets up and performs all POD blender
operations following the job supervisor’s
instructions
• must understand the POD blender display
screens and know how to calibrate the
densitometer, liquid pumps, and dry
additives
• opens the sand gate, and controls liquid
and dry additives
• maintains discharge pressure throughout
the job.
According to Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirement 1.7, a POD blender operator must
have performed the same or similar types of
jobs previously and/or have completed training
and be deemed competent by the line manager.
Figure 3-1. POD Blender Operator
3.4 PCM operator
The PCM* precision continous mix operator
(see Fig. 3-2):
• sets up and performs all PCM mixer
operations under the direction of the job
supervisor
14  |  Job Roles
• must understand the plumbing, pneumatic,
and hydraulic systems of the PCM mixer
and be able to troubleshoot them during
operations.
Per Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirement 1.7, a PCM mixer operator have
performed the same or similar types of jobs
previously and/or have completed training and
be deemed competent by the line manager.
Figure 3-2. PCM Mixer Operator with Control Panel View
3.5 FracCAT operator
The FracCAT* fracturing computer-aided
treatment system operator loads the
appropriate software and job parameters into
the computer system to monitor and run the job
properly.
Per Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirement 1.7, a FracCAT system operator
must have performed the same or similar
types of jobs previously and/or have completed
training and be deemed competent by the line
manager.
3.6 Valve operator
The valve operator follows the job supervisor’s
instructions in control and operation of all
treating and wellhead valves throughout the job.
3.7 Laboratory technician
The laboratory technician (see Fig. 3-3)
• works under the direction of the job
supervisor to perform fluid quality control
and sample collection
• must understand the principles of
stimulation and fluid rheology
• must be able to calculate and prepare
solution concentrations and additives
• checks the quality of the water before gel is
prepared
• collects samples for testing and
troubleshoots all problems of hydration, gel
loading, or crosslinking.
Figure 3-3. Laboratory Technician
3.8 Sand Chief operator
The Sand Chief* proppant storage/conveying
system for fracturing operator (see Fig. 3-4)
• works under the direction of the job
supervisor to deliver proppant to the
stimulation equipment
• must know the different types of proppant
• sets up the equipment to load or unload the
proppant
• operates the gates and the conveyor belt
of the sand chief to deliver proppant to the
POD and troubleshoots if necessary.
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  15
Figure 3-4. Sand Chief Operator
3.9 Support functions
Several additional personnel should be onsite:
• engineer. The engineer on location
performs very important prejob
calculations. He or she makes sure all the
job parameters used on the design are
correct. On the site, the engineer can make
changes to the design if conditions warrant
them, with concurrence from the client.
• mechanic. Every fracturing crew should
have mechanic on location to fix any
equipment problems.
• flowback operator. The flowback operator is
a third-party employee who looks after the
well flowback after stimulation is complete.
• tree saver operator. The tree saver operator
is a third-party employee. Specialized
isolation tools (tree savers), are installed
in the wellhead (Christmas tree) to
protect critical parts of the wellhead from
damage and possible failure resulting
from exposure to high pressure, corrosive
fluids, or abrasive slurries. The tree saver
is mounted on the wellhead (Christmas
tree). A mandrel is extended through the
valves of the tree and into the tubing. When
the stimulation treatment is completed,
the mandrel is pumped back out of the
Christmas tree, and the wellhead valves
can be closed.
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16  |  Job Roles

 4.0  Fracturing

Fracturing can be one of the most complex

procedures performed on a well (see Fig. 4-1).

This complexity is due to the high rates and

pressures, large volume of materials injected,
continuous blending of materials, and large
number of unknown variables.

Fracturing is a stimulation technique performed

at above-fracturing pressure. Fluid is pumped
at a pressure above the fracture pressure of
the reservoir to create cracks or fractures within
the rock itself. It increases well productivity by
creating a highly conductive path through the Figure 4-2. Cross-Section of Fracturing Treatment
damaged area. Fig. 4-2 shows a cross-section
of a fracture. There are two types of fracturing treatments:
proppant (propped) fracturing and acid
fracturing.

Figure 4-1. How Fracturing Works

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  17

4.1 Propped fracturing
Rock can be fractured with fluid alone. However,
when pumping stops and the fluid leaks off, the
pressure from the surrounding rock forces the
fracture to close. To keep the fracture open, a
propping agent is added to the fluid. When the
pumping stops and fluid leaks off, the proppant
remains in the fracture. The fracture is held
open by the proppant, creating a permeable and
easy path for the hydrocarbons to flow.
Figure 4-3 shows a fracture that has been
propped with sand.
complicated because no propping agent is
employed. In addition, the danger of proppant
screenout and the problems of proppant
flowback and cleanout from the wellbore after
the treatment are eliminated.
It is very important that the formation retain
integrity without the fracture collapsing.
Because acid dissolves the fracture
nonuniformly, conductive channels are created
that usually remain when the fracture closes.
See Fig. 4-4 for a diagram of an acidized
fracture that has retained integrity.

Figure 4-3. Cross-Section of Fracture Propped with Sand

The keys to successful propped fracture

stimulation are

• fracture containment
Figure 4-4. Acidized Fracture with Retained Integrity of
• adequate propped fracture length Formation

• adequate fracture conductivity

• increased production by creating a high Caution:
conductivity channel.
Acids are hazardous materials. The
handling, storage, transportation,
4.2 Acid fracturing and mixing of all acids must be
Acid fracturing, also called fracture acidizing, is done with extreme care.
a stimulation process in which acid is injected
into a formation at a pressure that is sufficient
to fracture the formation or open the existing
fractures. The acid also etches the walls of the
producing formation, widening the fracture and
enabling the hydrocarbons to flow.

In some cases, especially in carbonates,

acid or propped fracturing treatments can be
chosen. Operationally, acid fracturing is less

18  |  Fracturing
 5.0  Fracturing Fluids

The fracturing fluid is a critical component of 5.1.1 Water-based fluids

the hydraulic fracturing treatment. Its main
functions are to open the fracture and to
transport propping agent along the length of the
fracture.
To be effective, fracturing fluid must
• have the proper viscosity or thickness to
open the fracture and carry the proppant
into the fracture
• be compatible with the reservoir fluids to
avoid emulsion
• be viscous enough to have a minimum
amount of leakage into formation
Water-based fluids are the most common fluids
used in fracturing because of their low cost,
high performance, and ease of handling. Many
water-soluble polymers can be used to make
a viscosified solution capable of suspending
proppants at ambient temperature. A mixture
of water and polymer is called linear fluid; see
Fig. 5-1 for an example. To suspend proppant,
the fluid viscosity should be from 75 to 125 cps.
Fluid viscosity is a function of polymer loading
and decreases as a function of increasing
temperature and exposure time. To make
fluids more viscous at higher temperatures
crosslinking agents are used; see Fig. 5-2.

• be able to withstand high temperatures

within the formation
• have a minimal amount of degradation
during the fracturing process
• have low friction pressure during pumping;
the friction created as the fracturing fluid
moves through the well’s tubulars increases
treating or surface pressure, requiring an
increased amount of horsepower to pump it
• be able to break and clean up quickly after
the treatment
• be cost-effective
Figure 5-1. Linear Fluid Figure 5-2. Linear Fluid with
• be safe to handle at surface conditions. Crosslinking Agents

5.1 Fluid types

Because reservoirs to be stimulated vary in
temperature, permeability, rock composition,
and pore pressure, many different types of
fluids have been developed to provide the
properties described.

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  | 19

5.1.2 Oil-based fluids
Heavy oils were used originally as fracturing
fluids because they were perceived as less
damaging to the formation than water-based
fluids. Oil-based fluids are expensive to use and
operationally difficult to handle. Therefore, they
are now used only in formations that are known
to be extremely water sensitive.

