STEM 3

An overall examination C. Molecules, Ions,

reviewer beneficial to the Senior High Chemical
Formulas
School students
of San Pedro College

This reviewer serves as the compilation of I. BASIC CONCEPTS OF

all the lessons discussed by different
teachers of the same subject, it also
MATTER
includes examples and short activities to
sharpen one’s knowledge about the topic. A. STUDY OF MATTER
If there are topics included that are not ➢ Chemistry
discussed, please clarify with your subject ○ field of study concerned with
teachers. the characteristics,
composition, and
OUTLINE transformations of matter
I. Basic Concepts IV. Electronic ➢ Matter
about Matter Structure of ○ anything that has mass and
A. Study of Matter Atoms occupies space
B. Chemistry A. Main Energy
C. Atoms, Molecules, Levels, Sublevels,
Molecule and Orbitals
Formulas B. Quantum B. CHEMISTRY
D. States of Matter Numbers
E. Properties of C. Electron
Matter
➢ General Chemistry
Configurations and
F. Changes of Matter Orbital Diagrams
○ a broad introduction to a
G. Law of
V. Electronic variety of concepts in
Conservation of Chemistry
Matter Structure and
H. Classes of Matter Periodicity
I. Pure Substance A. The Periodic Table ➢ Inorganic Chemistry
J. Mixture B. Electron
K. Elements Configuration and ○ synthesis and behavior
L. Compounds the Periodic Law
of inorganic and
II. Measurements C. Periodic Variation
in Atomic organometallic compounds
in Chemistry Properties
A. Uncertainty of
Measurements VI. Validated ➢ Physical Chemistry
B. Reliability in ○ deals with
Measurements the physical structure
C. Significant Figures of chemical compounds, the
D. Learning Check
E. Significant
way they react with each other
Numbers in & the bonds that hold their
Calculations atoms
III. Atoms,
Molecules, and ➢ Organic Chemistry
Ions ○ study of the structure,
A. Dalton’s Atomic properties, composition,
Theory and Basic
reactions, and preparation of
Laws of Matter
B. Atomic Structure carbon-containing compounds

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

➢ Analytical Chemistry D. STATES OF MATTER

○ obtaining, processing, and
communicating information SOLID LIQUID GAS
about the composition and
structure of matter

➢ Biochemistry
○ application of chemistry to the
study of biological processes
at the cellular and molecular
level

➢ Nuclear Chemistry
○ deals with
radioactivity, nuclear process,
and transformations in the
nuclei of atoms

➢ Geological Chemistry
○ uses the tools and principles
of chemistry to explain the
mechanisms behind
major geological systems

C. ATOMS, MOLECULES, E. PROPERTIES OF MATTER

CHEMICAL FORMULAS
● Physical property
● Atom ○ Can be observed without
○ the smallest particle of an changing the basic identity of
element that can exist and still the substance.
have the properties of the ○ Color, Physical State, Melting
element. point.
○ Mercury metal is liquid at
● Molecule room temperature.
○ group of two or more atoms ● Chemical property
that functions as a unit ○ Describes the way the
substance undergoes or
● Chemical Formula resists change to form a new
○ notation made up of the substance.
chemical symbols of the ○ Iron metal rusts in the
elements present in a atmosphere of moist air.
compound & numerical
subscripts that indicate the F. CHANGES OF MATTER
number of atoms of each
element
● Physical change
○ Substance changes its
physical appearance but not
its chemical composition.

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

○ The fashioning of a piece of H. CLASSES OF MATTER

wood into a round table leg
involves a physical change.
○ Straightening a bent piece of
iron with a hammer is an
example of physical change.
● Chemical change
○ Substance undergoes a
change in chemical
composition.
○ The vigorous reaction of
potassium metal with water to
produce hydrogen gas is a
chemical change.
○ The ignition and burning of a
match involve a chemical I. PURE SUBSTANCE
change.
● A pure substance is a single kind of
G. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
matter that cannot be separated into
MATTER other kinds of matter by any physical
means.
● There is no observable change in the
quantity of matter during a chemical ● All samples of a pure substance
reaction or a physical change. contain only that substance and
nothing else.
● In other words, matter cannot be
created nor destroyed. It is just ● A pure substance always has a
converted from one form to another. definite and constant composition.

J. MIXTURE

● A mixture is a physical combination of

two or more pure substances in which
each substance retains its own
chemical identity.

● Components of a mixture retain their

identity because they are physically
mixed rather than chemically
combined.

● One characteristic of any mixture is

that its components can be separated
by using physical means.

● HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
○ A heterogeneous mixture is
a mixture that contains visibly
different phases (parts), each
of which has different

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

properties. ● Each element has a unique symbol

○ A nonuniform appearance is a ○ The first letter is always

characteristic of all capitalized, the second letter
heterogeneous mixtures. is always lower case

○ Ex. Water & oil ■ Fluorine is F, not f

● HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES ■ Cobalt is Co, not CO

○ A homogeneous mixture is a (which is carbon
mixture that contains only one monoxide)
visibly distinct phase (part),
which has uniform properties ● The smallest
throughout. unit of an
element is the
○ The components present in a atom
homogeneous mixture cannot
be visually distinguished.

○ Examples: sugar-water
mixture, air

K. ELEMENTS

● A pure substance that cannot be

broken down into simpler pure
L. COMPOUNDS
substances by chemical means.
● Pure substances containing more than
● Elemental substances contain only one different element.
one type of atom.
○ NaCl (table salt)
● Elements are the building blocks of
matter. Contains sodium (Na) and
chlorine (Cl)
● There are 118 known elements
today, 90 which occur naturally. NaCl is the chemical formula

○ H2O (water)

Contains 2 atoms of hydrogen

(H) and 1 atom of oxygen (O)

H2O is the chemical formula

● Elements in compounds are combined

in a definite ratio

○ H2O is water but H2O2 is

hydrogen peroxide

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

● SI System
(System Internationale)

Prefix Symbol Decimal Power of 10

Equivalent

mega- M 1,000,000 Base x 10^6

kilo- k 1,000 Base x 10^3

deci- d 0.1 Base x 10^-1

centi- c 0.01 Base x 10^-2

II. MEASUREMENTS IN milli- m 0.001 Base x 10^-3

CHEMISTRY micro- µ or mc 0.000 001 Base x 10^-6

● Measurement nano- n 0.000 000 001 Base x 10^-9

- The determination of the dimensions,
capacity, quantity, or extent of a pico- p 0.000 000 000 Base x
matter. 001 10^-12
○ Mass
○ Volume
● Meter (m)
○ Length
○ base unit of length
○ Time
❖ Length
○ Temperature
○ measured by determining the
○ Pressure
distance between two points
○ Concentration

● Two Systems of Measurements: ● Gram (g)

○ base unit of mass
○ The English system of units ❖ Mass
○ The Metric system of units ○ determined by the amount of
matter in an object
● Two Types of Measurements ❖ Weight
○ measure of the force exerted
○ Qualitative Measurement: on an object by gravitational
Change in color, formation of forces
bubbles
○ Quantitative Measurement:
involves the use of numbers. ● Liter (L)
○ base unit of volume
❖ Volume
○ measured by determining the
amount of space occupied by
a three-dimensional object.

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

Metric Unit of Measure ● ACCURACY

○ when the measured value is
Measures of Length close to the accepted value
1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters
(mm)

1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters

(cm)

1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters(m)

1 decimeter (m) = 1/10 meter

Measure of Weight

1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams

(mg)
C. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
● Digits in a measurement that are
Liquid Measures known with certainty plus one digit
that is estimated.
1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters ○ Number of significant figures =
(mL) certain digits + one estimated
digit
1 deciliter (dL) = 1/10 liter (L)

A. UNCERTAINTY OF
MEASUREMENTS

Every measurement carries a degree of

uncertainty or error.

REASONS:
● Limitations or flaws of measuring ● Counting Significant Figures
device ○ RULE 1. All non-zero digits in
● Improper calibration a measured number are
● Human factor significant. Only a zero could
indicate that rounding
occurred.

B. RELIABILITY IN
MEASUREMENTS
● PRECISION
○ when the trials made are
same/close to each other.

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

❖ Leading Zeros
○ RULE 2. Leading zeros in
decimal numbers are NOT
significant.

❖ Sandwiched Zeros E. SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS IN

○ RULE 3. Zeros between CALCULATIONS
nonzero numbers are
significant. (They can not be
rounded unless they are on ○ A calculated answer cannot
the end of a number.) be more precise than the
measuring tool.

○ A calculated answer must

match the least precise
measurement.

○ Significant figures are needed

❖ Trailing Zeros
○ RULE 4. Trailing zeros in
numbers without decimals are
NOT significant. They are only
serving as place holders.
for final answers from
1. adding or subtracting
2. multiplying or dividing
● Adding and Subtracting
○ The answer has the same
number of decimal places as
the measurement with the
fewest decimal places.

