COURSE UNIT: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

COURSE UNIT: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

DEFINITIONE OF THE TERM RESEARCH
This is a systematic process that involves careful collection and analysis of data about a
specified problem so as to reach empirical conclusion of fact underlying the phenomenal under
study. Research is the process since it follows standard procedures that set it apart from other
similar works of instance; extra reading by a student beyond what teachers give in class can
literally be research in the same manner like one surfing the internet, reading newspapers, text
books etc.

In research context however, all these works are not within the research frame work
due to the fact that they lack standardized approach of arriving at empirical conclusions

Ln its broad sense therefore, research must be systematic and follow certain steps and protocol
although some alterations can be accepted depending on where and what type of research is
being undertaken

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is generally categorized according to different aspects i.e.

i. According to purpose. This involve Basic and Applied research

ii. According to approach and variables used. This involves Qualitative and Quantitative
research
iii. According to data used. This involves Primary and Secondary research
a) BASIC RESEARCH
This is a kind of research undertaken just to acquire facts and new insights for
knowledge’s sake. It just after informing the public about behaviors underlying a given
phenomenon without necessary applying the finding to solve problems in society

b) APPLIED RESEARCH (Action Research)

This is a kind of research undertaken purposely to solve existing problems in society/life
i.e. the findings from this type of research arte being to tackle problems or issues in real life
DEFINITIONE OF THE TERM RESEARCH
 This is a systematic process that involves careful collection and analysis of data about a
specified problem so as to reach empirical conclusion of fact underlying the phenomenal under
study. Research is the process since it follows standard procedures that set it apart from other
similar works of instance; extra reading by a student beyond what teachers give in class can
literally be research in the same manner like one surfing the internet, reading newspapers, text
books etc.

In research context however, all these works are not within the research frame work
due to the fact that they lack standardized approach of arriving at empirical conclusions

Ln its broad sense therefore, research must be systematic and follow certain steps and protocol
although some alterations can be accepted depending on where and what type of research is
being undertaken

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is generally categorized according to different aspects i.e.

i. According to purpose. This involve Basic and Applied research

ii. According to approach and variables used. This involves Qualitative and Quantitative
research
iii. According to data used. This involves Primary and Secondary research
a) BASIC RESEARCH
This is a kind of research undertaken just to acquire facts and new insights for
knowledge’s sake. It just after informing the public about behaviors underlying a given
phenomenon without necessary applying the finding to solve problems in society

b) APPLIED RESEARCH (Action Research)

This is a kind of research undertaken purposely to solve existing problems in society/life
i.e. the findings from this type of research arte being to tackle problems or issues in real life
situations, other than for knowledge’s sake
c) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
This is a kind of research undertaken purposely to gain insights about people’s attitudes,
behaviors, motivations and perceptions about certain events or ways of life in their
communities so as to better understanding how man makes sense or meaning out of his/her
practices, cultures, beliefs, and attitude activities etc.

d) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
This is a kind of research that involves numerical manipulation of data so as to reach
practical and empirical conclusion concerning the problem under study. This type of research is
closely association with measurement of variables in their respective magnitude and direction
of change thus allowing for precise scientific conclusions

e) PRIMARY RESEARCH
This is also known as field research .lt is involves a researcher traversing the field
interacting with respondents in order to generate data necessary to respond to the problem
under study. This type of research generates primary data or firsthand since the researcher gets
it him /herself from the respondents in the field

f) SECONDARY RESEARCH
It is known as desk research. it is a type of research that makes use of the available
information by researchers, publishers and writers in order to generate data required to reach
conclusion about the phenomenon under study .precisely put ,this research uses secondary
data to draw conclusion about the phenomenon under study ,without a researcher going to the
field to obtain data from the respondents

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

a) It helps to develop new products and strategies through which they can be marketed
b) It helps us to plan appropriately basing on empirical facts
c) It enables us to know the past, present and able to predict the future trends with
precision
d) It helps in initiation and evaluation of development programs
e) It informs decision making and policy formulation processes in both public and private
sectors
f) It helps in refining established theories, laws and principles concerning the problem
under study
g) It enhances the existing body of knowledge for people’s consumption periodic updates
 h) It helps in controlling the occurrence of unwanted phenomena or problems after being
acquainted with their underlying behaviors
i) It helps in mitigating the devastating impact of catastrophes empirical findings

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

a) He/she should search for the truth and only the truth
b) He/she should be dedicated and ready to work through difficult situations to arrive at
reliable data
c) He/she should receive and record data without distortion
d) He/she should avoid plagiarism and endeavor to produce original work. Plagiarism in
this case refers to zeroing some ones work by a researcher and claims to be his/her own
composition avoid cut and paste
e) He/she should always satisfy himself with the findings just be publishing them
f) He/she should never draw conclusion on shaky grounds
g) He/she not be money minded as this mind set might compromise his/her position as a
researcher
h) He/she should be transparent and accountable for his findings and should at no time shy
away from his/her findings as long as they represent society or facts
i) He/she should also be to penetrate any society he/she intends to study implying that
he/she must be good at building rapport