5.1.3 Acid-based fluids

Usually, especially for carbonate formations,
hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used for acid
fracturing. Less frequently, hydrofluoric acid Figure 5-3. Foam Pumping Apparatus
(HF), acetic acid, mud acid, and clay acid can
Requirements for the use of N2 or CO2 are
be used.
described in Well Services Safety Standard 9:
Pumping Carbon Dioxide, InTouch Content
5.1.4 Foams ID# 3313683, and Well Services Safety
Foams are another way to enhance the Standard 11: Pumping Nitrogen, InTouch
properties of fracturing fluid. Adding gas to a Content ID# 3313685.
fluid creates foam—a stable mixture of liquid
and gas. See Fig. 5-3 for an apparatus used to 5.1.5 Emulsions
mix gas and fluid to create foam. To make the
An emulsion is a dispersion of two immiscible
mixture stable, a surfactant is used. The most
phases such as oil in water or water in oil
common gases used are nitrogen and carbon
stabilized with surfactant. Emulsion-based
dioxide. Pressurized gas (nitrogen or carbon
fracturing fluids are highly viscous solutions
dioxide) in foam expands when the well is
with good transport properties.
flowed back and forces liquid out of the fracture.

Foam fluids are most often used to fracture
reservoirs with low reservoir pressure or in
depleted reservoirs.
5.2 Fracturing fluid components
Fracturing fluid can have several components
added to it to adjust its properties.

5.2.1 Gelling agents

Gelling agents are used to thicken the fluid.

• guar gum: One of the first polymers used to

viscosify water for fracturing was guar gum;
see Fig. 5-4.
When the guar powder is added to water, the
guar particles swell and hydrate, making the
fluid viscous.

20  |  Fracturing Fluids

 • viscoelastic surfactants (VES):
Note: Polymer‑free, water-based fracturing
The process used to produce fluids can be prepared using viscoelastic
guar powder does not completely surfactants (see Fig. 5-5). When
separate the guar from other plant the surfactant is added to water, the
materials, which are not soluble molecules associate into structures called
in water. As much as 6 to 10% micelles (see Fig. 5‑6). In Schlumberger,
insoluble residue can be present in ClearFRAC* polymer-free fluid is an
guar fluids. example of a viscoelastic surfactant.

Figure 5-5. Liquid Viscosified with VES

Figure 5-4. Guar Gum in Various Forms

• HPG: Hydroxypropyl guar is a derivative of
guar and contains only 2 to 4% of insoluble
residue. It is more stable at elevated
temperatures than guar; therefore, it is
better suited for use in high-temperature
wells (>300 degF or 150 degC). Figure 5-6. Molecular Structure of VES
• CMHPG: Carboxymethylhydroxypropylguar;
double-derivatized guar; contains very few
impurities. CMHPG has been crosslinked
with zirconate crosslinker to produce fluids
with higher viscosity at high temperatures
than those HPG produces.
• HEC: Hydroxyethylcellulose is used when a
cleaner fluid than CMHPG is desired. It is,
however, more expensive than CMHPG.
• xanthan gum: Xanthan gum suspends
the proppant better than HPG; however,
currently xanthan gum is more expensive
than guar or cellulose and is used
infrequently.

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |   21

5.2.2 Additives
the following:
Various additives have been developed to
enhance the performance of fracturing fluids.
Note:
Care must be taken when using
multiple additives to determine that
one additive does not interfere with
the function of another additive.
5.2.2.1 Crosslinkers
A number of metal ions can be used to
crosslink water-soluble polymers. Crosslinking
agents are used to increase the molecular
weight of the polymer; therefore increasing
the viscosity of the solution (see Fig. 5-7.)
Borate, titanate, and zirconate compounds are
frequently used crosslinkers.
Several factors affect the crosslinking rate:
• fluid temperature
• pH
• shear condition
• concentration of reactants.
Figure 5-7. Fracturing Fluids Thickened with Crosslinker
22  |  Fracturing Fluids
Some of the common crosslinkers are listed in
• borate crosslinker: One of the simplest
crosslinkers, the borate ion is used to
produce very viscous gels with guar and
HPG that can be stable above 300 degF.
At a pH above 8, borate ions and guar
form an extremely viscous gel in a matter
of seconds. To maximize thermal stability
of the crosslinked gel, the pH and borate
concentration must be increased with an
optimum pH of 10 to 12. Typically, borate
crosslinking is reversible: crosslinking fluid
forms, breaks, and then forms again. High
shear rate in the tubulars breaks the gel.
Borate crosslinker is not shear sensitive.
A borate fluid will thin when sheared or
heated but return to its original state after
the shear or heat is removed. This process
is something the operator cannot control.
It is beneficial to have a fluid that is not
sensitive to shear and still has the desired
viscosity.
• titanate and zirconate: Organometallic
crosslinkers have been developed for
high-temperature applications and/or low
pH environments (i.e., CO2-energized
fluids). Titanate and zirconate crosslinkers
are sensitive to shear. Once a bond is
broken it will not reform; therefore, it is not
desirable to have crosslinking occur in high
shear regions. Typically, organometallic
crosslinkers are designed to activate
(thermally-delayed application) just
before entering the perforations. Usually,
they are designed to crosslink the fluid
approximately 3/4 of the way down the
tubular.
• titanate complexes: These are typically
used in environments of pH <4.5, such as
in foam fluids containing CO2.
• zirconates: Zirconates were developed
for use in hot, deep wells because of their
thermal stability and delayed crosslink
reaction.
5.2.2.2 Buffers
The stability and linking rate performance of
some crosslinked gels is affected by the pH of
the fluid. Buffers are weak acids or bases that
are added to the fracturing fluid to control the
pH or acid/base balance.
5.2.2.3 Clay stabilizers
Clay particles can migrate or swell, blocking
pore spaces in the rock and reducing
permeability. Clay stabilizers are added to
water-based fracturing fluids to help prevent
formation damage caused by clay. They can
be either temporary or permanent, and are
sometimes used in combination.
Temporary clay stabilizers prevent the clay
from swelling or dispersing by maintaining
the chemical environment of clay particles.
Temporary clay stabilizers do not provide
long‑term protection.
Permanent clay stabilizers are absorbed on
the clay surface and bridge the clay particles
together.
5.2.2.4 Bactericides
Bacteria can feed on the polymers, degrading
and lessening a gel’s viscosity.
If introduced into the reservoir, bacteria can
produce hydrogen sulfide (H2S), an extremely
dangerous gas. Bactericides are added to
water-based fracturing fluids to prevent bacterial
degradation of the polymer.
5.2.2.5 Temperature stabilizers
Temperature stabilizers are used to prevent
degradation of gels at temperatures greater
than 200 degF [93 degC]. The common
stabilizers used are methanol and sodium
thiosulfate.
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |   23
• Methanol is the more hazardous of the
two to handle. For more information, refer
to Well Services Safety Standard 30:
Pumping Combustible & Flammable Fluids
InTouch Content ID# 3284196.
• Sodium thiosulfate is more effective than
methanol and can maintain a gel’s viscosity
at high temperatures by as much as a
factor of 10, depending on the temperature
and length of exposure.
5.2.2.6 Fluid loss additives
Only the fluid that remains in the fracture can
propagate cracks in the formation. Fluid that
leaks off into the rock formation is wasted;
therefore, good fluid-loss control is essential
for an efficient fracturing treatment. Fluid-loss
additives help to reduce the loss of fluid into
formation:
Fluid-loss agents are pumped during the
prepad and pad stages of the fracturing
treatment before the fluids containing proppant
are pumped. J418 and J478 are examples of
fluid loss additives:
• J418 fluid-loss additive: J418 is a low‑cost
inert material from Schlumberger
manufactured by milling silicon dioxide.
It provides effective fluid-loss control in
both low-permeability formations and
microfractures (natural fractures < 50 mm
[0.002 in] wide).
• J487 fluid-loss additive: J478 is an
oil‑dispersible, water-soluble, fluid-loss
additive used in water-base fracturing
fluids. J478 is slurried in diesel or kerosene
and the slurry is continuously mixed into
the fracturing fluid. The slurry system
allows accurate metering of the J478 into
the fracturing fluid with minimum potential
for lumping.
5.2.2.7 Surfactants of sodium bromate. This breaker is approved
only for use with YF*100HTD fluids (see
A surfactant is a surface-active agent that Section 6 for an explanation of this term). It
reduces surface and interfacial tensions is highly soluble in water and should only be
between treating fluids and reservoir fluids. added to the fracturing fluid as an aqueous
solution. Another example is the EB-Clean*
Surfactants are part oil-soluble, part
J475 encapsulated fracturing fluid breaker.
water‑soluble, and act on the interface between
The EB-Clean fluid breaker is used as part of
the two unmixable fluids. Surfactants are
the CleanFRAC* high-conductivity fracturing
used as emulsifiers, dispersants, oil-wetters,
service.
water‑wetters, foamers, and defoamers.
Surfactants are also added to fracturing fluids
to prevent or break undesirable emulsions and
promote cleanup of the fracturing fluid from the
fracture.