● Multiplication and Division

D. LEARNING CHECK! ○ Round (or add zeros) to the
calculated answer until you
● State the number of significant have the same number of
figures in each of the following: significant figures as the

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3
measurement with the fewest
significant figures
III. ATOMS, MOLECULES,
AND IONS
A. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
AND BASIC LAWS OF
MATTER
As chemists learned to measure the amounts
of materials that reacted with one another to
make new substances, the ground was laid
for a chemical atomic theory. The following
are the postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
● Elements are composed of indivisible
particles called atoms which maintain
their identity in all physical and
chemical changes.
● All atoms of a given element are
identical; the atoms of different
elements are different and have
different properties including masses.
● Atoms of an element are not changed
into different types of atoms by
chemical reactions; atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions.
● Compounds are formed when atoms
of more than one element combine; a
given compound always has the
same relative number and kind of
atoms.
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
Some aspects of Dalton’s original theory have
been revised to take into account the
observations made later. These are the
following:
● Atoms are not indestructible. They
still consist of smaller particles.
● The atoms of one element may differ
in mass. They are identical, however,
in some basic aspects.
Dalton’s theory explains several simple laws
of chemical combination that were known at
his time.
● Law of Definite Proportion or
Composition states that compounds
have a definite composition,
regardless of how the samples were
prepared or where they originated.
For example, the carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2
) produced from the combustion of
gasoline has the same proportion of
carbon and oxygen as the gas that
we exhale.
● The Law of Conservation of Mass
states that during a physical or
chemical change, the total mass of all
substances before and after the
change are the same. Atoms are
neither created nor destroyed, thus,
the total mass remains the same.
A good theory should not only explain the
known facts but should also predict new ones.
● The Law of Multiple Proportions
states that if two elements A and B
combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of B that can
combine with a given mass of A are
in the ratio of small whole numbers.
Examples are water (H2O) and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Informing
water, 8.0 g of oxygen combined with
1.0 g of hydrogen while in hydrogen
peroxide, there is 16.0 g of oxygen
per 1.0 g of hydrogen. In other words,
 STEM 3
the ratio of the mass of oxygen per
gram of hydrogen in the two
compounds is 2:1.
B. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms
are the basic building blocks of matter. They
are the smallest particles of an element that
retain the chemical identity of the element.
As noted in the postulates of Dalton’s theory,
an element is composed of only one kind of
atom, whereas a compound contains atoms
of two or more elements.
Atoms possess internal structure and are
made up of even smaller particles.
❖ Subatomic particle is a very small
particle that is a building block for
atoms. Three types of subatomic
particles are found within atoms:
➢ An electron is a subatomic
particle that possesses a
negative electrical charge.
➢ Proton is a subatomic particle
that possesses a positive
electrical charge.
➢ A neutron is a subatomic
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
particle that has no charge
associated with it, that is, it is
neutral.
Charge and Mass Characteristics
Electron Proton Neutron
Charge -1 +1 0
Actual 9.109 x 1.673 x 1.675 x
Mass 10-28 10-24 10-24
The arrangement of subatomic particles
within an atom is not haphazard.
● Nucleus is the small, dense, positively
charged center of an atom where all
protons and all neutrons are found.
Almost all of the mass of an atom is
concentrated in its nucleus.
○ Nucleon is any subatomic
particle found in the nucleus
of an atom. Thus, both
protons and neutrons are
called nucleons.
● Extranuclear region of an atom is
where the electrons move rapidly
about the nucleus which accounts for
most of the volume of an atom.
○ Electron cloud is the term
used to describe the volume
occupied by the electrons
which are negatively
charged.
An atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
With this, the number of protons (positively
charged particles) and electrons (negatively
charged particles) in a neutral atom must be
equal.
number of protons = number of electrons
The one characteristic that is common to all
atoms of an element is the number of protons
in their nuclei. No two elements have the same
number of protons or atomic numbers. With
 STEM 3

this, the element can be also defined as a pure
substance in which all atoms present have the
same atomic number.
● Atomic number (Z) is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
atomic number = number of protons =
number of electrons
● Mass number (A) is the sum of the number
of protons and the number of neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
mass number = number of protons (atomic
number) + number of neutrons
They must have the same number of protons
and electrons, but they can differ in the
number of neutrons.
● Isotopes are atoms of an element that
have the same number of protons
and the same number of electrons
but different numbers of neutrons.
They always have the same atomic
number and different mass numbers.
● Isotopes of an element are identified
or named in two ways:
○ Name of element – Mass
number
○ Isotopic symbol

number of neutrons + mass number - atomic

number

The mass and atomic number of a given atom are

often specified using a notation.
● Complete chemical symbol notation is a
notation where the atomic number is
placed as a subscript in front of the Some Isotopes of Carbon
chemical symbol and the mass number is
Isotope Number Number of Number of
placed as a superscript in front of the
of Protons Electrons Neutrons
chemical symbol.
carbon - 6 6 6
12

carbon - 6 6 7
13

carbon - 6 6 8
14

Isotopes with unstable nucleus which emit

Charge neutrality requires the presence in an
atom of an equal number of protons and
electrons. However, since neutrons have no
electrical charge, their numbers in atoms do
not have to be the same as the number of
protons or electrons. This means that not all
atoms of an element have to be identical.
radiation spontaneously are called radioactive
isotopes (radioactive nuclides) and these are
used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
In diagnostic applications, technicians use
small amounts of radioactive isotopes whose
progress through the body or localization in
specific organs can be followed. Larger
quantities of radionuclides are used in
therapeutic applications.

