Ce 241 CMT IM

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Negros Oriental State University

College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City INTRODUCTION BASIC CONCEPTS
CE 241
• Engineering structures are composed of materials. These
• In this presentation ,the purpose is the explain most common
Construction construction materials in a short way without using detailed
materials are known as engineering materials or materials of
construction. It is necessary for the civil engineer to become
data and information. There are so many materials which are
Materials and used by engineers and designers in construction project. We
conversant with the properties of such materials.
Testing will investigate most popular materials in this presentation just

understand the materials briefly. Also, we will define different
• The service conditions of buildings demand a wide range of
materials and various properties such as water resistance,
Prepared by: test and testing equipment used in each materials to ensure strength, durability, temperature resistance, appearance,
the quality and the required property before the said material permeability, etc. They are to be properly studied before
Engr. John Ronald R. Fortuito is being executed in the construction site. making final selection of any building material for a particular
fortuitojohnronald@gmail.com
use.
MATERIALS USED IN PETROUS OR STONY PETROUS OR STONY

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS MATERIALS
Materials used in construction are those that are employed in • Compact rocks: they are blocks of limestone, Aggregate means a mass of crushed stone, gravel and sand,
the edification. In construction we can exploit different types of marble, granite, slate, sandstone, etc. etc. There are two type of aggregate basically:
materials:
• Disintegrated rocks: they are fragments of 1. Course Aggregate – retained on a 4.75 mm sieve Coarse Aggregate
Compact Rocks
rocks of variable size. In construction we use: 2. Fine Aggregate – pass a 4.75 mm sieve.
• Petrous or stony materials
> Clay: it can absorb water There are two main uses of aggregates in construction:
• Agglomerative materials 1. Underlying material for foundations to adding stability or
• Concrete > Arid or fragments of the disaggregation of drainage layer.
• Ceramic materials rocks. They can be sand, and gravel (or 2. Ingredients of Portland Cement concrete, 60%-75% of the
commonly known as aggregate) volume and 79%-85% of the weight.
• Other materials Disintegrated Rocks Fine Aggregate
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AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE

ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS
Common Types of Portland Cement
• Cement: its the most used agglomerant.
When they are mixed with water they turn pasty and  There are a lot of types. ✓ PPC “Portland Pozzolana Cement”
when they solidify they acquire lightness.  The most employed is Portland Cement,
which is made up of a mix of limestone and • PPC is an extender, a supplementary
Some of the agglomerative rocks: cementitious material used to enhance
clay and it is cooked in a rotated oven.
• Lime: to obtain this material, we heat limestone.  Portland cement is the one of the most improve the strength and durability of the
Lime cement. The word Pozzolana comes from the
• Gypsum: it is a mineral in powder and when we important ingredients of concrete. Cement
add water to it, we use it to cover walls or roofs. designate the quality and strength of the word ‘Pozzoluana’ which is a form of Volcanic
There are three types: concrete. With adding water to cement Ash.
that bonds together the aggregates to
– black with impurities produce concrete. Also in construction, we
– white without impurities use cement as an ingredient to make Cement
– plaster plaster works.
Gypsum

ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS
Common Types of Portland Cement Types of Portland Cement Types of Portland Cement
✓ OPC “Ordinary Portland Cement” • ✓ TYPE I • ✓ TYPE II

• OPC is the most widely and commonly used variant Type II Portland Cement is used where precaution
Type I is a general purpose Portland cement
type of cement in the world. Used mainly in the against moderate sulfate attack is important, as in
suitable for all uses where the special properties of drainage structures where sulfate concentrations in
construction of high rise buildings, OPC Cement other types are not required. It is used where groundwater are higher than normal but not unusually
takes the lowest time to settle set and harden. It is cement or concrete is not subject to specific severe. Type II cement will usually generate less heat at
the most popular choice of cement throughout the exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, a slower rate than Type I. With this moderate heat of
world due to its versatility as a major binding hydration (an optional requirement), Type II cement
or to an objectionable temperature rise due to heat
material.as its production costs are comparatively can be used in structures of considerable mass, such
generated by hydration. Its uses include pavements as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining
lower. OPC Cement is one of the most commonly
used materials in the concrete for the construction
and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, walls. Its use will reduce temperature rise -- especially
of Dams, Roads, High Rise Buildings, Flyovers, bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, important when the concrete is placed in warm
Bridges, Residential Homes, etc. sewers, water pipes and masonry units. weather.
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ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS
Types of Portland Cement Types of Portland Cement Types of Portland Cement
• ✓ TYPE III • ✓ TYPE IA, IIA, IIIA • ✓ TYPE IV

Type III is a high-early strength Portland cement that These types are almost identical to the basic I, II, Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use
provides high strengths at an early period, usually a and III types, respectively, except that they contain where the rate and amount of heat generated
week or less. It is used when forms are to be small amounts of air-entrainment admixtures which must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower
removed as soon as possible, or when the structure are blended with the cement during its rate than Type I cement. Type IV Portland Cement is
must be put into service quickly. In cold weather, its manufacture. These mixtures form small air bubbles intended for use in massive concrete structures,
use permits a reduction in the controlled curing inside the concrete block when it sets, which is ideal such as large gravity dams, where the temperature
period. Although richer mixtures of Type I cement for cold temperatures, where freeze-thaw cycles rise resulting from heat generated during curing is a
can be used to gain high early strength, Type III, can produce cracks in the concrete. The smaller critical factor.
high-early-strength Portland cement, may provide it water-cement ratio also increases the workability of
more satisfactorily and more economically. the cement.
AGGLOMERATIVE
CONCRETE CONCRETE
ROCKS
Types of Portland Cement
Concrete is a composite material made from
the combination of an aggregate and a • Cyclopean Concrete. It is made up of
• ✓ TYPE V
binder. cement, water and big arids (of more than
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in
concrete exposed to severe sulfate action -- There are different types of concrete, but the 30cm in diameter)
principally where soils or groundwater have a high most used are: Regular Concrete Cyclopean Concrete
sulfate content. Table 1 describes sulfate
• Regular Concrete. It includes powdered
concentrations requiring the use of Type V Portland
cement. Low Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content,
cement mixed with water. • Reinforced Concrete. Inside of it there is an
generally 5% or less, is required when high sulfate • Cellular Concrete. It is a concrete produced armor made up of steel bars that can be
resistance is needed. by the addition of an air entraining agent to tense before the concrete solidifies, or after.
the concrete or a lightweight aggregate like
expanded clay pellets or cork granules. Cellular Concrete Reinforced Concrete
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CERAMIC MATERIALS CERAMIC MATERIALS OTHER MATERIALS
They are pieces fabric with molded clay and There are different types of ceramic materials: Bricks
• Bricks
cooked in an oven.
> they are pieces of cooked clay. There are two
The process of elaboration: types, thin bricks and ordinary bricks.
• Tiles
• Mixing and molding: clay and water are Tiles Fiber Wood Paint
> made up of sand, natural products and clays and
mixed together and then it is molded. once it has been molded into shape they are then fired
• Cooked in oven: the molded material is in a kiln.
• Roof tiles
heated inside ovens with different > they are employed in roofs and covers.
Roof Tiles
temperatures so it doesn´t break. • Porcelain

> it is covered with varnish. It is used in baths Glass
Porcelain Plastic Metal
OTHER MATERIALS FIBER WOOD / TIMBER
Wood , due to it availability ,relatively low cost ,ease of use