Examples of surfactants are

• anionic surfactants: water soluble groups

with negative charges
• cationic surfactants: have positive charges
on water soluble groups
• nonionic: most versatile for acidizing
applications; electrically neutral
• amphoteric: water-soluble group, can carry
either a positive or negative charge
• wettability: can be water wetting or oil
wetting surfactants.

5.2.2.8 Breakers
Relatively high-viscosity fluids are used to
transport proppant into the fracture. Leaving a
high-viscosity fluid in the fracture would reduce
the permeability of the proppant pack to oil and
gas, limiting the effectiveness of the fracturing
treatment. When the fracturing treatment is
completed, the high viscosity of the fluid must
be reduced to enable it to flow back into the
wellbore from the formation.

Breakers are used to degrade the polymer,

reducing the fluid viscosity by splitting the
polymers into smaller fragments. Time and
temperature affect the degradation properties.
An example is anxidative breaker composed

24  |  Fracturing Fluids

 6.0  Fluids Nomenclature

A standard nomenclature is used to describe 6.1 Example: YF140HTD

fluids with all the possible additives.
YF140HTD indicates a fluid with the following
The standard form is characteristics:

WF N1 N2 N3 Postscript • YF = crosslinked
• 1 = guar polymer gelling agent, borate
YF N1 N2 N3 Postscript crosslinked

where • 40 = guar gelling agent at 40 lbm/1,000 galUS

• WF => Waterfrac; a linear gel
• YF => Widefrac; a crosslinked gel
• N1 = 1,2,3,4,5,6 (see field shortcut
following this list)
○ N1 = odd = guar polymer
○ N1 = even = HPG
▪ N1 = 1 => borate crosslinked guar
▪ N1 = 2 => borate crosslinked HPG
▪ N1 = 3 => titanate crosslinked guar
▪ N1 = 4 => titanate crosslinked HPG
▪ N1 = 5 => zirconate crosslinked guar
• HTD = high-temperature delayed
6.2 Field shortcut to N1
The following is a field shortcut to help identify
the fluid types. The result is shown in Table 6-1.
1. In a row, write two most common
polymers: guar, HPG.
2. In a column, write the three most
common crosslinkers in alphabetical
order: borate, titanate, and zirconate.
3. Write the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in the
cells from left to right, top to bottom.

▪ N1 = 6 => zirconate crosslinked HPG Table 6-1. Fluid Nomenclature

• N2 N3- indicate gel loading in lbm/1,000 galUS Crosslinker Guar HPG
• postscript - indicates special characteristics Borate 1 2
○ D: delayed crosslink
Titanate 3 4
○ LT: low temperature
Zirconate 5 6
○ HTD: high-temperature delayed
○ HT: high temperature
○ UT: ultra-high temperature
○ LPH: low pH fluid

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  25

  
 Note:
The numbers in the table indicate
the guar and gelling agent
combination.

For example, look at YF320LPH. The 3

indicates that it is a titanate crosslinker with
guar.

Or look at YF230D: the 2 indicates that it is a

borate crosslinker with HPG.

26  |  Fluids Nomenclature


Proppants are added to fracturing fluids during
the slurry stage. Whatever proppant material
is chosen, its function is to hold the fracture
open and create a permeable path through
the formation rock. This path allows formation
fluid to flow faster and more easily out of the
reservoir.
7.1 Proppant properties
The proppant properties that affect fracture
conductivity include
• grain size and strength
• fines and impurities
• roundness and sphericity
• proppant density.
7.1.1 Grain size
Large grains have more space between them,
providing more permeability and allowing more
hydrocarbons to flow when they have been
placed; however, they tend to be weaker and
more easily crushed. Smaller grains tend to be
stronger and more resistant to crushing, but
have less permeability. Figure 7-1 shows some
different grain sizes.
Figure 7-1. Grain Size of Proppants
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  27
7.0  Proppants
7.1.2 Grain strength
Closure stress, or closure pressure, is the
pressure that the formation exerts on the
proppant once the fracture closes. The grains
of the proppant must be strong enough to
withstand these stresses. The type of proppant
used depends on the maximum closure
pressure of the formation.
7.1.3 Fines and impurities
A high percentage of fines or impurities
present in the proppant can partially block the
conductive path, reducing permeability.
7.1.4 Roundness and sphericity
The more round or spherical the proppant grain
is, the better the proppant-pack porosity will be.
If the grains are round and about the same size,
the pressure on the proppant is more evenly
distributed and the proppant is able to withstand
closure stress. Angular grains can fail and
produce fines that block the conductivity.
7.1.5 Proppant density
Proppant density influences proppant
placement and transport. High-density
proppants are more difficult to suspend in
fracturing fluids and have a greater tendency to
settle. High-viscosity fluids help reduce settling.
In addition, the pumping rate may be increased
to reduce settling.
7.2 Types of proppant
Several different types of proppant can be
used.
7.2.1 Sand
Sand is the most commonly used proppant;
see Fig. 7-2. It is economical, easily available,
and works well in reservoirs with a low closure
pressure of less than 6,000 psi.
Figure 7-2. Sand
7.2.2 Resin-coated sand
A resin coating strengthens the grains of
sand and helps bind them together when they
are in place to keep them from flowing back
toward the well (see Fig. 7-3). Resin-coated
sand is used in operations in which the closure
pressure is less than 8,000 psi. The availability
of resin-coated sand depends on your location.
Figure 7-3. Resin-Coated Sand
28  |  Proppants
7.2.3 Intermediate-strength proppants
Intermediate-strength proppants are
manufactured out of ceramic (see Fig. 7-4).
Because they are manufactured, they are
more expensive than sand, but they are round
and uniform in size. This uniformity allows
hydrocarbons to flow between them faster and
better than sand.
Intermediate-strength proppants are used in
reservoirs where the closure pressures are up
to 10,000 psi.
Figure 7-4. Ceramic Proppant
7.2.4 High-strength proppants
High-strength proppants are usually made from
treated ores, such as bauxite (see Fig. 7‑5).
They are more expensive than ceramic
proppants and are only used in wells with very
high closure pressures of 10,000 psi or greater.
Figure 7-5. Bauxite Proppant
 8.0  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

Some special equipment is required for 8.2 Precision continuous mixer

fracturing treatments.
The PCM* precision continuous mixer is a
trailer-mounted pumping and blending system
8.1 Programmable optimum density II used to mix water-based fracturing fluids. See
Fig. 8-2 for a view of a PCM.
blender
The POD* programmable optimum density II
blender is a truck-mounted unit that blends and
pumps up to 70 bbl/min of fracturing slurry. See
Fig. 8-1 for a view of a POD II blender.

Figure 8-2. PCM

A PCM can perform any of the following tasks:

• continuously meter and hydrate the

Figure 8-1. POD II Blender polymer by blending it with water

The POD II blender can perform any of the • deliver fracturing fluid to the POD blender
following tasks: • maintain constant hydrostatic head for the
POD blender
• mixes proppant, dry additives, liquid
• transport the slurry gel to the well site
additives, and fracturing fluids
• continuously mix polymer gel loadings from
• meters and controls the amount of
10 to 60 lbm/1,000 galUS and discharge up
proppant being added to the fracturing fluid
to 70 bbl/min to the POD blender.
• pumps pressurized fracturing fluid to the
manifold trailer and pumpers.