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

assessment of
Abnormal cells are more susceptible to peripheral
radiation damage than normal cells because vascular
abnormal cells divide more frequently. disease

Selected Radioactive Isotopes Used in

Selected Radioactive Isotopes Used in
Diagnostic Procedures
Radiation Therapy
Isotope Half-life Part of Used in
Isotope Half-life Type of Used in
the Diagnosis
Emitter Therapy
Body
Affected external
cobalt – 5.3 gamma
60 years source of
barium – 11.6 bone detection of radiation in
131 days bone tumors treatment of
cancer
chromium 27.8 blood determination
– 51 days of blood iodine – 8 days beta, cancer of
kidney volume and 131 gamma thyroid
red blood cell
lifetime phospho 14.3 beta, treatment of
assessment of some types of
rus – 32 days gamma
kidney activity leukemia and
widespread
gallium – 3.2 blood detection of carcinomas
67 days sites of
infection radium – 1620 alpha, used in
226 years gamma implantation
iodine – 13 thyroid assessment of cancer
123 hours thyroid gland therapy
activity
radon – 3.8 alpha, used in
iron – 59 45 blood evaluation of 222 days gamma treatment of
days iron uterine,
metabolism in cervical, oral
blood and bladder
cancers
phosphoru 14.3 blood blood studies
s – 32 days breast assessment of yttrium – 64 beta, implantation
breast 90 hours gamma therapy
carcinoma

potassium 12.4 tissue determination Moreover, radioactive isotopes can be used

– 42 hours of intercellular as a source of power. Cardiac pacemakers
spaces in powered by plutonium – 238 can remain in a
fluids patient for longer periods than those powered
detection of by chemical batteries and the additional
sodium – 15.0 blood
24 hours circulatory surgery required to replace batteries is not
problems; needed.

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

C. MOLECULES, IONS, compounds. The number of atoms

CHEMICAL FORMULAS present in the heteroatomic
molecules associated with
compounds varies over a wide
Free atoms are rarely encountered in nature. range. A molecule is the smallest
Instead, under normal conditions of particle of a compound capable of
temperature and pressure, atoms are always a stable independent existence.
found together. When the group or cluster
of atoms is relatively small and bound together
An atom is neutral when the number of
tightly, the resulting entity is called a
protons (positive charges) is equal to the
Molecule.
number of electrons (negative charges). Loss
or gain of electrons destroys this
● Molecule is a group of two or more
proton-electron balance and leaves a net
atoms that functions as a unit because
charge on the atom and it becomes an ion.
the atoms are tightly bound together.
● Ion is an atom (monatomic ion) or a
Molecules are classified into two
group of atoms (polyatomic ion) that
categories based on the kind of atoms
has a net positive or negative charge.
present:
The number of positively charged
○ Homoatomic molecule
protons in the nucleus of an atom
contains atoms that are of the
remains the same during chemical
same kind. A substance
reactions but negative charged
containing homoatomic
electrons may be lost or gained.
molecules must be an
❖ Cation is an ion with a net
element. The fact that
positive charge. If an atom
homoatomic molecules exist
loses one or more electrons, it
indicates that individual atoms
becomes a positively charged
are not always the preferred
ion; more protons are present
structural unit for an element.
than electrons.
Examples are the following
❖ Anion is an ion whose net
elements that normally exist
charge is negative. If an gains
as diatomic molecules:
one or more electrons,it
hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2),
becomes negatively charged
oxygen (O2), fluorine (F2),
ion; excess negative charge is
chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2),
present because electrons
and iodine (I2).
outnumber protons.

In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons

to form cations, whereas nonmetal atoms tend
to gain electrons to form anions.