• Used as slope protection / erosion and durability ,going on to be an important civil engineering
control material. Wood is used for many application in construction
• Used as additives to reinforced which are listed below:
concrete 1. Buildings S4S Timber
PE Foam Bituminous Products Concrete Hollow Blocks 2. Bridges
3. Roofs
4. Trusses
5. Rafters
6. Flooring
7. Partition Walls, and others.
Moreover ,in construction we need wood as a helper material
Sawn Timber
such as laminates ,plywood and strand board.
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PAINT PAINT PAINT
These are used for coating wood, concrete and metal, for example for
windows, doors, radiators, walls and floors. ✓ ENAMEL PAINTS ✓ CEMENT PAINTS
TYPES OF PAINTS: Enamel paints form hard and glossy coatings, Cement paint is available in powder form, which is
✓ OIL PAINTS which are easily cleaned. They are characterized mixed with water to achieve paint consistency. The
by being waterproof and chemically resistant, base material is white or colored cement, and it
Uses white lead as a base, and are applied in three
offering good coverage and color retention. may also contain pigments, accelerators and other
coats: primer, undercoat and finish coat. Oil paints
can achieve mat and glossy finishes, while being Enamel Paints
additives. Cement paint is durable and waterproof,
durable and affordable. They are characterized by and it is commonly used in rough internal and
their ease of application, and painted surfaces are external surfaces. Cement Paints
easy to clean. Oil paint is commonly used in walls,

doors, windows and metal structures. Oil Paints
PAINT PAINT PAINT
✓ BITUMINOUS PAINT ✓ ALUMINUM PAINT ✓ SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT

This type of paint is made from dissolved asphalt or This type of paint is produced by mixing aluminum This paint is made from dissolved synthetic resins,
tar, which gives it a characteristic black color. It is particles with oil varnish. It is resistant to corrosion, and can include pigments. It has a moderate cost
waterproof and alkali-resistant, but not suitable for electricity and weather exposure. Aluminum paint and its main benefits are chemical resistance, fast
applications where it will be exposed to the sun, is commonly used for metals and wood, and some drying and weather resistance. Synthetic rubber
since it deteriorates. specific applications are gas tanks, oil tanks, water paint is used for concrete surfaces in general, and
Bituminous Paint
pipes and radiators. this includes fresh concrete.
Aluminum Paint
Synthetic Rubber Paint
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PAINT PLASTIC GLASS
Plastic is the generic name for a family of synthetic Glass is a hard substance which may be
✓ PLASTIC PAINT materials derived from petrochemicals. There are PVC Pipes
transparent or translucent and brittle in
This paint uses water as a thinner, and it is many families of plastics and polymers being used in nature. It is manufactured by fusion process.
available in a wide range of colors. It dries construction industry. In this process sand is fused with lime, soda
very quickly and offers high coverage. and some other admixtures and then
Examples of plastics used in building are:
Polycarbonate Roofing cooled rapidly. Glass is used in construction
purpose and architectural purpose in
Plastic Paint Acrylic, Composites, Expanded Polystyrene, Poly- engineering.
carbonate, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Architectural Glass
Polyvinyl Chloride.
Acrylic
METAL METAL METAL
Classification of Steel
Combined with varying (but tiny) amounts of ✓ Carbon Steels • Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3-0.6% carbon
carbon, iron makes a much stronger material Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements 1. Offer more strength and hardness but less ductile and
and account for 90% of total steel production. Carbon malleable
called steel, used in a huge range of human-
steels can be further categorized into three groups Examples: Structural Steel, Rails and Garden Tools
made objects, from cutlery to warships, depending on their carbon content: Nails, Screws Structural Steels
skyscrapers, and space rockets. • Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% • High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon
carbon 1. Very hard but offers higher strength less ductile and less
1. Tough, ductile and malleable malleable
2. Easily joined and welded Examples: Hand Tools (Chisels, Punches), and Saw Blades
3. Poor resistance to corrosion
4. Often used a general purpose material
Examples: Nails, Screws, Car Bodies Tie Wire Hand Tools
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METAL METAL METAL
• There are different grades and surface finishes of

✓ Alloy Steels ✓ Stainless Steels stainless steel to suit the environment to which the
Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese, • In metallurgy term, stainless steel, is defined as a steel material will be subjected in its lifetime. Stainless steel is
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium, and aluminum) alloy with a minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content used where the properties of steel, and resistance to
in varying proportions in order to manipulate the steel's by mass. corrosion are required. Furring
properties, such as its hardenability, corrosion resistance, Pipe Fittings Pipes
• Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily • Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount
strength, formability, weldability or ductility. Applications as ordinary steel (it stains less, but it is not stain-proof). It of chromium present.
for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, is also called corrosion-resistant steel or CRES when the • Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture.
power generators and electric motors. alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a
the aviation industry. passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further
surface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading
into the metal's internal structure.
Pipes Sheets Steel Decking
POLYURETHANE/
METAL METAL POLYESTER FOAM
Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel
✓ Advantages ✓ Disadvantages
✓ Tool Steels • Design • High Maintenance & Capital Cost It is formed by trapping gas bubbles in a liquid
• Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and Strength and Durability or solid. Solid foams are open or closed cell. In
• • Susceptibility to Buckling
vanadium in varying quantities to increase heat
resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting Cutting/Drilling Tools
• Easy Installation and Speed in • Fatigue and Fracture open-cell versions, pores are connected to
and drilling equipment. Construction • Fireproof Treatment each other, forming a relatively soft network.
• Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels • Versatile • Fire Damage Filled with air, open-cell foams make great
that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools. • Flexibility • Fabrication Error insulators, like those typically used for insulating
• Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, • Ductility homes. However, fill open-cell foam with water
resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting • Easy Fabrication in Different Sizes
and its usefulness as an insulator plummets.
edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at • Fire Resistance
elevated temperatures. • Pest and Insect Resistant
Sheet
• Environment Friendly
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CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW

BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS
BLOCKS BLOCKS
Types of Hollow Blocks and its Uses:

Materials that are bound together with bitumen Concrete Stretcher Blocks
Hollow block is a type of Concrete Block used for
are called bituminous materials.
building interior and exterior walls. Hollow blocks Concrete stretcher blocks are used to join the corner
Types of Bitumen are made using molds and a suitable additive in the masonry. Stretcher blocks are widely used concrete
Asphalts are bitumen mixture whose strength and Asphalts depending on your location and your project. It is hollow blocks in construction. They are laid with their length Concrete Stretcher Blocks
stiffness is gained through the mortar property. believed that concrete blocks are one of the most parallel to the face of the wall.
Macadam - the strength is dependent on the popular construction materials which are used in Concrete Corner Blocks
aggregates that are used in the mix (i.e. grading of the construction industry almost everywhere.
Corner blocks are used at the ends or corners of
the aggregates). Cement is used to bond components in order to
masonry. The ends may be window or door openings etc. they
Composition: graded aggregate; bitumen; small produce stronger and longer life hollow blocks. are arranged in a manner that their plane end visible to the
proportion of air outside and other end is locked with the stretcher block.
Concrete Corner Blocks
Macadam
CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW

BLOCKS BLOCKS BLOCKS
Jamb Concrete Blocks Partition Concrete Blocks Frogged Brick Blocks

Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated
window opening in the wall. They are connected to stretcher window opening in the wall. They are connected to stretcher window opening in the wall. They are connected to stretcher
and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows, and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows, and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows,
Partition Concrete Blocks
jamb blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing Jamb Concrete Blocks jamb blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing jamb blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing Frogged Brick Blocks
members of window. members of window. members of window.
Concrete Pillar Blocks Lintel Blocks Bullnose Concrete Blocks

Pillar block is also called as double corner block. Pillar block is also called as double corner block. Pillar block is also called as double corner block.
Generally these are used when two ends of the corner are Generally these are used when two ends of the corner are Generally these are used when two ends of the corner are
visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used. visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used. visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used.
Concrete Pillar Blocks Lintel Blocks Bullnose Concrete

Blocks
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PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
• PHYSICAL PROPERTY – properties that can be observed or measured without • POROSITY

changing the composition of matter. • BULK DENSITY ✓ volume of the material occupied by pores
• MECHANICAL PROPERTY – properties which affect the mechanical strength ✓ weight of soil in a given volume ✓ ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material
and ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape. ✓ ratio of mass to the volume of the material in its natural state that is including ✓ influences many properties like thermal conductivity, strength, bulk density,
voids and pores, kg/m3 durability, etc.
• CHEMICAL PROPERTY – related to changes in chemical composition of
material because it interacts with other substances. ✓ influences the mechanical properties of materials like strength, heat and
conductivity
• ELECTRICAL PROPERTY – their ability to conduct electric current. • DURABILITY
✓ increases with compaction and depth
• MAGNETIC PROPERTY – properties of materials like permeability, hysteresis, ✓ the property to withstand against the combined action of atmospheric and other
etc. factors
✓ the more durable a material is, the longer its use
• THERMAL PROPERTY – governs the rate of heat transfer between the inside
and outside of the building. ✓ maintenance cost of materials is dependent on durability
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• DENSITY • SPECIFIC GRAVITY • FROST RESISTANCE

✓ ratio of mass of a material to its volume in homogenous state ✓ ratio of mass of a given substance to the mass of water at 4°C at equal volumes ✓ ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing
✓ influences almost all physical properties ✓ depends upon the density and bulk density of a material
✓ denser materials have more frost resistance
✓ moist materials have low frost resistance and tend to lose their strength in freezing
and become brittle
• DENSITY INDEX • FIRE RESISTANCE
✓ ratio of bulk density of material to its density ✓ ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and other properties • WEATHERING RESISTANCE
✓ gives the volume of solid matter in a material ✓ tested by the combined actions of water and fire ✓ property to withstand against all atmospheric actions without losing its strength
✓ fully dense material is not available in nature so density index is always less than 1 ✓ fireproof materials should provide more safety in case of fire and shape
for any building material ✓ affects the durability of a material
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• SPALLING RESISTANCE • WATER PERMEABILITY • COEFFICIENT OF SOFTENING

✓ ability to undergo certain number of cycles of sharp temperature variations ✓ ability of a material to permit water through it ✓ the ratio of compressive strength of a saturated material to its compressive
without failing ✓ dense materials like glass metals, which are called impervious materials, do not strength in dry state
allow water to pass through it ✓ affects the strength of water absorbent materials like soil
• WATER ABSORPTION • REFRACTORINESS

✓ capacity to absorb and retain water in it
• HYGROSCOPICITY ✓ property of a material that cannot melt or lose its shape at prolonged high
✓ expressed in % of weight of dry material ✓ property of a material to absorb water vapor from the air temperatures (1580°C or more)
✓ depends upon the size, shape and number of pores of material ✓ depends on the relative humidity, porosity, air temperature, etc. ✓ fire clay is an example of a high refractory material
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

• STRENGTH • HARDNESS • MALLEABILITY

It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a material
gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the
material in presence of external forces or load. Materials which we finalize for our stress. Hardenability It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat
ability of material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling.
engineering products must have suitable mechanical strength to be capable to treatment processing. It is determined by the depth up to which the material This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability of
work under different mechanical forces or loads. becomes hard. material is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the malleability of
material increases.
• TOUGHNESS • BRITTLENESS
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is • DUCTILITY
without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress it Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material
unit volume. Its unit is Joule/m3. Value of toughness of a material can be determined observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of
by stress-strain characteristics of a material. converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is temperature dependent. material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property
Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become brittle at low is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is temperature dependent. With rise in
temperature. temperature, the ductility of material increases.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

• CREEP AND SLIP • FATIGUE • Chemical properties related to changes in chemical composition of
Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the material because it interacts with other substances. Chemical properties of
move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical material. When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than engineering materials are needed because most of materials, when they
stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external mechanical stress with in certain threshold value but much below the strength of material (ultimate tensile come in contact with other substances can react to form new materials. It is
limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that are subjected to heat for long strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks begin to form at grain deterioration of material by chemical reaction with its environment.
time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of atoms. boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size. This crack
propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure affects
• RESILIENCE the fatigue very much. • It cannot be observed without changing chemical composition of
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed substance. This chemical property includes pH, production of salt when an
elastically by applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof acid reacts with metal or unique color change in chemical reaction.
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed without
permanent deformation.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF

• Electrical properties are their ability to conduct electrical current. Various • ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY • ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
electrical properties are resistivity, electrical conductivity, temperature It is property of material which resists flow of electric current through material. It is It is property of material with allow flow of electric current through material. It is
coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength and thermoelectricity. give and-take of conductivity. Resistivity values are reported in micro ohm parameter which indicates that how easily electric current can flow through
centimeters units. As mentioned above resistivity values are simple give and take of material.
conductivity. Conductivity of material is give and take of resistivity. Electrical conductivity
• Some of electrical properties of engineering materials are below measure of how well material accommodates movement of an electric charge. It is
ration of current density to electric field strength.
• DIELECTRIC STRENGTH Electrical conductivity is very useful property since values are affected by such
It is property of material which indicates ability of material to withstand at high things. Therefore, electrical conductivity information can be used for measuring
voltages. Usually, it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating purity of water, checking for proper heat treatment of metals and inspecting for
voltage. Which material having high dielectric strength can withstand at high heat damage in some materials.
voltages.
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ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF

• TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE • THERMOELECTRICITY The magnetic properties of materials like permeability, hysteresis etc. are
Temperature coefficient of resistance of material indicates change in resistance of If link formed by joining to two metals is heated, a small voltage of millivolt is required in the case of generators and the like. Iron is magnetic material and
material with change in temperature. Resistance of conductor changes with produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect. This effect aluminum is non-magnetic material.
change of temperature. As noted above, electrical conductivity values are forms basis of operation of thermocouples and some temperature based
reported at 20 degree centigrade. This is done because conductivity and resistivity transducers. This can be used to generate electricity, to measure temperature and
• Permeability
of material is depending on temperature. Thus conductivity of materials decreases to measure change is temperature of objects.
as temperature increases. • Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis
• Coercive force
• Reluctance
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF

• PERMEABILITY
It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the magnetic
• COERCIVE FORCE • RELUCTANCE
flux is build up in the material. It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic field some It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic flux in
magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux density. It is denoted by µ. SI unit of magnetization exists in material. This magnetism is called residual magnetism of material. It is denoted by R. Its unit is “Ampere-turns / Wb”. A hard magnetic material
magnetic permeability is Henry / meter. A material selected for magnetic core in material. To remove this residual magnetization, we have to apply some external suitable for the core of electrical machines should have low reluctance.
electrical machines should have high permeability, so that required magnetic flux magnetic field in opposite direction. This external magnetic motive force (ATs)
can be produced in core by less ampere- turns. required to overcome the residual magnetism is called “coercive force” of material.
The material having large value of residual magnetization and coercive force are
• RETENTIVITY called magnetically hard materials. The material having very low vale of residual
When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its grains get magnetization and coercive force are called magnetically soft materials.
oriented in the direction of magnetic field. This results in magnetization of material in
the direction of external magnetic field. Now, even after removal of external
magnetic field, some magnetization exists, which is called residual magnetism.
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF

The materials’ thermal properties governs the rate of heat transfer between the • THERMAL CAPACITY • THERMAL RESISTIVITY
inside and outside of the building, the amount of heat that can be stored in Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat and it is required to It is the ability to resist heat conduction. And it is the reciprocal of thermal
the material, and the amount of heat absorbed into the surface by heat design proper ventilation. It influences the thermal stability of walls. It is expressed in conductivity. When it is multiplied by thickness of material it gives thermal resistance.
J/N°C. It is quantity of heat required to increase the temperature from initial
conduction and radiation. temperature to final temperature multiplied by mass of material in N.
• Thermal capacity • THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY • SPECIFIC HEAT