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  | 29

8.3 High pressure stimulation pump This conveyor belt controls the rate at which
the proppant is fed into the sand hopper. Gates
The stimulation pump, Fig. 8-3, injects located on the compartments control the
fracturing fluids into the formation at high amount of proppant placed on the conveyor
pressures and rates. On a typical fracturing job, belt.
several pumpers are rigged to a manifold trailer.
The manifold trailer controls the fluid flow from
the pumpers and discharges the fracturing fluid
to the wellhead.

Schlumberger uses triplex pumps. A triplex

pump is a positive displacement pump and has
three plungers.

Figure 8-4. Sand Chief

8.5 Sand truck

The sand truck or sand dump (Fig. 8-5)
hauls proppant to the wellsite. It has two
compartments so it can transport two different
Figure 8-3. Stimulation Pump
types of proppant at once.

8.4 Sand Chief

A Sand Chief * (Fig. 8-4) feeds proppant to the
POD blender during fracturing operations. The
Sand Chief is transported empty to the well
site. At the site, it is loaded with proppant from
the dry material transport trailer. The transport
trailers have air compressors that blow the
proppant into the sand chief compartments.
Each compartment can be loaded with the
same proppant or a different type of proppant
than the other compartments.
Figure 8-5. Sand Truck
A variable-speed conveyor belt is located under
the Sand Chief that delivers the proppant to a
Road weight restrictions may determine the
sand hopper attached to the POD blender.
actual amount of proppant that can be hauled to
the wellsite.

30  |  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

At the rear of the trailer are hydraulically
operated slice gates that measure the flow
of material. A discharge chute guides the
material into the blender’s vortex. A safety latch
mechanism keeps the lifted bed from falling.
Warning:
Do not climb under the lifted bed,
in case the safety latch mechanism
fails.
The sand truck is used instead of the sand chief
in operations with relatively small amounts of
propping agents.
8.6 Manifold trailer
The high-pressure manifold trailer, sometimes
called a missile, is used to organize the rigging
up of multiple high-pressure pumpers. See
Figs. 8-6 and 8-7 for views of the manifold
trailer.
Figure 8-6. Left View of Manifold Trailer
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  31
Figure 8-7. Right View of Manifold Trailer
The manifold provides suction and discharge
connections for up to 10 pump trucks, 5 on
each side. It has two separate suction manifold
systems. It has two discharge manifolds rated
up to 15,000 psi.
The rigging from the pump trucks to the
manifold includes an isolation valve and a
bleedoff line. This rigging enables the operator
to isolate the pump if a pump fails during the
job. The isolation valve is also used when
priming the pumps, so that each pump can be
primed separately.
The manifold trailer provides fluid flow from the
POD blenders to the pump trucks and from the
pump trucks to the well. The manifold provides
a standard means of rigging for each job,
enabling connections to be performed quickly.
The manifold also provides a short suction
distance from the high-pressure pumps to the
wellhead. This distance helps maintain the high
pressure and minimizes cavitation.
8.7 Laboratory truck
A laboratory truck (Fig. 8-8) equipped with
basic fluid quality testing tools must be present
at the job site during a fracture treatment.
 A FracCAT unit has two compartments and
provides a view of the job operations. In one
compartment (Fig. 8-10), the Schlumberger
supervisor and clients monitor the job
parameters and make operation decisions. The
second compartment (Fig. 8-11) is used to run
pump operations.

Figure 8-8. Laboratory Truck

Samples are taken of the fluids that the PCM

mixer supplies to the POD blender and checked
for quality control. The quality assurance (QA)
that can be performed with this truck ensures
that the treatment is executed as designed.
Simple QA steps can greatly increase the odds
of success for a hydraulic fracturing treatment. Figure 8-10. Supervisor Compartment of FracCAT Unit
See JET 37, WCS-Basic Lab Training and Fluid
QA/QC, InTouch Content ID# 4221755.

8.8 FracCAT unit

A FracCAT unit is a mobile control system,
shown in Fig. 8-9. It houses the FracCAT PC
and acquisition boxes used to monitor, control,
record, and evaluate fracturing treatments.

Figure 8-11. Operator Compartment of FracCAT Unit

The FracCAT unit is equipped with a complete

set of sensors to acquire treatment parameters
and data, and control equipment functions. The
sensors collect data for density, pressure, flow
rate, temperature, revolutions, pH, viscosity,
Figure 8-9. FracCAT Unit
and concentration of various chemicals.
Density, pressure, and flow rate information

32  |  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

are the primary sensor data used in fracturing
treatments.
Sensor data is also used by the FracCAT
computer system to provide the client with
records of treatment rates, pressures, and
densities. The postjob information can be
compared to the design of previous work and
used in planning future treatments.
8.9 Downstream inline densitometer
A downstream high-pressure densitometer
(Fig. 8-12) is rigged up in the treating line. The
densitometer reads the density of the slurry
being pumped into the well.
Figure 8-12. Downstream Inline Densitometer
8.10 Treating equipment
A fracturing treatment requires a considerable
amount of treating equipment, and it varies from
job to job. For more information, please refer to
Treating Equipment Manual, InTouch Content
ID# 3013931.
8.10.1 Hoses
Suction hoses (see Fig. 8-13) with 4-in or 8-in
diameters are commonly used in fracturing.
They have a wire coil woven into the fabric to
prevent collapse. These hoses are also called
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  33
hard hoses. Suction hoses are connected with
two opposing clamps and are only used on
suction hoses. They are never used on the
discharge side of any pump as they can come
off the K nipple under pressure.
Note:
The maximum pump rate allowed
for each 4-in suction hose is
8 bbl/ min (1.3 m3/min).
Typical hard hose
cross-section
showing wire
spiral/fabric/rubber Clamp
layers
Figure 8-13. Suction Hose
Note:
Make the discharge (hard) hose(s)
from the blender to the pumps as
short as possible. This will improve
the flow of fluid to the pump(s)
If excessive hose length restricts the flow of
fluids to the pump, the pump will be starved
and pump cavitation will occur, thereby causing
excessive movement of the treating lines and
potential damage to the pump.
Discharge hoses (Fig. 8-14) are typically soft,
without the wire coil woven into their fabric.
 Maximum pumping rates through 2-in, 3-in, and
Note: 4-in lines are
The maximum pump rate allowed
for each 4-in discharge hose is • 2 in: 8.5 bbl/min
3
10 bbl/min (1.6 m /min).
• 3 in: 20 bbl/min
• 4 in: 40 bbl/min

Typical soft hose

cross section
showing fabric/ Clamp
rubber layers

Figure 8-14. Discharge Hose Diagram

8.10.2 Treating iron

The size of the high-pressure pipe called
treating iron (see Figs. 8-15 and 8-16) used on
a treatment is dictated by both the anticipated
rates and pressures. Smaller lines have a
higher maximum treating pressure limitations
than the larger sizes. The velocity of the
fluid should be limited to 45 ft/s to minimize
excessive erosion of the iron. Pumping above
these rates for any prolonged period can erode
the treating iron and thereby lower the effective
working pressure that the iron could be
exposed to before a catastrophic failure would
occur. If the design treating rates exceed the Figure 8-15. Treating Line
rate limits of the iron’s size, then either a larger
iron must be used or multiple lines must be laid
to the wellhead.

34  |  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

 also allow the iron to turn corners and change
directions. To ensure that straight sections
of the iron are completely free to move, it
is recommended to have three swivel joints
between any two fixed points in the line.

Note:
Chiksan® is the trademark name
for a type of swivel; however,
swivels are commonly referred to
as chicksans.

Figure 8-16. Treating Line Union

The treating iron should not have welded seams

or exposed threaded connections; it must be
integral. To eliminate these seams and exposed
threads, the iron and associated connections
should be machined from single pieces of metal
(integral seal; see Fig. 8-17). The maximum
treating pressure for integral seals is 15,000 psi.

Figure 8-18. Treating Iron Swivel Joint

8.10.4 Valves
Several kinds of valves are used to rig up for a
treatment.

• Plug valves (Fig. 8-19) control fluid flow

on high-pressure discharge manifolds and
Figure 8-17. Treating Line Integral Seal
treating lines. Plug valves are also used for
bleedoff lines. The valves are designated
8.10.3 Swivel joints by line size and their inside bore diameter.
For example, 2x1 means the valve is used
During pumping operations, the treating on a 2-in line that has a 1-in inside bore.
iron tends to move and vibrate slightly. To
prevent exposure of the iron to stress from
this movement, the line is laid to provide some
flexibility. Swivel joints (Fig. 8-20) allow the
iron some freedom of movement. Swivel joints

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  35

 
 is between the check valve and the master
valve to release any pressure before
disconnecting the line.

