Subject Psychology

Paper No and Title Paper No. 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No and Title Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process

Module Tag PSY_P8_M28

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. LEARNING OUTCOMES
2. INTRODUCTION
3. PERSPECTIVES TO GENDER DEVELOPMENT:
4. Gender Schema Theory:
4.1. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
4.1.1 FAMILY:
4.1.2 PEERS:
4.1.3. MEDIA:
4.1.4. SCHOOL:
5. ISSUES WITH GENDER SOCIALIZATION.
5.1 SOCIALIZATION OF TRANSGENDERS:
6. SUMMARY

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 1. LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the importance of socialization in acquiring gender roles.
 Understand the process of socialization and identify various agents of socialization.
 Evaluate the importance of the agents of socialization and how they can give their
contribution in diminishing gender stereotyping.
 To understand the contemporary issues in gender socialization

2. INTRODUCTION
Gender refers to a set of learned behaviours and attitudes that characterizes and differentiates
people belonging to one biological sex from other. Almost all societies and cultures develop
‘Gender Roles’, gender roles are the attitudes, feelings and behaviours that are expected from
individuals belonging to different genders by the society. It is these gender specific role
expectations that govern most of our behaviour and form the roots of difference, for instance
household chores like cooking, cleaning are primarily expected to be carried out by a woman.
While, the financial responsibility of ‘running the home’ rests on the shoulder of a man. Neither a
man nor a woman is biologically predisposed to carry out these activities, rather such
expectations are a result of society's influence on individual`s behaviour. And, one mean of
transmitting these expectation is through the process of ‘Socialization’.
The process of Gender Socialization starts at birth and involves learning, habituation,
understanding, and internalization of social expectations, cultural roles and attitudes associated
with one's sex. The ethnic, cultural, and religious values of a given society governs the process of
gender socialization.
Early gender socialization is one of the most critical issues in childhood. Since birth, boys and
girls are raised and treated differently by significant others. Girls are given dolls and kitchen set
to play with while boys are provided with cars and sports goods. Different exposure along with
social appreciation in response to gender congruent behaviour and social punishment such as
humiliation and shunning in response to gender incongruent behaviour encourages learning of
differences between girls and boys, women and men. Gender socialization is not specific to
childhood and continues throughout the life cycle. Gender socialization occurs through a variety
of agents in various different ways, like the mental outlook of parents, educational institutions,
peers interactions, and mass media. These roles can and do vary from culture to culture.

3. PERSPECTIVES TO GENDER DEVELOPMENT:

1. Nature versus Nurture:
The nature- nurture discussion deals with the relative importance of an individual’s inherited
characteristics or qualities in comparison to the individual’s personal experiences.
Proponents of ‘Nature’ view emphasize that differences in beliefs, attitudes, feelings and
behaviour between males and females are innate, biological, largely due to heredity and are fixed.
The sources of these differences are sex hormones and differences in the brain structures of males
and females. On the other hand, the proponents of the ‘nurture’ view suggests that the society,
culture and the surrounding environment affects human behaviour and thereby contribute to these
differences.
Contemporary research shows evidence for both the perspectives, men and women do exhibit
genetic sex-related differences and variations in the behaviour/characteristics typically ascribed to
men and women also differ considerably.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 2. Social learning theory:
Going by the social learning theory, learning of gender roles takes place through a process of
observational learning. Children observe and imitate the behaviour of people around them, some
of which may relate to gender. Children are more likely to attend to and imitate behaviour of
people similar to them. Therefore, they are more likely to model behaviour of similar sex.
Moreover, these imitated behaviours are then reinforced if they are gender appropriate.