• Thermal conductivity The amount of heat transferred through unit area of specimen with unit thickness in Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to heat 1 N of material by 1°C. Specific
• Thermal resistivity unit time is termed as thermal conductivity. It is measured in kelvins. It depends on heat is useful when we use the material in high temperature areas. It is expressed in
material structure, porosity, density and moisture content. High porous materials, J/N°C.
• Specific heat moist materials have more thermal conductivity.
TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS
OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
1.O TESTS ON CEMENT 1.O TESTS ON CEMENT 1.O TESTS ON CEMENT
1.1 ASTM C430-08 FINENESS OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT BY 45-µM (NO. 325) SIEVE PROCEDURE: 1.2 ASTM C187-16 NORMAL CONSISTENCY OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT PASTE
AIM: i) Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on the sieve. AIM:
To determine the fineness of hydraulic cement by means of the 45-µm (No. 325) ii) Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no more fine material To determine the amount of water required to prepare hydraulic cement pastes with
passes through it. normal consistency, as per ASTM C187-16
sieve as per ASTM 204-07
iii) Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1, of the quantity first placed PRINCIPLE:
PRINCIPLE:
on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.
The fineness of cement is measured by sieving it through a standard sieve. The The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will
iv) Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve. permit the Vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the Vicat
proportion of cement, the grain sizes of which, is larger than the specified mesh size
v) Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2. Then calculate R as mould.
is thus determined.
the mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the APPARATUS:
APPARATUS: results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the i) Vicat apparatus
3.1 45-µM (NO. 325) Sieve mean of the three values.
ii) Balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g
3.2 Analytical Balance REPORTING OF RESULTS:
iii) Gauging trowel
3.3 A nylon or pure bristle brush, for cleaning the sieve Report the value of R, to the nearest 0.1 percent, as the residue on the 45µm sieve.
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1.O TESTS ON CEMENT 1.O TESTS ON CEMENT 1.O TESTS ON CEMENT
PROCEDURE: ii) Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.
i) Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of water. The 1.3 ASTM C191-04 SETTING TIME OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT BY VICANT NEEDLE iii) Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste gauged as above, the
time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes. AIM: mould resting on a non-porous plate and smooth off the surface of the paste making it
ii) Fill the Vicat mould with paste and level it with a trowel. level with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared in the mould is the
To determine the initial and the final setting time of cement as per ASTM C191-04
iii) Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface. test block
APPARATUS:
iv) Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste. A) INITIAL SETTING TIME
i) Vicat apparatus
v) Note the reading on the gauge. Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently in
ii) Balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g order to make contact with the surface of the cement paste and release quickly,
vi) Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different quantities of
water until the reading on the gauge is 5 to 7mm. iii) Gauging trowel allowing it to penetrate the test block. Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to
PROCEDURE: pierce the test block to a point 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
REPORTING OF RESULTS:
i) Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times the water The time period elapsing between the time, water is added to the cement and the
Express the amount of water as a percentage of the weight of dry cement to the first place
of decimal. required to give a paste of standard consistency time, the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured from the
bottom of the mould, is the initial setting time.
1.O TESTS ON CEMENT 2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES 2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES
2.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS APPARATUS:
B) FINAL SETTING TIME AIM:
Replace the above needle by the one with an annular attachment. To determine the particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregates by sieving
The cement should be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle PRINCIPLE:
gently to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression therein, By passing the sample downward through a series of standard sieves, each of
while the attachment fails to do so. The period elapsing between the time, water is decreasing size openings, the aggregates are separated into several groups, each
of which contains aggregates in a particular size range
added to the cement and the time, the needle makes an impression on the surface
of the test block, while the attachment fails to do so, is the final setting time. APPARATUS:
i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes - 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm,
REPORTING OF RESULTS
16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm,
The results of the initial and the final setting time should be reported to the nearest 150µm and 75µm
five minutes. ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the Set of Sieve Analytical Balance
test sample
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2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES 2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES 2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES
SAMPLE: The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or
The weight of sample available should not be less than the weight given below: by means of a sample divider. REPORTING OF RESULTS:
Maximum size present Minimum weight of The results should be calculated and reported as:
in substantial sample dispatched
PROCEDURE: i) the cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample
proportions for testing
(mm) (kg) i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5°C and ii) the percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one sieve and retained
63 100 weighed. on the next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent.
50 100 ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves. The results of the sieve analysis may be recorded graphically on a semi-log graph with
40 50 iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed. particle size as abscissa (log scale) and the percentage smaller than the specified
25 50 diameter as ordinate.
20 25 iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the
16 25 total sample weight.
12.5 12 v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates
10 6 retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100
6.3 3
2.2 WATER ABSORPTION PROCEDURE:
i) The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust, drained iv) The aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 to 110 o C
AIM:
and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature for 24hrs. It should then be removed from the oven, cooled and weighed (Weight 'B').
To determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates
between 22 and 32 o C.
APPARATUS: REPORTING OF RESULTS:
ii) After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket and
i) Wire basket - perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers for allowing it to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample should remain
suspending it from the balance immersed for a period of 24 + ½ hrs. afterwards. Water absorption = (A-B)/B x 100%
ii) Water-tight container for suspending the basket iii) The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water, allowed to drain Two such tests should be done and the individual and mean results should be reported.
iii) Dry soft absorbent cloth - 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.) for a few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from the basket
on to one of the dry clothes and gently surface-dried with the cloth, transferring it to a
iv) Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area
second dry cloth when the first would remove no further moisture. The aggregates should
v) Air-tight container of a capacity similar to the basket be spread on the second cloth and exposed to the atmosphere away from direct
vi) Oven sunlight till it appears to be completely surface-dry. The aggregates should be weighed
(Weight 'A').
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PROCEDURE:
2.3 AGGREGATE ABRASION TEST PREPARATION OF SAMPLE:
The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles
AIM: abrasion testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33
To determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates revolutions/minute for 1000 revolutions. At the completion of the test, the material
APPARATUS: should be discharged and sieved through 1.70mm Sieve.
i) Los Angles abrasion testing machine REPORTING OF RESULTS:
ii) Sieve of size - 1.7mm i) The material coarser than 1.70mm IS Sieve should be washed, dried in an oven at
iii) Abrasive charge - 12 nos. cast iron or steel spheres a temperature of 100 to 110 o C to a constant weight and weighed (Weight 'B').
approximately 48mm dia. and each weighing ii) The proportion of loss between weight 'A' and weight 'B' of the test sample should
between 390 and 445g ensuring that the total weight Los Angeles Abrasion Machine be expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. This value
of charge is 5000 + 25g should be reported as,
iv) Oven Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/A x 100%
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE:
2.4 AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
i) The test sample should conform to the following grading:
AIM:
- Passing through 12.5mm IS Sieve 100%
To determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates
- Retention on 10mm IS Sieve 100%
ii) The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a temperature of 100 to 110°C and
APPARATUS:
cooled.
i) Impact testing machine
iii) The measure should be about one-third full with the prepared aggregates and
ii) Sieves of sizes - 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm tamped with 25 strokes of the tamping rod. A further similar quantity of aggregates
iii) A cylindrical metal measure of 75mm dia. and 50mm depth should be added and a further tamping of 25 strokes given. The measure should
iv) A tamping rod of 10mm circular cross section and 230mm length, rounded at finally be filled to overflow, tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregates struck off,
one end Aggregate Impact Test Machine using a tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of the aggregates in the
v) Oven measure should be determined to the nearest gram (Weight 'A').
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REPORTING OF RESULTS: 2.5 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE
PROCEDURE i) The sample should be removed and sieved through a 2.36mm Sieve. The fraction AIM:
i) The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on the passing through should be weighed (Weight 'B'). The fraction retained on the sieve To determine the aggregate crushing value of
base of the machine and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted should also be weighed (Weight 'C') and if the total weight (B+C) is less than the coarse aggregates
by 25 strokes of the tamping rod. initial weight (A) by more than one gram, the result should be discarded and a fresh APPARATUS:
ii) The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the test done.
i) Cylindrical measure and plunger
aggregates in the cup and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates. The test ii) The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total sample weight should be
ii) Compression testing machine
sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered at an expressed as a percentage.
interval of not less than one second. iii) Sieves of sizes - 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
Aggregate impact value = B/A x 100%
iii) Two such tests should be carried out and the mean of the results should be
reported.
2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES 2.O TESTS ON AGGREGATES 3.O TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE
PROCEDURE: v) The sample is then sieved through a 2.36mm Sieve and the fraction passing 3.1 ASTM C 1064/ C 1064M-99 TEMPERATURE OF FRESHLY MIXED PORTLAND CEMENT
i) The aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm Sieve are oven- through the sieve is weighed (Weight 'B'). CONCRETE
dried at a temperature of 100 to 110 o C for 3 to 4hrs. vi) Two tests should be conducted. AIM:
ii) The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each layer tamped with 25 To determine the temperature of freshly mixed Portland cement concrete.