Information about compound composition can

○ The heteroatomic molecule
contains two or more kinds of
atoms. Substances that contain
heteroatomic molecules must be
be presented in a concise way by using a
chemical formula. Writing chemical formulas is
a way of expressing in symbols the elements
present in a compound, as well as the number
of atoms of each element present in the
compound.
● Chemical formula is used to express
the composition of molecules and ionic

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

compounds in terms of chemical ❖ Space-filling model depicts

symbols. By composition we mean not the atoms of the compound
only the elements present but also the using spheres that are joined
ratios in which the atoms are together, approximating the
combined. There are different types of proportionate sizes of the
chemical formulas used to represent atoms.
the bonding of atoms to form a
compound:
❖ Molecular formula shows the
IV. ELECTRONIC
exact number of atoms of STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
each element in the smallest
unit of a substance. The A. MAIN ENERGY LEVELS,
molecular formula for glucose
is C6H12O6. There are 6
SUBLEVELS, AND ORBITALS
carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen
As electrons move about an atom’s nucleus,
atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.
they are restricted to specific regions within
❖ Empirical formula tells us
the extranuclear region of the atom. Such
which elements are present
restrictions are determined by the amount of
and the simplest
energy the electrons possess. The space in
whole-number ratio of their
which electrons move rapidly about a nucleus
atoms, but not necessarily the
is divided into subspaces:
actual number of atoms in a
given molecule. The empirical ❖ Main energy level or shell is a region
formula for glucose is CH2O. of space about a nucleus that contains
❖ Structural formula indicates electrons that have approximately the
how the atoms are arranged same energy and that spend most of
and bonded chemically. They their time approximately the same
are graphical representations distance from the nucleus. Electron
of compounds showing the shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so
elements connected to each on, outward from the nucleus.
other in symbols and how they ❖ Electron energy increases as the
are arranged in the molecule distance of the electron shell from the
of the compound. nucleus increases. The maximum
number of electrons that an electron
Molecules are too small for us to observe shell can accommodate varies; the
directly. An effective means of visualizing them higher the shell number (n), the more
is by the use of molecular models. electrons that can be present.
● A molecular model is a representation ❖ In higher-energy shells, the electrons
of a compound’s structure in a 3- are farther from the nucleus, and a
dimensional molecular view. Two greater volume of space is available
standard types of molecular models for them. The lowest-energy shell (n =
are currently in use: 1) accommodates a maximum of 2
❖ Ball-and-stick model depicts electrons. In the second, third, and
a 3-dimensional view of the fourth shells, 8, 18, and 32 electrons,
atoms of a compound and the respectively, are allowed. The
bonds between them. The relationship is expressed by the
atoms are represented by formula below:
balls and the bonds between 2
them are represented by 2𝑛
sticks connecting the balls. (Where n is the shell number)

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3

be found. In the apartment complex analogy,

❖ Sublevel or subshell is a region of if shells are the counterparts of the floor levels
space within an electron shell that and the subshells are the apartments, then
contains electrons that have the same electron orbitals are the rooms of the
energy. The shells are analogous to
apartments.
the floors of the apartment complex,
and the subshells are the counterparts
An orbital, independent of all other
of the various apartments on each
floor. The number of subshells within a considerations, can accommodate a
shell is the same as the shell number; maximum of 2 electrons. Thus, an s subshell
shell 1 contains one subshell, shell 2 (2 electrons) contains one orbital, a p
contains two subshells, shell 3 subshell (6 electrons) contains three orbitals,
contains three subshells, and so on. a d subshell (10 electrons) contains five
❖ Subshells within a shell differ in size orbitals, and an f subshell (14 electrons)
(the maximum number of electrons contains seven orbitals. The orbitals in the
they can accommodate) and energy. same subshell (e.g., the three orbitals in the
Subshell size (type) is designated 3p subshell which are also called 3p orbitals)
using the letters s, p, d, and f. Listed in have the same energy and are called
this order, these letters denote degenerate orbitals.
subshells of increasing energy and
size. An s subshell can accommodate
2 electrons, a p subshell 6 electrons,
a d subshell 10 electrons, and an f Energy Sublevel No. of Max Max
subshell 14 electrons. Level Orbitals No.of −
No.of 𝑒
❖ Both a number and a letter are used in −
𝑒 Per Per Shell
identifying subshells. The number
Sublev
gives the shell within which the
el
subshell is located, and the letter gives
the type of subshell.
1 1s 1 2 2

Main Number of Kinds of 2 2s 1 2 8

Energy Sublevel Sublevels 2p 3 6
Level
3 3s 1 2 18
1 1 (s sublevel) 1s 3p 3 6
3d 5 10
2 2 (s and p 2s, 2p
sublevels) 4 4s 1 2 32
4p 3 6
3 3 (s, p, and d 3s, 3p, 3d 4d 5 10
sublevels) 4f 7 14