3. Cognitive development theory:

Cognitive psychologists view changes in gender role behaviour as a result of the way in which
kids think or reason on topics related to gender. The shifts in the comprehension of gender is
proof of the compilation of gender related knowledge obtained out of the surroundings and
growth-related transformations pertaining to the mental capacities of the child that facilitate
information processing at higher levels.
An idea on how the construct of gender evolved has been proposed. According to him, the level
of appreciation of gender amongst children happens in stages. The child’s understanding becomes
more complex as he/she moves through stages and is driven primarily by maturation. The stages
are as follows:
1. Gender identity (2 years): Here, the child can identify his/her own sex appropriately.
2. Gender stability (4 years): Here, the child understands that one`s gender remains stable.
But, the conception of gender is based on outward characteristics such as hair and
clothes.
3. Gender constancy (7 years): Here, the kid begins to grasp, that gender is something
beyond the extrinsic factors.

4. Gender Schema Theory:

Gender schema theory ascribes a greater effective part to children in their personal blooming of
gender. Gender schema theory emphasizes that a child’s gender development is a result of the
better organizational systems or schema of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’.

Through these perspectives we understand that biological differences between genders can lead to
some physical differences. But, beyond that differences are created and emerge out of different
cultural practices, societal expectations and socialization.

4.1. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Being a lifelong interactional process of cultural learning, socialization is exercised through many
different social vehicles. The social context in which socialization is carried out are constructed
through these social vehicles or ‘agents of socialization’. These agents facilitate the learning of
values and norms of their culture. Various agents of socialization like: parents, teachers, school,
peers, media and work organizations help in the formulation of gender specific roles. Due to
exposure to these agents in our early life, their influence on individuals are remarkable and deep
and tends to have an effect on our behaviour and attitudes throughout our life. The impact of
these socialization agents would depend upon different situations and social contexts.

4.1.1 FAMILY
Family provides the first emotional tie that a child develops and tends to have the greatest impact
on the socialization process. It is through the family that children learn language norms and
values of a culture. The primary initiation to a sense of gender differentiation is reflected through

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 parents. Parents tend to differ in the way they their sons and daughters, these could be through
gender-specific dressing, exposure to gender differentiated toys, and expectations regarding
behaviours. Parents are able to shape their child’s gender identity and roles in various ways:
1. By acting as role models to their children: Children learn through observation and
imitate the behaviour they observe. As, children usually want to be like the same-sex
parent, they follow them minutely.
2. By setting expectations: Research hint that fathers and mothers develop divergent
notions of conduct from sons and daughters right after birth itself.
3. By Providing Opportunities: Research suggests that parents tend to appreciate their
children to partake in sex-specific tasks, female children are encouraged to engage in
dolls housekeeping activities, while handling toy vehicles and indulging in sports
activities for male children. Also, boys, when compared with girls are entrusted with
more house-sustenance tasks, e.g. painting and mowing the lawn, while girls are likely
given domestic duties, like cooking and doing the laundry.
4. By offering approval or disapproval of the child’s actions and behaviours: Parents
tend to reward behaviours that are gender congruent while punishing gender incongruent
behaviours.
5. By communication: Parents often provide covert hints pertaining to gender and what is
perceived okay for each gender, these directives are then introspected upon by the
growing child and contribute to identification with gender roles. (Arliss, 1991). Parents
while interacting with their children often express their own values, ideas, attitudes,
behaviours and beliefs and exert influence on how their children view the roles of males
and females.
Through the above ways families are able to facilitate the process of gender identification and
gender role stereotyping it can also have pose problems. The cost of maintaining strict gender role
stereotyping includes limiting of opportunities for both boys and girls, ignoring their talent and
encouraging unfairness prevalent in our society (Beal, 1994)
Fathers and mothers adopting a more equal attitude towards gender roles are more inclined to
build this attitude in their children, their children know more about non sex-typed objects and
jobs than other children (Weisner & Wilson-Mitchell, 1990). Also, children with working
mothers are less traditional towards sex role orientation as children whose mothers do not work
outside (Weinraub, Jaeger, & Hoffman, 1988).
Studies suggest that androgynous parent is likely to have highest scores on parental comfort.
These parents are very encouraging towards achievements and foster a sense of accomplishment
in children.
As parents as agents of socialization have a great influence on gender role socialization, parents
should try to be gender fair and should encourage the best in both their sons and their daughters
and facilitate the adoption of androgynous gender role orientation.