PROBLEMS FACED BY RESEARCHERS IN DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES

a) Inappropriate infrastructure in terms roads, telecommunication, accommodation,
electricity, internet etc. needed to reach out to remote areas
b) High levels of illiteracy limit public cooperation
c) The culture of research in most developing countries is still weak and largely restricted
to people who have gone to academic institutions and few donor agencies
d) There is limited cooperation from many people because they attach less value to
research and sometimes consider researchers to be government spies
e) Most respondents in LDC ask for offers e.g. money before cooperating in research and
this even includes government officials who would otherwise be aware of the benefits
of research
f) Inadequate funding of research projects. Most researchers rely on own funding in
conducting research and only a few ones can access funding yet research is very
expensive
 g) Some people have mixed fillings about researchers considering them to be spies which
make them fear to expose some official information needed. In fact some officers feel
that their positions could be threatened by research and they instead choose to
sabotage research efforts
h) Most governments LCDs have not taken research seriously to the extent that besides
under funding, some hardly accept and implement findings presented by researchers
i) Other governments go extra and put sanctions on research bureau’s especially where
these are the facts

BASIC CONCEPT IN RESEARCH

A THEORY
It is a set of systematically related statements specifying relationships between variables
and conditions under which such relationships exist. In other words, a theory represents tested
explanations that try to reflect the reality, thus the purpose of a theory is often to explain why
and how certain things occur the way they do

In research theories guide researchers to focus on certain aspects of a phenomenon

under study and also bring together different observations about a given problem into a
justifiable relationship. A theory is basically composed of concepts and variables combined
together in form of propositions

A CONCEPT
It is a mental image or perception developed to symbolize ideas, things events persons
etc. .Concepts are usually expressed in form of words to represent meaning .some are visible
concepts .the invisible concepts include love, freedom, justice etc. .the visible concepts include
chair, house ,car ,land etc.

A researcher needs to clearly define concepts in his study since some have multiple
meanings. The act of defining concepts and or variables in a way researcher used them is what
is known as operational definition. Operational definitions enable the readers to perceive
concepts/ variables the a researcher used them in the study

For example whereas term UN employment literally refers to a person of working age
who is not employed, a researcher may choose to define it differently for purposes of his study
to mean; ‘A person of particular skills not employed in any of the fields that need such skills
although he/she could be causally employed in other informal areas outside his profession’

A VARIABLE
 It is something changes over time is something that is not constant in nature or
formation .it can also refer to something that can assume two or more values or categories e.g.
age, weight performance ,height ,religion etc. age is considered a variable because a person
cannot be of the same age throughout . Similarly, one’s performance or income is not over time
implying that are variables

NOTE;

The word variable is derived from the English word VARY which mean to change .in
research, variable should be clearly defined and must appear outstanding for readers to
identify them quickly

Common types of variables in beginner’s research

a) Independent variable
This is a variable which is capable of causing change in other variables or things. In other
words, it is something that would influence a change in other variables following a change in
itself. For example; increase in the performance of a student can be influenced by poor or
unqualified staff, poor fees payment, etc. such that any improvement of the student and the
reverse holds automation of fees payment system improves on convenience by clients

b) Dependent Variable

It is something that changes following a change in other factors influencing its behaviors
.it is a variable that is meant to change following a change in other variables i.e. from our
example, a car consumes more fuel simply, students’ performance can change either positively
or negatively following change in parents income, thus students’ performance becomes the
dependent variable and parental income is the independent variable

c) Quantitative variable
This is a variable whose changes can precisely and numerically measure in magnitude
and direction of change. For instance income, height, market, weight etc.
d) Qualitative variable
This is a variable whose changes cannot be precisely and numerically measured, but
rather understood by taking the view point or approach of the community under study in terms
of their attitudes and perception with respect to such changes or observed behaviors. For
instance grief, love, smell etc.

A PROPOSITION
It is a statement expressing confirmed relationship between two or more variables or
concepts. propositions are important in formulating theories as they help to draw and relate
different concepts and variables together into workable relationship that represent reality