8.10.5 Bleedoff lines

A bleedoff line relieves pressure from the
system of high-pressure treating lines when
the wellhead valves have been closed. The
bleedoff line is not intended for extended
flowback of well fluids, only for draining off the
line of liquid before disconnecting the line. A
permanent flowback line should be laid for the
long-term flow of well fluids (usually the client
Figure 8-19. Plug Valves
will have third-party operators with equipment
responsible for long-term flowback).
• A check valve should be placed in the
treating line, on the ground, as close to
the wellhead as practical. The valve allows
Caution:
flow in one direction; therefore, it can be
The bleedoff line must be placed
pumped through, but it automatically closes
between the check valve and the
once pumping stops, not allowing flow back
wellhead control valve. If the bleedoff
in the opposite direction. This kind of valve
arrangement is misplaced, pressure
isolates well pressures to the closed side
will be trapped between the wellhead
of the check valve and prevents the flow of
and the check valve, and a pressure
well fluids. This type of valve is essential
hazard will result when the treating line
for controlling the well if a sudden loss of
is rigged down.
pump pressure occurs, such as when a
treating line fails. In these emergencies,
there is no time to physically close the
wellhead valves, but the check valve can A choke and double-valve arrangement should
automatically close. be teed off of the main treating line to start the
bleedoff line. One valve is the master valve,
• Flapper check valves are usually used in
which is always fully open or fully closed and is
the main treating line. Proppants, solid
opened first and closed last. The second valve
diverting agents, and ball sealers can all be
is slowly opened and closed to control the flow
pumped through this style of valve without
of fluid.
fear of plugging or destroying its reliability.
Like a check valve, when pumping stops, it
closes to prevent backflow.
Caution:
• Dart check valves are used in nitrogen and
Swivel joints must never be used in
carbon dioxide treating lines. These valves
a bleedoff line. Where a turn in the
use a spring to seat a dart and close the
line is necessary, tee connections
valve when injection stops. Because dart
should be used.
check valves are easily cut and plugged by
proppants, they are not recommended for
use in the main treating line. A bleedoff line

36  |  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

8.10.6 Auxiliary equipment
Auxiliary treating equipment consists of tees,
laterals, and wyes (see Fig. 8-20). It may
consist of either male x female connections with
a female branch, or female x male connection
with a male branch. Only integral connections
should be used with this equipment—no B
C
threaded connections. The maximum working A.
pressure of this equipment is 15,000 psi.
These are commonly used on bleedoff
lines; pressure‑transducer connections, and
high‑pressure pump connections.
Figure 8-21. Ball Injectors and Sealing Balls

Figure 8-20. Treating Tee and Wye

8.10.7 Ball injectors

Ball injectors (items A and B, Fig. 21) are used
to store perforation-sealing balls and inject
them into the flow stream of the fracturing
fluid. The sealing balls (item C, Fig. 21) stick
in the cavity of the open perforations, directing
the fluid to other perforations that might be
only partially open. The ball injector is usually
operated remotely.

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  37

 
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38  |  Equipment for Fracturing Treatments

 9.0  Fracturing Job Stages
A fracturing job should be carefully designed
and executed.
9.1 Using DataFRAC
To optimize output from a well, the economics
of a fracturing treatment must be carefully
analyzed. Determining critical parameters,
such as closure pressure, fluid loss and the
geometry model, is necessary to the success of
the fracture treatment design.
DataFRAC* is a fracture data determination
service used to provide accurate fracture
design parameters. Inaccurate design
parameters could result in premature
screenout(pad depletion), unpropped fracture,
increased proppant damage, or increased
treatment cost.
DataFRAC is one method of gathering data
from the most reliable source, the potential
fracturing site. By analyzing the acquired data,
one can determine formation and fracture
parameters. A DataFRAC treatment usually
consists of three tests:
a. step rate test: This test determines
the best estimate of the fracture
closure pressure. This estimate is
then used in all subsequent fractur-
ing analyses.
b. calibration injection test: This test
determines the fracture geometry
model.
c. calibration decline test: This test
determines the fluid-loss coefficient
and closure pressure to calibrate
the design simulator for the main
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  39
fracture treatment. The information
obtained is specific to the fluid being
used and the formation being tested.
9.2 Job execution
A fracturing job should progress in the following
stages.
Note:
The order of the stages is very
important. If screenout occurs, the
job will be terminated altogether.
Stage 01 pumping prepad: A thin,
low‑viscosity fluid such as water may be
pumped before the fracturing treatment to
help initiate the fracture. This fluid is called
prepad. The fluid penetrates the rock and cools
the casing and tubulars, reducing the high
temperatures that may degrade the fracturing
fluid.
Stage 02 pumping pad: A higher-viscosity
fluid is pumped down the borehole at high
pressure, forcing it through the perforations at
the bottom of the casing. The fracturing fluid
pumped into the formation during this stage
is called pad. The pad causes fractures in the
reservoir rock near the wellbore. More of the
liquid is then pumped down and the pressure is
increased to spread the fracture. Spreading the
fracture is called fracture propagation.
Stage 03 pumping slurry: The reservoir
is usually under great pressure from the
surrounding rock. If the process is stopped after
the pad stage and the fracturing liquid is drawn
out, this pressure, called closure pressure,
would quickly cause the fracture to close.

The fracturing equipment now adds proppant

to the fluid. The proppant used at this point is
usually sand or a similar high-strength granular
material. This proppant-laden fluid is the slurry.
Chemicals called breakers are blended with the
slurry to improve the cleanup of some products
that have been used in the fracturing process.
The proppant is first added to the fracturing
fluid in low concentrations and pumped to reach
the fracture tips just as the last of the pad leaks
into the formation. The proppant concentration
is gradually increased until the entire fracture is
filled with slurry.

STAGE 04 Flushing the well: After the

determined amount of proppant is pumped,
then a clear fluid, usually brine, is pumped to
displace the slurry just down to the perforations
(not into the fracture) to clear the line. This
process is called a flush.

40  |  Fracturing Job Stages

 10.0  Material Balance

Material balance is very important in oilfield
operation. It is necessary to know how much
of each chemical should be pumped during
the job. Stimulation-designed volumes should
equal chemicals taken to the location minus
chemicals returned to the district. An accurate
inventory count of all chemicals in the district
should be performed regularly.
where PPA = pounds of proppant added (ppa)
per gallon.
10.2 Clean fluid ratio, dimensionless
All additives are added to clean fluid volume.
Use this formula to find the clean fluid ratio
(CFR).

During the job, the supervisor and the operators 1 1

who pump the chemicals are responsible for CFR = =
PPA
ensuring that the actual volume pumped of any slurry yield 1+
chemical is the same as the volume specified proppant density
in the design. Electronic metering of chemicals
inside the FracCAT must always be backed up
with the physical metering throughout the job. Example:

The following are basic calculations used when Find CFR when pumping 5 ppa of sand
doing material balance. (density of sand is 22.1 lbm/galUS)

1
CFR = = 0.81
Note: 5
1 + 22.1
All additives are added to clean
fluid volume. Once proppant is
added, the fluid is referred to as
dirty. 10.3 Clean fluid rate (bbl/min)
The clean fluid rate is

Slurry rate × CFR

10.1 Slurry yield
Slurry is the term used for the final fluid Example: Find the clean fluid rate of the 12 ppa
pumped downhole—proppant, base fluid, and sand when slurry rate is 30 bbl/min.
additives.
1
PPA CFR = = 0.648
slurry yield = 1 + 12
1 + 22.1
proppant density
•
= 0.648 × 30 bbl/min
= 19.4 bbl/min

JET 14 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  41

10.4 Liquid additive rate (galUS/min)
Note:
Be sure to use the CFR to calculate
the additive rate.
• FLA rate for this stage
= 35 bbl/min × 42 galUS/bbl × 40 lb/
1,000 galUS
= 58.8 lbm/min.
• Time to add 100 lbm bag
= 100 lbm/58.8 (lbm/min)
= 1.7 min (1 min, 42 sec).