4.1.2 PEERS
As a child grows and interacts with others in his school and neighborhood, he/she forms a circle
of relation and friendship with others increases. These peer groups, relations and friendships
have an important influence during the growing years of life. The beliefs and expectations held by
the peers are greatly valued and they form a set guidelines for social acceptance of the child
beside parents and homes. Their interactions with peers further add on to what they acquire about
gender roles from homes and parents.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 Children spend a good amount of time with their peers allowing them to have an effect on their
notions of gender roles as they now have the opportunity to socialize with similar others by
adopting new patterns of behaviour through encouraging or discouraging particular behaviours,
by modelling or by creating norms that guide children’s behaviours. The more time children
spend with peers the more similar they become to one another in interests, behaviours, and
interactional styles.
The effect of peer interaction on gender stereotyping can be either direct or indirect. Direct means
might include direct communications by the peers for instance, one child may tell his/her peers
that girls play with dolls, or perhaps boys should not cry. Indirect influence of gender role might
include observing others act according to specific gender roles and be rewarded or accepted by
their peers for doing so.
According to Martin and Fabes (2001), children show ‘social dosage effect’ that suggests that the
increase in gender-typed play behaviour can result from playing with same- gender peers from
fall to spring.
Most children show a shift from playing with gender neutral toys to gender specific toys. Peers
tend to become their role models and are used as a source to infer and enforce gender-normative
behaviour by approving or disapproving cross gender typed behaviour. As a result children
demonstrate behaviours that are acceptable by their peers.
Therefore, we can see that same-sex peers act as vehicles of socialization to transmit and enforce
gendered norms causing same-gender peer affiliation and thus predicts gender-typed play

4.1.3. MEDIA
As the popularity and influence of media increases in today’s world, its impact on children
increases. Media’s ability to quickly broadcast information and to reach vast audiences, has made
its influence on shaping gender roles indispensable.
Children are frequently exposed to gender-linked model behaviour through advertisements,
television, storybooks, videogames and even newspapers. Various forms of media that lead to the
development of gender stereotypes include:
1. advertising:
2. television and other screen media
3. newspaper and magazines
4. social media
5. music videos
All forms of mass media, be it advertising, television serials, print media, to comic books, popular
music, film, daily soaps, serials and video games, portray women and girls as those who stay at
home, do housework like laundry or cooking; they have been objectified, who are involved in
serving men or the victims of atrocities like beatings, harassment, sexual assault and murder. On
the other hand men and boys are also typecast. They are often associated with freedom, thriving
on the competitive spirit, as emotionally detached beings that are aggressive and violent by
nature. Thus exposure to media affects the way children and elders view themselves and others
related to genders. These sources portray males as directive, adventures, and engrossed in
lucrative and stimulating jobs and leisurely activities. On the other hand, women are portrayed as
in a helpless, one who needs to be rescued kind of gender.
Television characters also portray male and female characters as differing in ‘agentic
capabilities’. Men are shown as dominant and authoritative, whereas women are shown as
submissive and docile. Even in television commercials, ‘home products’ are advertised by women
and are often showed as consumers, while men are portrayed as the persuasive salesmen for the
advertised products. Gender stereotyping permeates into the occupational roles in the televised