strokes of a tamping rod. REPORTING OF RESULTS APPARATUS:
iii) The weight of aggregates is measured (Weight 'A'). Aggregate crushing value = B/A x 100% i) Container
iv) The surface of the aggregates is then leveled and the plunger inserted. The ii) Concrete Thermometer
apparatus is then placed in the compression testing machine and loaded at a The result should be recorded to the first decimal place and the mean of the two
uniform rate so as to achieve 40t load in 10 minutes. After this, the load is released. results reported.
Concrete Thermometer
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3.O TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE 3.O TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE 3.O TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE
PROCEDURE: REPORT: 3.2 ASTM C 143/ C 143M-98 SLUMP OF HYDRAULIC-CEMENT
i) Place the freshly mixed concrete into the container. Record the measured temperature of the freshly mixed concrete to the nearest 1°F CONCRETE
ii) Place the temperature measuring device in the freshly mixed concrete so that (0.5°C).
the temperature sensing portion is submerged a minimum of 3 in (75mm). Gently AIM:
press the concrete around the temperature measuring device at the surface of SIGNIFICANCE AND USE: To determine the workability of fresh concrete by slump test
the concrete so that ambient air temperature does not affect the reading. This test method provides a means for measuring the temperature of freshly mixed APPARATUS:
iii) Leave the temperature measuring device in the freshly mixed concrete for a concrete. It may be used to verify conformance to a specified requirement for i) Slump cone
minimum period of 2 min or until the temperature reading stabilizes, then read temperature of concrete.
and record the temperature. ii) Tamping rod
Concrete containing aggregate of a nominal maximum size greater than 3 in
iv) Complete the temperature measurement of the freshly mixed concrete within 5 (75mm) may require up to 20 min for the transfer of heat from aggregate to mortar.
min after obtaining the sample.
PROCEDURE: vii) The difference in level between the height of the mould and that of the highest
i) The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a light point of the subsided concrete is measured.
coat of oil. viii) This difference in height in mm is the slump of the concrete.
ii) The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and nonabsorbent surface.
iii) The mould is then filled in four layers with freshly mixed concrete, each REPORTING OF RESULTS
approximately to one-fourth of the height of the mould. Report the slump in terms of inches (millimeters) to the nearest ¼ in. (5mm) of
iv) Each layer is tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod (strokes subsidence of the specimen during the test. Any slump specimen, which collapses
are distributed evenly over the cross section). or shears off laterally gives incorrect result and if this occurs, the test should be
v) After the top layer is rodded, the concrete is struck off the level with a trowel. repeated with another sample. If, in the repeat test also, the specimen shears, the
vi) The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly in the slump should be measured and the fact that the specimen sheared, should be
vertical direction. recorded.
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3.3 ASTM C 173-94 AIR CONTENT OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE BY THE VOLUMETRIC PROCEDURE:
METHOD i) Rodding and Tapping—Using the scoop, fill the bowl with freshly mixed concrete
in three layers of equal depth. Rod each layer 25 times with the tamping rod.
AIM: After each layer is rodded, tap the sides of the measure 10 to 15 times with the
mallet to close any voids left by the tamping rod and to release any large
This test method covers determination of the air content of freshly mixed concrete
bubbles of air that may have been trapped.
containing any type of aggregate, whether it be dense, cellular, or lightweight.
ii) Striking Off—After rodding and tapping of the third layer, strike off the excess
Concrete Air Meter for concrete with the strike-off bar until the surface is flush with the top of the bowl.
APPARATUS Volumetric Method Wipe the flange of the bowl clean.
i) Airmeter v) Calibrated Cup ix) Isopropyl Alcohol iii) Adding Water—Attach the top section into position on the bowl, insert the
ii) Funnel vi) Syringe funnel, and add water until it appears in the neck. Remove the funnel (Note 3).
iii) Tamping Rod vii) Pouring Vessel Using the rubber syringe, adjust the water level until the bottom of the meniscus
iv) Strike-off Bar viii) Scoop is level with the zero mark. Attach and tighten the watertight cap.
NOTE 3—When filling the air meter with water, the addition of up to 1 pt (470 mL) of iv.ii) Rolling and Rocking—After completing the inverting and agitating procedure,
alcohol facilitates the removal of air from high air content or high cement content tilt the meter approximately 45 degrees and vigorously roll and rock the unit for v) Dispelling Foam—Remove the cap. Using the syringe, add sufficient isopropyl
concrete. approximately 1 min, keeping the neck elevated at all times. Set the unit upright alcohol, in one calibrated cup increments, to dispel as much of the foam as is
and allow it to stand while the air rises to the top until the liquid level stabilizes. The practicable. Record the number of calibrated cups of alcohol used.
iv) Displace the volume of air in the concrete specimen using these procedures: liquid level is considered stable when it does not change more than 0.1 % within a vi) Reading—Make a direct reading of the liquid in the neck, reading to the bottom
one min period. If the liquid level is obscured by foam, use the rubber syringe to add of the meniscus, and estimating to the nearest 0.25 % air.
sufficient alcohol, in one calibrated cup increments to establish a readable liquid vii) Disassemble the apparatus and examine the contents to be sure that there are
iv.i) Inverting and Agitating—Repeatedly invert and agitate the unit for a minimum level. Record the number of calibrated cups of alcohol used (Note 5). Read the no portions of undisturbed, tightly packed concrete in the base. If portions of
of 45 s to free concrete from the base. To prevent aggregate from lodging in the liquid level. undisturbed concrete are found, the test is invalid.
neck of the unit do not keep it inverted for more than five s at a time (Note 4). NOTE 5—It may require more than 20 min for the liquid level to stabilize when
NOTE 4—This procedure is intended to free the concrete from the base. When the moderately high cement content concrete contains more than 6 % air.
concrete has broken free, the aggregate can be heard moving in the airmeter. iv.iii) Repeat the one minute rolling and rocking procedure until two consecutive
readings do not change by more than 0.25 % air.
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3.4 MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST SPECIMEN PROCEDURE:
CALCULATIONS: AIM: i. Mix concrete in a suitable mixer or by hand in batches as to leave about 10% excess after
i) Calculate the air content, in percent, of the concrete in the measuring bowl by molding the test specimens. Hand-mixing procedures are not applicable to air entrained
To produce and cure concrete test specimen under
adding the reading from 7.6 to the amount of alcohol used in accordance with 7.5 concrete or concrete with no measurable slump. Hand mixing should be limited to
accurate control and test conditions using concrete
batches of 1/4 ft³ (0.007 m³) volume or less.
and 7.4.2 (Note 6). This is the air content of the concrete sample to the nearest 0.25 that can be consolidated by rodding or vibration.
ii. In the case of machine mixing, add the cored aggregate, some of the mixing water, and
%. Molds
the solution of admixture (if required), to the mixer before starting its rotation. Start the
NOTE 6—Alcohol added, if any, in initially filling the meter, in 7.3 is not added to the APPARATUS
mixer, and then add the fine aggregate, cement, and water with the mixer running. If it is
reading from 7.6. i) Cylindrical, Beam or Cube Molds impractical for a particular test to add the fine aggregate, cement, and water while the
ii) When the sample tested represents that portion of the mixture obtained by wet ii) Tamping Rod, 5/8” (16mm) inch- mixer is running, these components may added to the stopped mixer permitting it to turn a
Trowel Shovel
diameter and 3/8” (10mm) inch- few revolutions following charging with a coarse aggregate and some of the water. Mix
sieving over a 1-in. (25-mm) sieve, calculate the air content of the mortar or of the
diameter the concrete, after all the ingredients are in the mixer for 3 minutes followed by 3-minute
full mixture using the formulas given in Test Method C 231. Use appropriate quantities Mixing Pan rest, followed by a 2 min-minute final mixing. To eliminate segregation, deposit machine-
coarser or finer than the 1-in. sieve instead of the 11 2-in. (37.5 mm) sieve specified in iii) Trowel or shovel
Tamping Rod mixed concrete in the clean, damp mixing pan and remix by shovel or trowel until it
Test Method C 231. iv) Sampling and mixing pans appears to be uniform
iii. 3. In the case of hand mixing, mix the batch in a watertight, clean, damp, metal pan or ix. Mold specimens as near as practicable to the place where they are to be stored
xi. Place the concrete in the mold, in the required number of layers of approximately
bowl, with a bricklayer's blunted trowel. during the first 24 hours. If it is not practicable to mold the specimens where they will
equal volume. Rod each layer with the rounded end of the rod using the number of
iv. 4. Mix the cement, powdered insoluble admixture (if required), and fine aggregate without be stored, move them to the place of storage immediately after being struck off.
strokes and size of the rod specified. Rod the bottom layer throughout its depth.
the addition of water until they are thoroughly blended. Place molds on a rigid surface free from vibration and other disturbances. Avoid
Distribute the strokes uniformly across the cross section of the mold and for each
v. 5. Add the coarse aggregate and mix the entire batch without the addition of water until harsh, striking, tilting, or scarring of the surface of the specimens when moving to me
upper layer allowing the rod to penetrate about 1/2 inch (12 mm) into the underlying
the coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch. storage place.
layer when the depth of the layer is less than 4 inches (100 mm) and about 1 inch (25
vi. 6. Add water, and admixture solution if use, and mix the mass until the concrete is x. Place the concrete in the molds using a scoop, blunted trowel, or shovel. It may be mm) when the depth is 4 inches (100 mm). After each layer is rodded, tap the outside
homogeneous in appearance and has a desired consistency. necessary to remix the concrete. In the mixing pan with a shovel or trowel to prevent of the mold lightly 10 to 15 times with the mallet to close any holes left by rodding
vii. Select portions of the batch of mixed concrete to be used in the tests for molding segregation during molding of specimens. Distribute the concrete by the use of and to release any large bubbles that may have been trapped.
specimens so as to be representative of the actual proportions and conditions of the tamping rod prior to the start of the consolidation. In placing the final layer, the
concrete. When the concrete is not being remixed or sampled cover it to prevent operator shall attempt to add an amount of concrete that will exactly fill the after
evaporation. compaction. Do not add non representative samples of concrete to an under filled
viii. Measure the slump of each batch immediately after mixing. mold.
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3.O TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE 4.O TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE 4.O TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SAMPLE
PROCEDURE:
CURING 4.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SAMPLE i. 1. Compression tests on specimens shall be made as soon as practicable after removal
xii. To prevent the evaporation of the water from the unhardened concrete, cover the AIM: from the moist storage. A 28-day test shall be performed within ± 20 hours of the 28th day.
specimens immediately after finishing with non absorptive, nonreactive plate or sheet Test specimens shall be kept moist by any convenient method during the period between
To determine the compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens such as removal from moist storage and testing. They shall be tested in moist condition.
of tough, durable, impervious plastic. molded concrete cylinder.
ii. 2. All test specimens for a given test age shall be broken within the permissible time
xiii. Remove the specimens from the molds 24 ± 8 hours after casting.
APPARATUS tolerance prescribed below
xiv. Unless otherwise specified, all specimens shall be moist cured at 23°C ± 2°C (73ºF ±
i. Universal testing machine Test Age Permissible Tolerance
3ºF) from the time of molding until the moment of test. Test specimens shall have free
water maintained on the entire surface area at all times. 24 hours ±0.5 hours or 2.1%