10.6 Proppant addition (lbm/min)

Example: Calculate the rate of croslinker that
It is important to know how many pounds of
needs to be used during the 10‑ppa stage of
proppant are added to the fluid to make the
bauxite, when the slurry rate is 60 bbl/ min.
correct proppant concentration, The following
The crosslinker concentration is 2 galUS/
example shows the calculation for adding
1,000 galUS. The density of bauxite is
proppant.
30.02 ppg.

1 Example: Calculate proppant rate in pounds

CFR = = 0.75 per minute of resin-coated sand (density =
10
1 + 30.02 21.27 lbm/galUS) when pumping slurry at
25 bbl/min at the 9 ppa stage.
= (60 bbl/min) (0.75)
= 45 bbl/min. • Calculate CFR
• Crosslinker rate
1
= 45 bbl/min × 42 galUS/ = = 0.7
bbl × 2 galUS/1,000 galUS 9
1+
= 3.78 galUS/min. 21.27
= 0.7 × 25 bbl/min
10.5 Dry additive rate (ppm) = 17.5 bbl/min.
Some of the additives such as breakers or fluid • Convert clean fluid rate from barrels per
loss additives are dry additives. The following minute to gallons per minute:
example illustrates how to calculate the rate of
dry additives. = 17.5 bbl/min × 42 galUS/bbl
= 735 galUS/min.
Example: Calculate the rate of fluid loss
additive (FLA) that is needed at the pad stage • Calculate proppant rate at 9 ppa (9 lbm of
when slurry rate is 35 bbl/min. The required proppant per gallon):
concentration of FLA is 40 lbm/1,000 galUS.
How quickly should a 100-lbm bag of FLA be = 735 galUS/min × 9 ppa
added? = 6,615 lbm/min.

• This is the pad stage; therefore, the clean

fluid rate is 1 (slurry rate and clean fluid
rate are thee same).

42  |  Material Balance

 11.0  Locating and Rigging Equipment

Assembling the surface equipment safely, The following are the general rig-up steps:
efficiently, and an organized manner, is
extremely important for the success of a
fracturing treatment (see Fig. 11-1). Thorough
Step 01 The fracture tanks, Fig. 11-2,
are usually the first equipment moved to the
pretreatment planning is essential to the
site, located far enough from the wellhead to
organizational process of coordinating
allow room for all the other equipment to be
equipment hookup. An inspection of the
positioned. The fracture tanks are placed at an
location allows the job supervisor to make
elevation higher than the PCM mixer and POD
diagrams to optimize the use of available space.
blender if possible.
Many steps of the organizational procedures
are driven by common sense. Pretreatment
planning can eliminate many small problems
that could develop into larger problems that
may ultimately jeopardize the success of the
treatment.

Before spotting and rigging the stimulation

equipment, the job supervisor inspects the site
to plan what equipment is needed and how to
place it before bringing anything to the location.

Figure 11-2. Fracture Tanks

Step 02 The Sand Chief is located close to

the fracture tanks.

Before bringing the rest of the equipment

to the job site, the job supervisor makes
sure that the fracture tanks are filled with
water and the Sand Chief is filled with the
appropriate proppant (see Fig. 11-3).

Figure 11-1. Prejob Setup

The supervisor must rig up in compliance with

QHSE standards.

JET 14 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  43

Figure 11-3. Filling the Sand Chief with Proppant
Step 03 The PCM mixer is moved onsite
and located as near as possible to the fracture
tanks (see Fig. 11-4).
Figure 11-5. Manifold Trailer between POD Blender and
Wellhead
Hard 4-in and 8-in hoses are rigged from the
fracture tanks to the PCM mixer (see Fig. 11-6)
for an illustration of the rigging hoses.

Hard 8-in hose is rigged from the PCM mixer to

the POD blender.

Figure 11-4. PCM Mixer next to Fracture Tank

Step 03 The POD blender is located near

the PCM mixer. Figure 11-6. Rigging Hose

The POD blender discharge is connected to the

Step 04 The manifold trailer (missile) is
manifold with soft 4-in hoses (see Fig. 11-7).
located between the POD blender and the
wellhead (see Fig. 11-5).

44  |  Locating and Rigging Equipment

Figure 11-7. Hoses from POD Blender Discharge to Manifold
Trailer
Step 05 The pumpers are backed up to
the manifold trailer. Depending on the job, up
to 10 pumpers can be used, with 5 pumpers on
each side of the manifold (see Fig. 11-8).
Figure 11-8. Pumper Suction Hoses Attached to Manifold
Trailer
The discharge outlets of the pumpers are
connected to the manifold trailer (see Fig. 11-9).
JET 14 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  45
Figure 11-9. Pumper Discharge Hoses Attached to Manifold
Trailer
Step 06 The 3-in or 4-in treating lines
are connected from the manifold trailer to the
wellhead (see Fig. 11-10). The size and amount
of treating lines connected to the wellhead
depends on the maximum slurry rate designed
for the job.
Figure 11-10. Treating Lines to Wellhead
Step 07 The FracCAT monitoring unit
is located (see Fig. 11-11). The FracCAT unit
should be located in a place that will give the
best possible view of the whole site and a
wellhead. It must be near enough to all the
equipment to be connected with sensors.
Figure 11-11. FracCAT Unit Onsite

All the external data acquisition sensors are

connected with the appropriate cables and
connectors.

Step 08 Water quality in the fracture tanks

is checked by the lab technician before mixing
the fracture fluid.

Step 09 The POD blender is calibrated

and all the POD blender controls are set to
prepad for operation.

Step 10 The PCM mixer is set up and

prepared for operation.

Gel is mixed in the PCM mixer.

All the fluids and additives are sampled and

tested; the gel is tested and adjusted until gel
quality is assured.

Step 11 When the equipment is spotted

and rigged and all materials are available, the
job crew has a prejob safety meeting. The
Wellsite Execution Requirements section in
KSQR should be followed.

Figure 11-12 shows all the equipment rigged up

for a fracturing treatment.

46  |  Locating and Rigging Equipment

Figure 11-12. Complete Rig-Up of Equipment for Fracturing Treatment

JET 14 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  47

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48  |  Locating and Rigging Equipment

 12.0  Fracturing Key Service
Quality Requirements
The principal factor in the successful
performance of a fracturing operation is the
service quality. The following are taken directly
from the Fracturing Key Service Quality
Requirements (InTouch Content ID# 4147789),
listing the employees responsible for making
sure the requirements are followed for
fracturing:
• LM= line manager
• JS = job supervisor
• EO = equipment operator
• S = salesperson.
12.1 Design and preparation
requirements
1. Follow the client-approved job design
and procedure that includes FracCADE*.
The job design and procedure is to be
reviewed by line management and/or
peer before finalization—documentation
of this review is required. Responsible:
LM, S
2. Follow proper lab procedures.
Responsible: LM
3. Perform base fluid lab testing on any of
the following applications: jobs above
82 degC [180 degF]; new client; new
formation; new technology or new
product. Testing to include breaker
testing (schedule generation and
verification) completed prior to job at
bottomhole temperature and Fann 50
for cross-linked fluids. Responsible: LM
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  49
4. Verify chemical load out volumes and
additive calculations before loading the
job. Responsible: LM, JS
5. Follow documented loading and
sampling procedures for the fracturing
fluid systems being used. Responsible:
LM, JS
6. Crew is current on OFS and Well
Services relevant QHSE standards.
Responsible: LM, JS
7. Job supervisor (JS), pump, blender,
FracCAT and PCM mixer operators
have performed the same or similar
types of jobs previously and/or have
completed training and are deemed
competent by line manager (LM).
Responsible: LM
8. Equipment is current on Stem I and II.
Responsible: LM,JS, EO
9. Treating equipment has been inspected
and tested according to WS Safety
Standard 23. Responsible: LM, JS
10. Necessary equipment is available to
perform the job as designed and to
comply with relevant QHSE standards.
Responsible: LM
11. Promote professional image (equipment
is clean and painted to Schlumberger
standard; uniforms are clean and
tatter‑free). Responsible: LM, JS
 12. Reverify chemical volumes and additive 12.3 Evaluation requirements
calculations before transporting to the
wellsite or wellsite storage. Responsible: 1. Perform reporting and data capture
LM, JS requirements:

13. Line management conducts with the
JS a job brief/review/discussion that
includes discussion/completion of:
▪ SQ Risk Assessment
▪ Job design and procedure
▪ Job sheet with relevant well
information.Responsible: LM
12.2 Wellsite execution requirements
1. Crew has and uses proper and
functional personal protective equipment
(PPE). Responsible: JS
• Download FracCADE software and
FracCAT treatment files into i-FIND
directly after each job.
• Report SQ events properly in Quest.
Responsible: LM, JS
2. Request and document the client’s
opinion concerning job performance
and whether expectations were met.
Investigate and follow up on any non-
conformance issues. Responsible: LM,
JS, S

2. Conduct pre-job meeting with client

representative, crew, and involved third
parties to agree on job procedure,
design, calculations and Service Quality
contingency plans. Responsible: JS

3. Rig up in compliance with QHSE

standards. Responsible: JS

4. Record critical job parameters (density,

rate, pressure/s, liquid additives).
Responsible: JS

5. Perform mass balance requirements.

Responsible: JS

6. Perform sample requirements and

onsite fluid QA/QC requirements.
Responsible: JS

7. Pump the job as designed. Any

deviation from original job procedure
requires agreement with client
representatives, JS and LM.
Responsible: JS

50  |  Fracturing Key Service Quality Requirements


Matrix stimulation is accomplished by injecting
a fluid (e.g., acid or solvent) to dissolve and/or
disperse materials that impair well production in
sandstones or to create new, unimpaired flow
channels between the wellbore and a carbonate
formation. Such treatments are called matrix
treatments because the solvent is injected at
pressures below the parting pressure of the
formation so that fractures are not created.
The most common matrix stimulation treatment
is acidizing, in which an acidic solution is
injected to dissolve minerals in the formation.
However, other solvents are also used. The
next most common fluids used are organic
solvents aimed at dissolving waxes, paraffins,
asphaltenes, or other damaging organic
materials.
13.1 Matrix stimulation objective
The objective of matrix stimulation is to greatly
enhance or recover the permeability near the
wellbore, rather than affect a large portion of
the reservoir.
13.2 Matrix acidizing
Matrix acidizing is a near-wellbore treatment,
with all the acid reacting within about 1 ft of the
wellbore in sandstone formations and within a
few inches to perhaps as much as 10 ft from
the wellbore in carbonates. For this reason,
both damage and rock characteristics must
be taken into account when designing the
treatment.
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  51
13.0  Matrix Stimulation
13.2.1 Carbonate acidizing
Carbonate rocks, by definition, contain more
than 50% carbonate minerals. The most
common carbonate minerals are calcite
(calcium carbonate, CaCO3) and dolomite.
Carbonate rocks are classified by the calcite
to dolomite ratio, and those with a ratio higher
than 50% are generally called limestones.
Acid is used in carbonate formations to
dissolve the matrix and bypass the damage.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is usually selected
for carbonate acidizing. It reacts readily with
carbonate minerals and is available in large
quantities at a relatively low price.
13.2.2 Sandstone acidizing
Sandstone matrix acidizing is distinguished
from carbonate acidizing in that it involves
dissolving damage that is blocking or bridging
the pore throats in the formation matrix,
thus ideally recovering the original reservoir
permeability. Because the formation and the
damage can have complicated structures
that can yield a variety of reaction products,
sandstone acidizing success requires a
significantly better understanding of chemistry
than does carbonate acidizing. The primary
solvent in sandstone acidizing is HF.
Sometimes acid systems that contain mixtures
of HF and HCl acid are used. A mixture of HF
and HCl is commonly called mud acid because
it was first used to remove mud damage.
13.3 Matrix acidizing fluids
Treatment fluid selection is an important step in
matrix acidizing. Multiple fluids (fluid systems)
composed of base fluids and additives,
are selected based on lithology, damage
mechanism, and well condition.
The most common fluids in matrix acidizing are
• HCl: The most common acid is hydrochloric
acid (HCl), used primarily to dissolve
carbonate minerals.
• organic acids: Organic acids are used
instead of HCl when high bottomhole
temperatures (above 400 degF) prevent
efficient protection against corrosion. The
two main types of organic acids used are
acetic acid and formic acid. Acetic acid
is easier to inhibit than formic acid and is
used more often.
• HF: The primary solvent in sandstone
acidizing is hydrofluoric acid (HF). In
sandstone acidizing, acid systems that
contain mixtures of hydrofluoric and
hydrochloric acid are used.
• mud acid: Mud acid is used to dissolve
silicate minerals such as clays and
feldspars.
13.4 Additives
Proper fluid selection is critical to the success
of a matrix treatment. The treatment may be a
failure if the proper additives are not used. The
treating fluid is designed to effectively remove
or bypass the damage, whereas additives are
used to
• prevent excessive corrosion
• prevent sludging and emulsions
• prevent iron precipitation
• improve cleanup
52  |  Matrix Stimulation
• improve coverage of the zone
• prevent precipitation of reaction products.
Additives are also used in preflushes and
overflushes to stabilize clays and disperse
paraffins and asphaltenes.
Additives must be added to the different stages
to protect tubulars and ensure successful
treatment of the formation. When mixing
additives, the compatibility of the different
components with each other and with the
downhole conditions must be checked
thoroughly.
The following are common additives in acidizing
fluids:
• corrosion inhibitors
• mutual solvents
• surfactants
• clay stabilizers
• iron control
• alcohols.
13.4.1 Corrosion inhibitors
The most important acid additives are corrosion
inhibitors. A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical
that slows the attack of acid corrosion on
drillpipe, tubing or any other metal that the acid
contacts during treatment. Organic acids are
easier to inhibit than HCl.
13.4.2 Mutual solvents
Mutual solvents are soluble in both
hydrocarbons and water. For oil wells, adding
a mutual solvent to the preflush or acid stages
helps to water-wet the formation and provides
good contact of the treating fluids with the rock
surface.
13.4.3 Surfactants
Surfactants are used in acidizing to break
undesirable emulsions, reduce surface and/
or interfacial tension, alter wettability, speed
cleanup, disperse additives, and prevent sludge
formation.
The most common process is for the fluids to
be preblended at the service company facility
and then transported to the location. This
allows blending small volumes accurately,
controlling environmental hazards. The fluids
are then pumped with little effort or quality risk.

13.4.4 Clay stabilizers

Clay stabilizers are chemicals used to stabilize
clays and fines, to prevent the clay from
swelling.

13.4.5 Iron control

The three additives currently used to help keep
iron in solution are pH control, sequestering
agents, and reducing agents. These additives
may be used individually or in combination,
depending on the source and amount of iron
dissolution expected.

13.4.6 Alcohols
Alcohols are used in acidizing fluids to remove
water blocks, enhance fluid recovery, retard
acid reactivity, and decrease water content. The
most common alcohols used in acidizing are
isopropanol and methanol.

13.5 Job execution

Matrix stimulation, mainly acidizing, is the
original and simplest stimulation treatment.
These treatments typically involve small crews
and minimal equipment. The equipment usually
consists of one low-horsepower pump and
storage tanks for the acid and flush fluids (see
JET 10: Acid Storage and Mixing Procedures,
InTouch Content ID# 4221679).