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 world as well. Men are shown handling careers that are often of high repute, whereas women are
largely confined to domestic roles or relegated to menial jobs.
Children’s books also perpetuate gender bias, gender-stereotyped personality traits and activities
through the use of language, cartoon and pictures. Several studies indicate that the use of
masculine generics is not gender-neutral in its impact on children’s (and adults’) thinking. Also,
in many children`s books females are shown as passive (Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Rudman,
1984). Whereas boys are shown as smart, fun loving, enjoying and adventurous. This duly
contributes to viewing females as less competitive and males as creative and involved in fun. It
also reinforces the gender specific roles and readers reel under the impression that girls don’t
have as much fun as boys, girls cannot be part of adventures like boys, and that girls need to rely
on external elements to redeem them from their problems while boys are self-reliant and make do
with their own cleverness and creativity.
Witt (1997) analyzed sixteen books from six publishers and found that male characters
outnumbered female characters in all 16 books. The number of male illustrations were also
greater. The female characters in the books of five of the publishers were shown as having a mix
of masculine and feminine traits. However, the male characters in the books of all six publishers
were strongly masculine (exhibiting traits such as decisiveness, leadership, independence), and
rarely exhibited any traits that would be classified as traditionally feminine (gentleness,
understanding, sensitivity).

4.1.4. SCHOOL
School provides a platform from where a child can get an opportunity to develop a lot of
academic and non-academic skills. It opens the door to a new social world. School provides a
child with the information required to understand themselves and others.
Gender role learning also occurs in school, it provides a stage to develop friendship, observe
teachers, develop role models and learn from textbooks and other reading materials which to
some extent reinforce gender stereotypes and biases (Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Best, 1983).
Just like family and peers, teachers also foster gender stereotypes through their social sanctions
and gender differentiations. Studies have shown that teachers pay more attention to boys than
girls and interact with boys more extensively (Ebbeck, 1984; Morse & Handley, 1985). From
nursery to early elementary school, boys tend receive more appreciation as well as criticism from
teachers than girls (Cherry, 1975; Simpson & Erickson, 1983).Moreover, the nature of
appreciations and criticisms also differ; Boys are more likely to be praised for academic success
and criticized for misbehavior, whereas girls tend to be praised for tidiness and compliance and
criticized for academic failure. This pattern of praise and criticism conveys to boys that they are
smart and not well-behaved and convey to the girls that though they not smart, they will receive
rewards for being good (Golombok & Fivush, 1994).
Thorne (1993) carried out an analysis of 81 studies done by Kelly (1988) and found that boys
tend to receive 56% of classroom interaction while girls received 44%. This study also found that
girls frequently raise their hands but the teachers call on boys more often.
Many times school`s setting and physical layout also support gender role differentiation, for
instance each and everything in classroom, grounds are been divided for girls and boys. In
schools, boys and girls are categorized for different works, activities spaces in the classrooms and
labelling particular patterns of behaviour. The expectations made from boys and girls related to
academic and non-academic activities are also different. Other research indicates that gender
differences in school achievement are better explained by expectations which are placed upon
children, from parents and teachers (Golombok & Fivush, 1994; Lummis & Stevenson, 1990).

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 Although there seem to be no scientific basis to any differences in intelligence on grounds of
gender, demarcations are often noticed in the choice of courses opted by the two sexes and how
they gauge their abilities in the numerous academic domains. Girls generally go for significantly
fewer higher-level mathematics, science and computer courses, have less interest in these
subjects, and view them as less useful to their lives than do their male peers.
Gender biases also worm their way into matters relating to career choices. School counselors
encourage and support any inclination that boys show towards scientific fields, but many mellow
down girls' dreams and maneuver them into vocational lines, often below their level of ability.
The evidence from these research suggests that girls are exposed to a school curriculum of
inferiority which has major impact on their attitudes, feelings and behaviours.

5. ISSUES WITH GENDER SOCIALIZATION.

The evidence from researches and observation of our society shows that girls are continuously
socialized to be passive, soft, nurturing and accommodating. Dissent from these cultural
expectations and norms invites punishment for girls who violate these rules. The punishment can
be in the form of social ostracism, ridicule, shunning, sexual harassment, assault, and physical
violence. Consequently, girls have internalized the lessons enforced by the cultural messages
transmitted through parents, peers and families and they bear the brunt of speaking their minds, of
freedom and autonomy. Moreover, socialization of men involves constant reminders of the need
to be tough, not to cry, not to be expressive and emotional.