4 4 (s, p, d, and f 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f Orbitals have distinct shapes that are related
sublevels) to the type of subshell in which they are
found.
Electron orbital or atomic orbital is a region
of space within an electron subshell where an
electron with specific energy is most likely to

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3
B. QUANTUM NUMBERS
According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle, it is not possible to give the exact
position of an electron and its energy at the
same time. However, the probability of finding
the electron in an orbital of given energy can
be determined.
Quantum numbers are required to describe
the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and
other atoms. Principal quantum number,
angular momentum quantum number, and
magnetic quantum number are used to
describe atomic orbitals and to label
electrons that reside in them. Spin quantum
number (fourth quantum number) describes
the behavior of a specific electron and
completes the description of electrons in
atoms.
● Principal quantum number (n)
refers to the main energy level of an
orbital and can have integral values
1, 2, 3, and so forth. This also relates
to the average distance of the
electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital. The larger the n is,
the greater the average distance of
an electron in the orbital from the
nucleus and therefore the larger the
orbital.
● Angular momentum quantum
number or azimuthal quantum
number (l) represents energy
sublevels and tells us the shape of
the orbitals. The values of l depend
on the value of the n. For a given
value of n, l has possible integral
values from 0 to (n – 1). Example, if
n = 3, there are three values of l,
given by 0,1, and 2.
● Magnetic quantum number (ml)
describes the orientation of the orbital
in space. Below is the example of
orbitals with the same subshell that
differ in orientation. Within a
subshell, the value of ml depends on
the value of l. The ml can have
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
integral value from -l to +l, including
0. A faster way of determining the
number of ml values per sublevel is
by using the formula 2l + 1. Example,
if l = 2, there are [(2 x 2) + 1] = 5,
there are five values of ml, namely, -2,
-1, 0, 1 and 2. If l = 1, there are [(2 x
1) + 1] = 3, there are three values of
ml, namely, -1, 0, and 1.
● Spin quantum number (ms)
describes the spin of an electron.
When an electron is assigned to an
orbital in an atom, it may take either
of the two possible orientations. It
can be +1/2, represented by an
upward arrow (clockwise spin), or
-1/2, represented by a downward
arrow (counterclockwise spin).
C. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIONS AND
ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
There are many orbitals about the nucleus of
an atom. Electrons do not occupy these
orbitals in a random, haphazard fashion; a
very predictable pattern exists for electron
orbital occupancy. There are three rules for
assigning electrons to various shells,
subshells, and orbitals.
● Aufbau’s principle states that the
electrons' subshells are filled in order
of increasing energy.
● Hund’s rule states that electrons
occupy the orbitals of a subshell
(degenerate orbitals like the three 2p
orbitals or the five 4d orbitals) such
that each orbital acquires one
electron before any orbital acquires a
second electron. All electrons in such
singly occupied orbitals must have
the same spin.
● Pauli exclusion principle states that
no more than two electrons may exist
in a given orbital—and then only if
 STEM 3
they have opposite spins. No two
electrons in the same atom can have
the same quantum numbers.
Electron configuration of an atom describes
how the electrons are distributed among the
subshells. Electron configurations are not
written out in words; rather, a shorthand
system with symbols is used. Subshells
containing electrons, listed in order of
increasing energy (Aufbau principle), are
designated by using a number-letter
combination (1s, 2s, or 2p). A superscript
following each subshell designation indicates
the number of electrons in that subshell.
Orbital diagram is a notation that shows how
many electrons an atom has in each of its
occupied electron orbitals.
V. ELECTRONIC
STRUCTURE AND
PERIODICITY
A. THE PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the
elements in order of increasing atomic number
such that elements having similar chemical
properties are positioned in vertical columns.
Within the table, each element is represented
by a rectangular box that contains the symbol,
atomic number and atomic mass of the
element.
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
Using the information on a periodic table, one
can quickly determine the number of protons
and electrons for atoms of an element.
However, no information concerning neutrons
is available from a periodic table; mass
numbers are not part of the information given
because they are not unique to an element.
The location of an element within the periodic
table is specified by giving its period number
and group number.
● Period is a horizontal row of
elements in the periodic table. For
identification purposes, the periods are
numbered sequentially with Arabic
numbers, starting at the top of the
periodic table.
● Group is a vertical column of
elements in the periodic table.
Elements in the same group have the
same chemical properties. There are
two notations in use for designating
individual periodic-table groups.
○ Roman numerals and the
letters A and B
○ Arabic numbers (1 through 18)
The elements can be classified in several
ways. The two most common classification
system are the following:
● A system based on selected physical
properties of elements.
○ Metal is an element that has
the characteristic properties of
luster, thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, and
malleability.
○ Nonmetal is an element
characterized by the absence
of the properties of luster,
thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity, and malleability.
○ Metalloids are elements which
have the properties of both
metals and nonmetals.
 STEM 3