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  53

 
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54  |  Matrix Stimulation

 14.0 Matrix Stimulation Key
Service Quality Requirements
The principal factor in the successful
performance of an acidizing operation is the
service quality. The following are the Fracturing
Key Service Quality Requirements (InTouch
Content ID# 4147789) and the employees
responsible for making sure they are followed
for fracturing:
• LM= line manager
• JS = job supervisor
• EO = equipment operator
• S =salesperson
14.1 Design and preparation
requirements
1. Follow the client-approved job design
and procedure that includes proper
corrosion inhibition. The job design
and procedure should be reviewed by
line management and/or a peer before
finalization documentation of this review
is required. Responsible: LM, S
2. Follow proper lab procedures.
Responsible: LM
3. Perform base lab testing:
• Emulsion test using representative
formation fluid and fluid system to be
pumped
• Acid concentration test
Responsible: LM
4. Verify chemical load out volumes and
additive calculations before loading the
job. Responsible: LM, JS
JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  55
5. Follow documented loading and
sampling procedures for the matrix fluid
systems being used. Responsible: LM
6. Crew is current on OFS and Well
Services relevant QHSE standards.
Responsible: LM, JS
7. Job supervisor (JS), pump, blender,
FracCAT and PCM mixer operators
have performed the same or similar
types of jobs previously and/or have
completed training and are deemed
competent by line manager (LM).
Responsible: LM
8. Equipment is current on Stem I and II.
Responsible: LM, JS, EO
9. Treating equipment has been inspected
and tested according to WS Safety
Standard 23. Responsible: LM, JS
10. Necessary equipment is available to
perform the job as designed and to
comply with relevant QHSE standards.
Responsible: LM
11. Promote professional image (equipment
is clean and painted to SLB standard;
uniforms are clean and tatter-free).
Responsible: LM, JS
12. Re-verify chemical volumes and additive
calculations before transporting to the
wellsite or wellsite storage. Responsible:
LM, JS
 13. Line management conducts with the
JS a job brief/review/discussion that
includes discussion/completion of
a. SQ Risk Assessment
b. Job design and procedure
c. Job sheet with relevant well
information.
Responsible: LM
14.3 Evaluation requirements
1. Perform reporting and data capture
requirements:
a. Download StimCADE software and
CemCAT or FracCAT treatment files
into i-FIND directly after each job.
b. Report SQ events properly in Quest.
Responsible: LM, JS

2. Request and document the client’s

14.2 Wellsite execution requirements opinion concerning job performance
and whether expectations were met.
1. Crew has and uses proper and Investigate and follow up on any
functional personal protective equipment nonconformance issues. Responsible:
(PPE). Responsible: JS LM, JS, S
2. Conduct pre-job meeting with client
representative, crew, and involved third
parties to agree on job procedure,
design, calculations and Service Quality
contingency plans. Responsible: JS

3. Rig up in compliance with QHSE

standards. Responsible: JS

4. Record critical job parameters (rate,

pressure). Responsible: JS

5. Perform mass balance requirements.

Responsible: JS

6. Perform wellsite fluid QA/QC

requirements acid concentration test.
Responsible: JS

7. Pump the job as designed. Any

deviation from original job procedure
requires agreement with client
representatives, JS and LM.
Responsible: JS

56  |  Matrix Stimulation Key Service Quality Requirements

 15.0  References

The following references should be used for

more information:

• Fracturing Key Service Quality

Requirements (InTouch ID# 4147789)
• OFS QHSE Standard 003: PPE (InTouch
Content ID# 3260259)
• Treating Equipment Manual (InTouch
Content ID# 3013931)
• Well Services (WS) Safety Standard 5
(InTouch Content ID# 3313681),
• WS Safety Standard 9 (InTouch Content
ID# 3283959)
• WS Safety Standard 11 (InTouch Content
ID# 3283975)
• WS Safety Standard 17: Storage and
Handling of Oxidizers (InTouch Content
ID# 3313693)
• WS Safety Standard 18: Chemical Hazard
Communication (HAZCOM) and Material
Handling (InTouch Content ID# 3313694)
• WS Safety Standard 30: Pumping
Combustible and Flammable Fluids
(InTouch Content ID# 3313709)
• JET 37, WCS-Basic Lab Training and Fluid
QA/QC, InTouch Content ID# 4221755

JET 15 - Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |   57

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58  |  References
 16.0  Check Your Understanding
1. What is stimulation? Choose the best two
answers.
A. Fracturing and matrix acidizing are
examples of stimulation.
B. Stimulation is a chemical or mechanical
method of increasing flow capacity to a
well.
C. Stimulation is only performed below
fracturing pressure.
D. All of the above are true.
2. Which one of the following statements
regarding fracturing is incorrect?
A. Fracturing can be one of the more
complex procedures performed on a
well.
B. A typical fracturing job requires low
rates and pressures and a small
volume of materials injected.
C. Fracturing is a stimulation technique
performed above fracturing pressure.
D. Fracture increases well productivity
by creating a highly conductive path
through the damaged area.
3. Which one of the following is NOT key to
successful propped fracture stimulation?
A. Increase production by creating a high
conductivity channel.
B. Pump as much proppant and fluid into
the fracture as possible.
C. The propped fracture length is
adequate.
D. The fracture is contained.
4. Acid fracturing, also called fracture
acidizing, is a stimulation process in which
______________.
A. Acid is injected into a formation at a
pressure above fracturing pressure.
B. Acid is injected into a formation at a
pressure below fracturing pressure.
C. Acid is used to etch the walls of the
producing formation.
D. Acid is injected into a formation at a
pressure below fracturing pressure and
acid is used to etch the walls of the
producing formation.
E. Acid is injected into a formation at a
pressure above fracturing pressure and
acid is used to etch the walls of the
producing formation.
5. Which one of the following statements
is incorrect regarding fracturing fluid
characteristics?
A. It must have low friction pressure
during pumping.
B. It must have a maximum amount of
leakage into formation.
C. It must be able to break and clean up
quickly after the treatment.
D. It must be compatible with the reservoir
fluids to avoid emulsifying.
JET 15- Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  59
6. Which one of the following is true
regarding the gelling agents used by
Schlumberger?
A. As much as 6 to 10% insoluble residue
can be present in guar fluids.
10. In fluid YF240HTD, _________.
A. guar is crosslinked with titanate
B. HPG is crosslinked with borate
C. guar is crosslinked with borate

B. Hydroxypropyl guar is a derivative D. HPG is crosslinked with zirconate

of guar and contains only 2 to 4% of
insoluble residue.
C. CMHPG has been crosslinked with
Zr (zirconate) crosslinker to produce
fluids with higher viscosity at high
temperatures than those of HPG.
D. All of the above statements are true.
11. The proppant properties that affect
fracture conductivity include __________.
A. grain size and strength
B. fines and impurities
C. roundness and sphericity
D. all of the above

7. Which of the following affect the

crosslinking rate? 12. Which of the following is not a stage in a
fracturing treatment?
A. the concentration of reactants
A. flush
B. the pH of the fluids
B. slurry
C. shear conditions in the well
C. pad
D. fluid temperature
D. flowback
E. all of the above

13. Which of the following can DataFRAC not

8. Which one of the following best describes
help you do?
the function of buffers?
A. determine closure pressure
A. prevent fluid loss during the fracturing
treatment B. determine the geometry model
B. control the pH of the fracturing fluid C. determine the best proppant type
C. reduce the surface tension between D. determine fluid loss
two materials
D. degrade the polymers, reducing the 14. Calculate the crosslinker rate that needs
fluid viscosity by splitting the polymers to be used during the 9-ppa stage of
into smaller fragments sand, when the slurry rate is 50 bbl/ min.
The crosslinker concentration is
2 galUS/ 1,000 galUS. The density of sand
9. What is the most widely used type of
is 22.1 ppg.
fracturing fluid?
A. 3.52 bbl/min
A. oil-based
B. 3.25 bbl/min
B. foam
C. 2.98 bbl/min
C. water-based
D. 2.89 bbl/min
D. acids

60  |  Check Your Understanding

15. Select the best answer to complete this
statement: Matrix acidizing _________.
A. is a near wellbore treatment
B. enhances or recovers the permeability
near the wellbore, rather than affects a
large portion of the reservoir
C. uses different systems from carbonate
acidizing
D. all of the above

16. To have a successful matrix treatment, the

crew must _________.
A. ensure that the pressure never goes
below fracturing pressure
B. ensure that the pressure never goes
above fracturing pressure
C. ensure that the maximum pump rate
possible is used
D. none of the above

JET 15- Introduction to Fracturing and Matrix Stimulation  |  61

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62  |  Check Your Understanding