CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

Submitted By
M.SHARVESH RAGHAVENDRA PERUMAL

(Reg. No: )
To the Faculty of Chemistry
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the project work of

GRADE XII (CBSE)

Branch of Chemistry

THE INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL

Coimbatore
BATCH: 2022-2023

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 THE INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL - Coimbatore

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
2022-23

Chemistry

Name of the M.SHARVESH RAGHAVENDRA

Candidate
PERUMAL

Register No

Center Code

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 The Indian Public School – Coimbatore AISSCE
Practical Report
2020-2021
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Master/Miss M.Sharvesh of Grade XII has

Satisfactorily completed the Chemistry project on
CONSTRUCTION WORKING AND USES OF DANIELL CELL.

under the guidance of Dr. M.Sasthaa Begum for AISSCE Practical

examination during the year 2022-2023.
DATE: TEACHER IN-CHARGE

Submitted for the Practical Examination held on at The Indian Public School, Coimbatore.

PRINCIPAL
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
EXAMINER EXAMINER

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CONSTRUCTION WORKING AND USES OF DANIELL
CELL
BY
M.SHARVESH RAGHAVENDRA PERUMAL

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 INDEX
Sl Content Page

No. No.

1. Acknowledgement

2. Introduction 6

3. Daniel Cell 7

4. Construction of the Daniel cell 8

5. The working of the cell 10

6. Functioning of daniel cell on application of external voltage opposing cell 11

potential is applied
7. Uses of Daniel cell 13

8. Bibliography 14

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 INTRODUCTION:
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for
washing and cleaning, which historically comes either in solid
bars or in the form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists of sodium
or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by reacting
common oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process known
as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the base, yielding
alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and glycerol. The general
formula of soap is Fatty end water soluble end CH3-(CH2) n -
COONa Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules
have both a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well
as a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease
molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively
holds particles in colloidal suspension so it can be rinsed off
with clean water. The hydrophobic portion (made up of a long
hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic end
dissolves in water. The resultant forms a round structure called
micelle. Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-
insoluble matter by emulsification.

Commercial production of soap

The most popular soap making process today is the cold
process method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong
alkaline solution, while some soapers use the historical hot
process. Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that,
usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the
alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed,
leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added 'at
trace' (the point at which the saponification process is
sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after
most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted
in the finished soap.

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Fat in soap
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium
Tallowate, a common ingredient in much soap, is derived from
rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such
as palm oil, and the product is typically softer. An array of
saponifiable oils and fats are used in the process such as olive,
coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For
example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil
provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils provide
hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient.
Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils and fats that do not yield
soap are sometimes added for further benefits.

Preparation of soap
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be
required for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes
place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of
the fat being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed
soap can be used right away because the alkali and fat saponify
more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process
soap making. Hot-process soap making was used when the
purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-process soap making
requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that
the finished product is mild and skin-friendly.

Hot process
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at
80–100 °C until saponification occurs, which the soap maker
can determine by taste or by eye. After saponification has
occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution

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by adding salt, and the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft
soap is then spooned into a mold.

Cold process
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification
value of the fats being used on a saponification chart, which is
then used to calculate the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess
unreacted alkali in the soap will result in a very high pH and
can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali and the soap are
greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated,
or melted if they are solid at room temperature. Once both
substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-
43°C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be
combined. This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until "trace". There
are varying levels of trace. After much stirring, the mixture
turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds
roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are added at
light trace.

Introduction to the experiment

Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming
capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately
and their foaming capacity is observed. The soap with the
maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the best
cleaning capacity. The test requires to be done with distilled
water as well as with tap water. The test of soap on distilled
water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning capacity.
The second test with tap water tests the effect of Ca2+ and
Mg2+ salts on their foaming capacities.

Objective:
To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.

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Theory:
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the
soap and its concentration. This may be compared by shaking
equal volumes of solutions of different samples having the
same concentration with same force for the same amount of
time. The solutions are then allowed to stand when the foam
produced during shaking disappears gradually. The time taken
for the foam to disappear in each sample is determined. The
longer the time taken for the disappearance of the foam for the
given sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or
cleansing action.

Requirements:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml measuring
cylinder, test tube stand, weighing machine, stop watch.
Chemical Requirements: Five different soap samples, distilled
water, tap water.

Procedure:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1, 2,3,4,5.
Put 16ml of water in each flask and add 8 Gms of soap.

2. Warm the contents to get a solution.

3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tubes.

4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a
minute. Do the same for all test tubes and with equal force.

5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of

disappearance of 2mm of froth.

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Observations: The following outcomes were noticed at the end
of the experiment
Test Tube no Vol. of soap solution Vol. of water added Time
taken for disappearance of 2mm 1. Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42” 2.
Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28” 3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10” 4. Santoor
8ml 16ml 15’32” 5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”

Result: The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the

order:
Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the highest
foaming capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity.

Lux, on the other hand is found to have taken the least amount
of time for the disappearance of foam produced and thus is said
to be having the least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.

Test for hardness in water

Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the water supplied

Test for Ca2+ in water

H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3

No precipitate

Test for Mg2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4

No precipitate

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The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts
causing hardness in water. The water used does not contain
salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and
thus, the experimental results and values hold good for distilled
water and tap water.

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