noble gas completes the p

Selected Physical Properties of Metals and
subshell.
Nonmetals
○ Representative element (main
group element) is an element
Metals Nonmetals
located in the s area or the
High electrical Poor electrical first five columns of the p area
conductivity that conductivity (except of the periodic table. The
decreases with carbon in the form of distinguishing electron in
increasing temperature graphite) these elements partially or
completely fills an s subshell
High thermal Good heat insulators or partially fills a p subshell.
conductivity (except carbon in the ○ Transition element is an
form of diamond) element located in the d area
of the periodic table. Each has
Metallic gray or silver No metallic luster its distinguishing electron in a
luster d subshell. All the transition
elements are metals.
Almost all are solids Solids, Liquids, or ○ Inner transition element is an
Gases element located in the f area
of the periodic table. Each has
Malleable (can be Brittle in solid state its distinguishing electron in
hammered into sheets) an f subshell. All of the inner
transition elements are
Ductile (can be drawn Non Ductile metals.
into wires)
B. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
*Except mercury
**Except mercury, cesium, and gallium melt when
AND THE PERIODIC LAW
held in a person’s hand
Periodic law states that when elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number,
elements with similar chemical properties
● A system based on the electron occur at periodic (regularly recurring) intervals.
configurations of the elements with the The periodic law points out that the properties
use of distinguishing electron which is of the elements repeat themselves in a regular
the last electron added to the electron manner when the elements are arranged in
configuration for an element when order of increasing atomic number. The
electrons subshells are filled in order elements that have similar chemical properties
of increasing energy. are placed under one another in vertical
columns (group) in the periodic table.
○ Noble-gas element is an
element located in the far-right
column of the periodic table.
These elements have little
tendency to form chemical
compounds. With one
exception (helium’s electron
configuration is 1s2), the
distinguishing electron for a