The concept of attributing agentic characteristics like the ability to exercise control to males
specifically contributes to many social evils like domestic violence. Differentiated Gender roles
have established intimate relationships that reduce women`s role to an menial position and
elevate men as authority figures and decision makers, which ultimately takes a toll on womens’
health and welfare. These Gender roles are so deeply ingrained that and men women are not even
conscious of their influence on behavior.

However, there are men who have hold egalitarian attitudes and have opted to walk the path of
non-violence and are enthusiastically volunteering in propagating equal relationships with women
and working to counter the undue advantage males have, one such initiative includes ‘He for She’
organised by UN women. Greater role of men in challenging violence and sexis should be
encouraged.

The issue of gender role socialization is not limited to socialization of women and men, But
socialization of transgender as well.

5.1 SOCIALIZATION OF TRANSGENDERS

Transgender is a term used for someone whose gender identity differs from their e gender given
to them on birth. Transgender may identify with either males or females, or they might feel that
neither label fits them. They express their preferred gender through ‘transition’ or shift from the
gender they were ascribed at birth. These changes might include changing their names, pronouns
or style of dressing. Some of them even choose a medical transition, with the help of medical
specialists, who will prescribe hormones and/or surgery.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
 The concept of gender in our society is trapped inside ‘gender boxes’ that is stereotypes of how
girls and boys should behave. Transgender have to deal with these gender boxes and feel like they
don’t fit at all into the male or the female box. Inability of the society to accept transgender and
forceful attempts to make transgender follow gender stereotypes which they do not identify with
and have become a very important issue leading to mental health issues. There are numerous
cases of depression and suicides of transgender. It is very important to realize that socialization of
transgender has to be different. Society needs to be sensitive towards the issue and forceful
attempts to make transgender conform to prevalent gender roles can be detrimental.

6. SUMMARY
 Socialization is the process whereby we learn the social norms, values, and expectations.
 Socialization can occur directly where we are taught, given directions, instructions on
how to act. It can also occur indirectly when others interact with us. They accept or reject
our behaviour by reinforcing.
 Gender Roles can be learnt through a process of socialization.
 The process of socialization occurs through parents, family, peers, teachers, school. It is
embarked from the time we are born and continues throughout the lifespan.
 An individual is actively involved and interacts often with parents. Parent’s attitudes
towards boys and girls are different. As a result they expect different behaviours from
girls and boys. They guide, act as role models, direct gender specific behaviour which are
readily taken and perpetuated by their children.
 These gender roles are added on once children starts interacting with peers from their
neighborhood or school. The peers accept or reject, if children comply to gender specific
playing and acting. The need for social approval makes to conform to what is expected.
They then comply with the gender norms.
 Children are exposed to media from a tender age. They view commercials, listen to
jingles, stories, cartoons etc. To a large extent the media shows disparity in how males
and females are treated and what has to be expected from them. The TV commercials
also show boys involved in physical activities and girls involved in caring or soft
activities. Such exposure is generating misperceptions regarding gender and adding to
gender stereotyping.
 The school environment- the teachers, books, play, sports all act as a ground where these
learned gender norms get expanded. Teacher’s expectation from girls and boys, the sports
children play, the books adds on to gender stereotyping.
 Differentiated Gender roles have established intimate relationships that reduce women`s
role to a subservient and uplifts men as power holders and decision makers, which
ultimately is detrimental to the health and survival of women. These Gender roles are so
deeply ingrained that men and women are not even conscious of their influence on their
behavior.
 There are men who hold egalitarian attitudes and have chosen non-violence and are
actively participating in equal relationships with women and working to challenge male
privilege.
 The issue of gender role socialization is not limited to socialization of women and men,
But socialization of transgender as well.
 Inability of the society to accept transgender and forceful attempts to make transgender
follow gender stereotypes which they do not identify with has become a very important
issue leading to mental health problems. There are numerous cases of depression and
suicides of transgender.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.: 8: Cross Cultural Psychology
Module No 28: Gender Roles And Socialization Process