ii. Measuring device
3 days 2 hours or 2.8%
iii. Balance, sensitive to 0.1 gm. 7 days 6 hours or 3.6%
iv. Capping device 28 days 20 hours or 3.0%
90 days 2 days or 2.2%
4.O TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE 4.O TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE 4.O TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SAMPLE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SAMPLE
iii. With a clean rag or brush clean the bearing faces of the bearing blocks, test the vi. 7. Apply the load until the specimen fails, and record the maximum load supported
specimens and extrusion controller (elastometric caps). by the specimen during the test rounded to the nearest 500 lb. 4.2 SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMEN
iv. Rest the specimen on the lower extrusion controller, place the top extrusion controller on AIM:
the specimen, and check the spacing between the sides of the specimen and the To measure the splitting tensile strength of concrete by the application of a diametric
CALCULATION:
extrusion controllers to ensure no contact between the cylinder and the steel. Slide the compressive force on a cylindrical concrete specimen placed with its axis horizontal
specimen and extrusion controller configuration into the center of the concentric circles of Cs = Q/πR²
between the platens of testing machine.
the lower bearing block. Check the alignment with the upper bearing face after lowering Where:
it into position. Cs = compressive strength (psi) APPARATUS
v. Apply the load to the specimen. During the first half of the anticipated loading phase, a Q = load at failure (lb-force) i. Testing Machine capable of 100,00 lb
higher loading rate shall be permitted. The remainder of the loading shall be 20 to 50
R = radius of specimen (in) ii. Concrete test cylinder
psi/second (0.14 to 0.34 MPa).
Note: for 6 inches (150 mm) diameter specimens, the loading rate shall be 550 to 1400 For 6-inch (150 mm) diameter specimen = Q/28.274 iii. Bearing strips
lbs./second. For 4-inch (100 mm) diameter specimen, the loading rate shall be 250 to 620 For 4-inch (100 mm) diameter specimen = Q/12.566 iv. Supplementary bearing bar or plate
lbs./second
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SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMEN SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMEN SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMEN
iv. Place the second plywood strip lengthwise on the cylinder and place a 2" x 2" x 14 steel bar
over the plywood strip.
TEST SPECIMEN: PROCEDURE:
v. Lower the upper loading head until the assembly is secured in the machine.
i. Moist-cured specimens, during the period between their removal from the curing i. Measure the dimension of the cylinder. Determine the diameter of the specimen to
vi. Apply the compressive load slowly and continuously until failure. The rate at which the
environmental and testing, shall be kept moist by a wet burlap or blanket covering, the nearest 0.01 in (0.25 mm) by averaging three diameters measured near the ends
specimen should be loaded is 100 to 200 psi (690 to 1380 kPa) per minute.
and shall be tested in a moist condition as practicable. and the middle of the specimen and lying in the plane containing the lines marked
vii. Record the maximum load applied, the type of failure and appearance of the concrete
ii. Specimen tested at 28 days shall be in an air-dry condition after 7 days moist curing on the two ends.
specimen.
followed by 21 days at 23°C ± 1.7°C (73 °F ±3°F) and 50 ± 5% relative humidity. ii. Determine the length of the specimen to the nearest 0.1 inch (2.5 mm) by averaging Calculation:
at least two length measurements taken in the plane containing the lines marked on T= 2Pmax /πLD
the two ends.
Where:
iii. Center one of the plywood strips along the center of the lower bearing block of the T = splitting tensile strength, psi (KPa)
testing machine. Place the cylinder on the plywood strip and align so that the lines
Pmax = maximum applied load, lb-force (kN)
marked on the ends of the specimen are vertical and centered over the plywood
L = length, in. (mm)
strip.
D = diameter, in. (mm)
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
PROCEDURE: vii. Take three measurements across each dimensions (one at each edge and at the center)
4.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE i. Measure the dimensions of the specimen and record them in the data sheet to the nearest 0.05 in. (1 mm) to determine the average width and depth of the specimen
ii. Turn the specimen on its side with respect to its position as molded and center in on the at the point of fracture. If the fracture occurs at a capped section, include the cap
AIM:
support blocks. thickness in measurement.
To determine the flexural strength of concrete specimens by the use of simple beam with CALCULATION:
iii. Center the loading system in relation to the applied force.
center point loading
iv. Bring the load applying-block in contact with the surface of the specimen at the center MR = 3PL/2bd²
and apply a load between 3 and 6% of the estimated load. Where:
APPARATUS v. Grind cap, or use leather shims on the specimen contact surface to eliminate any gap in MR-modulus of rupture, in psi (MPa)
i. Universal Testing Machine excess of 0.004 inch (0.10 mm). Gaps in excess of 0.15 inch (0.38 mm) shall be eliminated P = maximum load applied as indicated by testing machine, in Ib(N)
by capping or grinding.
ii. Loading apparatus L = span length, in inches (mm)
vi. Apply the load on the specimen continuously and without shock. The load shall be applied
iii. Beam support b = average width of specimen in inches (mm)
at a constant rate to the breaking. Apply the load al such a rate that constantly increases
the extreme fiber stresses between 125 and 175 psi/min. (0.86 and 121 MPa/min.) when d = average depth of specimen, at the fracture, in inches (mm)
calculated in accordance with 7.1 until rupture occurs. Note: The weight of the beam is not included in the above calculation.
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4.O TEST ON STEEL BARS 4.O TEST ON STEEL BARS 4.O TEST ON STEEL BARS
vii. Make calculation:
4.1 TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL BAR PROCEDURE: (a) Determine the nominal diameter dn (mm) of the deformed bar using dn =12.8G0.5
AIM: i. Measured the total length L and weight W of the deformed bar specimen. Mark the G = weight /unit length (kg/m) which can be calculated using L and W
To obtain the force-deformation diagram (stress-strain diagrams) of a plain bar and a gage length (b) Calculate the yield strength of the bar as σy
deformed bar of concrete reinforcing steel and compare some of their mechanical ii. Attach the specimen to the universal testing machine (100 ton-capacity). (c) Calculate the ultimate strength of the bar as σy using the ultimate load Pu and Ao
properties in tension iii. Apply a tensile load satisfying all the requirements of the related standard. Ao = original cross-sectional area
iv. Obtain the force-deformation diagram (stress-strain diagram) as graphs from the Pu = read from graph
APPARATUS (d) Calculate the modulus of Elasticity E for the bar using:
mechanical recorder of the machine. Reload the ultimate load Pu. Continue until
i. Universal Testing Machine load fracture of the specimen. σ2- σ1 (P2/An)-(P1/An)
ii. Extensometer v. Measure the gage length after fracture (Lf) by connecting the two pieces. (e) Calculate the percent reduction in area using:
iii. Vernier caliper vi. Measure the final diameter dfd by vernier. Make about three mutual measurements. Ao - Ar
(f) Calculate percent elongation using:
i & ii iii
Lf - Li
5.O TEST ON CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK 5.O TEST ON CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK 6.O TESTS ON WOOD
PROCEDURE:
5.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK i. Place the bottom of the concrete hollow block on a compression block made of 1 inch 6.1 MOISTURE CONTENT OF WOOD
AIM: thick plywood. Place another 1-inch thick plywood on top of the concrete hollow block. AIM:
ii. Apply the compression load slowly until failure is attained and record the reading. Take
To determine the compressive strength of concrete hollow block. To determine the amount of moisture content contained in wood
note of the appearance of the concrete hollow block as well as the type of failure that
by oven-drying method.
will occur
iii. Test a total of three hollow blocks for each batch APPARATUS
APPARATUS CALCULATION: i. Oven
i. Compression machine Compressive Strength (CS) = P/A ii. Balance, accuracy of ±
Where: 0.2 percent
CS = compressive strength of the specimen, psi (kN/m³) iii. Measuring device
Compression Machine P = maximum load lb (KN)
i ii
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen inches (m²)
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6.O TESTS ON WOOD 6.O TESTS ON WOOD 6.O TESTS ON WOOD
MOISTURE CONTENT OF WOOD MOISTURE CONTENT OF WOOD
PROCEDURE: iii.Weigh each specimen immediately after it is removed from the oven upon attaining 6.2 COMPRESSION TEST OF WOOD PARALLEL TO GRAIN
i. Weigh the specimen (2" x 2" x 2") after cutting from the sample representing the lot or constant weight or store in a desiccator while waiting for weighing. Record the AIM:
else protects it from a moisture change until weighed. Weigh the specimen to an weight. To determine the compressive strength of wood parallel to the
accuracy of ± 0.2 percent for example, if the specimen weighs 250 g, obtain the iv. Calculate the moisture content. grain.
weight to the nearest 0.5 g.
ii. After they have been weighed, place the specimens in an oven when convenient CALCULATION: APPARATUS
and heat at 103°C ± 2°C (217.4°F ± 3.6°F) until they reach at constant weight. To test i. Compression Machine
for constant weight, weigh the heaviest specimens at intervals of 2 hours or more until ii. Compressometer
they show no further weight loss within the accuracy of weighing required. Avoid Moisture Content, % = Original weight of specimen - Oven-dry weight of specimen x 100%
drying for period longer than necessary to achieve constant weight. Oven-dry weight of specimen iii. Load indicator
iv. Bearing block
i ii iii iv
6.O TESTS ON WOOD
6.O TESTS ON WOOD 6.O TESTS ON WOOD STATIC BENDING OF WOOD
Procedure:
COMPRESSION TEST OF WOOD PARALLEL TO GRAIN
PROCEDURE:
i. Measure the cross section and length of the specimen to the nearest 0.01 inches. Record 6.3 STATIC BENDING OF WOOD i. Mark the center and end points of the specimen for a 30-in. span.
the dimensions and indicate the species of wood.
AIM: ii. Place the beam in the machine with the ends placed on the supports and place the
ii. Place the specimen in the machine. Adjust dials or compressometer. Have an instructor
To determine the mechanical properties of wood subjected to loading block at the center of the beam. The whole assembly shall be properly
check before starting the test.
bending and to study the failure of the material. centered such that the loading block is at the center of the machine's loading head.
iii. Apply loads continuously throughout at the rate of 0.003in./in. of specimen length per
minute. iii. Lower the loading head until a small compressive load is applied to the beam. Place
APPARATUS the deflection gage at the midspan in such a way that it can measure the midspan
iv. Record the maximum load to a point beyond the proportional limit. After failure, draw
sketches and identify the type of failure. In case two or more kinds of failure develop, all i. Universal Testing Machine deflection of the beam.
shall be described in the order of their occurrence. ii. Beam support iv. Apply the load continuously at the rate of approximately 1000 pound per minute.
v. Compute compressive strength in psi. iii. Deflection gage Take simultaneous load and deflection readings for increment of every 200 pounds
Calculation: until the maximum load has been reached. Remove the dial gage prior to the failure
of the beam.
S= Maximum Load
i ii iii v. Sketch the appearance of the failure
Area of Bearing
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6.O TESTS ON WOOD 6.O TESTS ON WOOD
STATIC BENDING OF WOOD
6.O TESTS ON WOOD TENSILE TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF WOOD
• 6. Plot a load-deflection curve and compute all the properties called using the for PROCEDURE:
using the formula shown below. 6.4 TENSILE TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF WOOD i. Measure and record the actual dimensions of the specimen and indicate species of
AIM: wood.
CALCULATION: To determine the tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain. ii. Assemble the necessary equipment and setup the test for loading,
MR = 3PmaxL iii. Place the wood sample in the special grips.
2bh² iv. Apply load continuously throughout test at rate of 0.05 in/minute.
APPARATUS v. Record the tensile load and elongation as the load is applied.
E= __PL³____
i. Testing machine vi. Draw sketches and identify type of failure.
(δ) 4bh³
ii. Special grips vii. Compute the tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain
Where:
iii. Calipers
Pmax and L = maximum load and span of the beam
iv. Dial gage CALCULATION:
B and h = width and height of the cross-section
i ii iii St= Pmax
δ = slope of the load-deflection curve
A
TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS

Thank You So Much. . .
OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
6.O TESTS ON WOOD 6.O TESTS ON WOOD
SHEAR TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF WOOD
6.5 SHEAR TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF WOOD PROCEDURE:

AIM: • Measure and record actual dimensions of the shearing surface.
To test the shearing stress parallel to the grain of wood. • Place specimen in shear test assembly.
• Place the assembly in the testing machine. Provide a 1/8 inch offset along which
failure occurs
APPARATUS • Set dials to monitor rate of load of application,
i. Testing machine • Applied continuously throughout at the rate of 0.0004 in./sec until failure.
ii. Caliper • Sketch the failure pattern and compute the shearing stress. Prepared by:
iii. Shear tool apparatus CALCULATION:
i & iii ii Shearing Stress = Maximum Load Applied Engr. John Ronald R. Fortuito
Shearing Area fortuitojohnronald@gmail.com
25

Ce 241 CMT IM

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5/28/2020

Negros Oriental State University

Testing will investigate most popular materials in this presentation just

MATERIALS USED IN PETROUS OR STONY PETROUS OR STONY

AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE

AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE

✓ OPC “Ordinary Portland Cement” • ✓ TYPE I • ✓ TYPE II

AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE AGGLOMERATIVE

• ✓ TYPE III • ✓ TYPE IA, IIA, IIIA • ✓ TYPE IV

CERAMIC MATERIALS CERAMIC MATERIALS OTHER MATERIALS

temperatures so it doesn´t break. • Porcelain

OTHER MATERIALS FIBER WOOD / TIMBER

Wood , due to it availability ,relatively low cost ,ease of use

PAINT PAINT PAINT

easy to clean. Oil paint is commonly used in walls,

PAINT PAINT PAINT

✓ BITUMINOUS PAINT ✓ ALUMINUM PAINT ✓ SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT

PAINT PLASTIC GLASS

METAL METAL METAL

METAL METAL METAL

• There are different grades and surface finishes of

CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW

Types of Hollow Blocks and its Uses:

CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW CONCRETE HOLLOW

Jamb Concrete Blocks Partition Concrete Blocks Frogged Brick Blocks

Concrete Pillar Blocks Lintel Blocks Bullnose Concrete Blocks

Concrete Pillar Blocks Lintel Blocks Bullnose Concrete

PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• PHYSICAL PROPERTY – properties that can be observed or measured without • POROSITY

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• DENSITY • SPECIFIC GRAVITY • FROST RESISTANCE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• SPALLING RESISTANCE • WATER PERMEABILITY • COEFFICIENT OF SOFTENING

• WATER ABSORPTION • REFRACTORINESS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

• STRENGTH • HARDNESS • MALLEABILITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF

• Thermal capacity • THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY • SPECIFIC HEAT

TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS TESTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENTS

6.5 SHEAR TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF WOOD PROCEDURE:

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