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
 STEM 3
Groups of elements have similar chemical
properties because electron configurations
repeat themselves in a regular manner among
the elements. To illustrate this correlation
between similar chemical properties and
similar electron configuration, let us look at the
electron configurations of two groups of
elements known to have similar chemical
properties.
Note that each of these elements under the
same group have the same number of
electrons in its outermost shell. The outermost
shell (valence shell) is the shell with the
highest number. This similarity in outer-shell
electron arrangements causes these elements
to have similar chemical properties since
electrons found in the outermost shell (valence
electrons) are the ones that interact when
atoms form bonds with one another.
● For representative elements and
noble-gas elements, the valence
electrons are those in the s and p
subshells of the highest energy level
or shell. The number of valence
electrons is the same as the group
number (Roman numerals with letters
notation) of the element.
● For transition elements, the valence
electrons are the electrons in the
outermost energy level and the
electrons in the d orbitals of the next
inner main energy level.
● For inner transition elements, valence
electrons consist of the outermost s, d
and f electrons.
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
C. PERIODIC VARIATION IN
ATOMIC PROPERTIES
Many properties of atoms depend on their
electron configurations and on how strongly
their outer electrons are attracted to the
nucleus. In a many-electron atom, a valence
electron is attracted to the nucleus and is
repelled by the other electrons in the atom. In
particular, the electron density that is due to
the inner (core electrons) is particularly
effective at partially canceling the attraction of
the valence electron to the nucleus.
● Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the
nuclear charge felt by an electron
when both the actual nuclear charge
(Z) and the repulsive effects
(shielding) of the other electrons are
taken into account.
Trends in 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 for valence electrons in
the periodic table.
➔ From left to right across a period, the
effective nuclear charge increases.
Although the number of core electrons
stays the same as we move across a
period, the actual nuclear charge
increases. The valence electrons
added to counterbalance the
increasing nuclear charge shield one
another very ineffectively. Thus, the
𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 increases steadily.
 STEM 3
➔ From top to bottom or going down a
column, effective nuclear charge also
increases. However, because the
valence electrons are now added to
increasingly large shells as n
increases, the electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and the valence
electrons usually decreases. The
increase in effective nuclear charge
that occurs moving down a column is
smaller than the change that occurs
when moving across a period.
Atomic radius, ionization energy and electron
affinity of the atoms of an element have
very important roles in determining the
properties of the element.
A number of physical properties including
density, melting point and boiling point are
related to the sizes of the atoms. According to
the quantum mechanical model, however,
atoms and ions do not have sharply defined
boundaries at which the electron distribution
becomes zero. Nevertheless, we can define
atomic size in several ways, based on the
distances between atoms in various situations.
● Atomic radius is one-half the distance
between the two nuclei in two adjacent
metal atoms (a) or in a diatomic
molecule (b). Below are the trends of
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
the atomic radii of representative
elements.
○ From left to right across a
period, atomic radius
decreases. The major factor
influencing this 7 trend is the
increase in the effective
nuclear charge. As each
successive electron is added
across a period, the nuclear
charge also increases by the
addition of one proton. The
result is an increased
attraction between the nucleus
and electrons that is
somewhat stronger than the
increasing repulsion between
electrons, causing atomic
radius to decrease.
○ From top to bottom of a group,
the atomic radius increases.
This trend results primarily
from the increase in the
principal quantum number of
the outer electrons. As we go
down a column, the outer
electrons have a greater
probability of being farther
from the nucleus, causing the
atom to increase in size.
An element’s chemical reactivity is determined,
in part, by how easily valence electrons
are removed from its atoms, a process that
requires energy.
● Ionization energy of an atom or ion is
the minimum energy required to
remove an electron from the ground
the minimum energy required to
remove an electron from the ground
state of the isolated gaseous atom or
ion. The greater the ionization energy,
the more difficult it is to remove an
electron. Below are the trends of the
ionization energies of representative
elements o From left to right across a
period, the first ionization energy
generally increases with increasing
atomic number. Across a period, there
 STEM 3
is both an increase in effective nuclear
charge and a decrease in atomic
radius. Smaller atoms have higher
ionization energies because it is more
difficult to remove the electron.
○ From top to bottom of a group,
the first ionization energy
generally decreases with
increasing atomic number.
Down a column, atomic radius
increases while the effective
nuclear charge increases
rather gradually. Thus, the
attraction between the nucleus
and the electron decreases
(easier to remove), causing
the ionization energy to
decrease.
However, the trend is not followed when the
added valence electron in the next element (a)
enters a new sublevel (higher energy sublevel)
or (b) is the first electron to pair in one orbital
of the sublevel (electron repulsions lower
energy).
Another property that greatly influences the
chemical behavior of atoms is their ability to
accept one or more electrons and this property
is called electron affinity.
● Electron affinity is the energy change
that occurs when an electron is added
to a gaseous atom to form negatively
charged ions. If ionization energy
measures the ease with which an
atom loses an electron, the electron
affinity measures the ease with which
an atom gains an electron. In the case
of chlorine atom, addition of an
electron is accompanied by an energy
change of -349 kJ/mol, the negative
sign indicates that energy is released
during the process . The greater the
attraction between a given atom and
an electron, the more negative the
atom’s electron affinity will be. There is
a general correlation between electron
affinity and effective nuclear charge,
which also increases from left to right
Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.
in a given period. However, as in the
case of ionization energies, there are
some irregularities. Electron affinity
does not change greatly as we move
down a group.
○ The electron affinity of noble gas is
positive since the addition of an
electron to a noble gas requires that
the electron resides in a
higher-energy subshell that is empty
and is energetically very
unfavorable.
○ Halogens (Group 7A) have the most
negative electron affinities since by
gaining an electron, they will form a
stable negative ion that has a
noble-gas configuration.
○ Electron affinities of the Group 5A
elements are also interesting.
Because these elements have
half-filled p subshells, the added
electron must be put in an orbital
that is already occupied, resulting in
larger electron-electron repulsion
that is why elements are either
positive like Nitrogen or less
negative than their neighbors to the
left.
○ As we move down a group, using
the halogens. For F, the added
electron goes into a 2p orbital, for Cl
a 3p orbital, for Br a 4p orbital, and
so forth. As we proceed from F to I,
therefore, the average distance
between the added electron and the
nucleus steadily increases, causing
the electron-nucleus attraction to
decrease. However, the orbital that
holds the outermost electron is
increasingly spread out, so that as
we proceed from F to I, the
electron-electron repulsions are also
reduced. As a result, the reduction
in the electron-nucleus attraction is
counterbalanced by the reduction in
electron-electron repulsions.
 STEM 3

VI. VALIDATED

Prepared by:

Allyssandra T. Calunod
Science Representative

(SGD)
Mhal Trezza P. Rasucay
Subject Sub-Leader

(SGD)
Andrew B. Ando
Member

(SGD)
Theo Rhylle C. Esquillo
Member

Lawrence Ralph B. Magada

Member

Approved by:

(SGD)
Jeritz George Orbigo
Chemistry Teacher

(SGD)
Jay Cavan
Chemistry Teacher

(SGD)
Charlotte Kaye Pelderos
Chemistry Teacher

Disclaimer: This reviewer is verified by all teachers in General Chemistry; however, please do not
depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify
with your subject teachers or refer to your class coverage.