Types of propositions
1. Uni-variate proposition; it’s the one that discusses only one variable
2. Bi- variate proposition; it is one which discusses and relates two variables
3. Multi-variate preposition; it is the one discussing and relating more than two variables
Example of proposition may include;
 The higher the income, the higher the number of children
 The higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied
 The higher the level of education, the higher the income and level of alcoholism
 High income plus being a Muslim leads to polygamy
HYPOTHESIS
It is a tentative statement relating the variable under investigation that’s yet to be
verified by study findings. In otherworld’s, it is a tentative statement expressing relationship
between two or more variables about the problem understudy that’s yet to be verified .it is a
researchers initial guess or view point. Examples may include;
 Recent increase in MTN charges reduced on average call duration by customers
 Mobile phones have made people than they were before, especially in villages
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
 It should be brief concise
 It should be relating variables with each other
 It should be testable with available data and methodology
 It should be adding value to the existing body of knowledge
 It should be clear and direct
 It should be related to established body of knowledge
 It should be3 specific connecting variables it should be with empirical referent
RESEARCH ETHICS
Ethics are moral issues relating to the prior design, gathering and usage of data for research
purposes. They are guiding values that should be upheld for purpose of delivering quality research
information as well as the way that information should be used by other users they include

 Avoid causing harm, distress, anxiety, pain or any other negative feeling to participants
Confidentiality
 Informed consent
 Objectivity in recording and analyzing responses
 Human dignity
 Avoid plagiarism
 Gender responsiveness
 Environment respect

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

This is the systematic procedures followed from the inception of a research idea up to
compilation and dissemination of findings .it is made up of the following stages;

1. Inception of a research idea and initial research problem

2. Developing a research problem and identification of relevant research topic
3. Writing a research proposal
4. Submission of proposal for approval by the concerned authorities academic research
commit in case of students research
5. Preliminary arrangements for data collection upon approval of the proposal
6. Data collection/field work
7. Data processing and analysis
8. Report writing
9. Dissemination of findings/report
CHOOSING A RESEARCHER TOPIC
A researcher topic is a precise statement of what the study is all about and it usually
appears on the title page of the proposal or research report.
While choosing a research topic,a research must take care of the following points;
 a) It must be relevant and applicable to the situation under study
b) It must be researchable within the existing skills set of a researcherand resources
c) It should be something which not over researched since research is all about generating
new insights. It must guarantee value addition
d) It should be justifiable and authentic
e) It should be clearly stated and concise
f) It should reflect current or recent issues at hand
g) It shouldbear the indecent and dependent variables
h) It should be within ones field/profession to facilitate fair assessment (especially for
students)
Examples of research topic include
1. On-line procumbent system and market share of Mukwano industries
2. The role of electrical media in sensitization of Kampalans about the anti-guy law. A case
study of CBS FM.
3. The impact of the pornography law on the content of print media. a case study kamunye
paper
4. The role of bulky messaging in bridging information gap between secondary school
administration and parents in rural Uganda
5. The impact of on-line system on payment and recovery of tuition fees at BRIBTE
6. The role of print media on the influx of street children in Kampala .a case study of the
daily monitor
7. Public relations management and growth of audience among media enterprises. A case
study of bukeddeTV
RESEARCH PROBLEM /STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It refers to unsettled issue,gap, vacuum or discrepancy which a researcher seeks to
address by undertaking study. In other words, a research problem is something that
might exist in reality or abstract without clear explanation about its underlying dynamics
or observed behaviors
While stating a research problem, a research should clearly expose the existing issue
he/she intends to investigate supported by empirical evidence justifying its existence so
as to warrant study
NB; the term problem in this case does not carry its literally meaning as in English
dictionary .it is being used as a technical word to refer to the issue over which a
researcher wants to conduct a study . Thus a research problem can be something bad or
good in the society about which very little or nothing is known about its manifestation
 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Research problems can be sourced from different areas including;
1. Literature review
2. Researchers recommendations
3. Events happening in society
4. Personal experience
5. Unsatisfactory or extra ordinary performance of a company /individuals etc.

Characteristics of a Research Problem

It should be;
1. Researchable with in the capacity of the researcher
2. Stated to appear straight forward to the reader
3. Stated briefly and concisely. One page at most but always ensure that it is ½ page.
4. Having evidence supporting its evidence.
5. Able to add a value to existing body of knowledge i.e. relevancy.
6. Connected with the topic of the study and subject matter.
Note;after getting a convincing research problem, a research then embarks on the process of
proposal writing

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. It is basis for discussion and evaluation of findings
2. It is a basis for warranting a research study
3. It determines the type of research to be undertaken(depending on its nature)
4. It determines the methodologies to be used in research
5. It guides the scope of the study (time content and geographical)
6. It is a basis for accessing funding especially when it reveals potential for value addition or
solving a real life problem
NB;In short, a research problem is the gist of a research study, and without which, study
becomes useless i.e. it is the most indispensable part of the study
 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
It’s a written document expressing a researchers intension to carry out a particular
study about a given problem /issue so as to establish facts underlying its behavior and find
solution to it , a research proposal therefore captures the problem under investigation , why ,
how ,when and where to conduct the study as well as the projected costs of undertaking it. In
simple terms, a research proposal is a researcher’s plan of action in undertaking any study
Function /purposes of a research proposal
1. It is a researchers plan of action since it guides him/her throughout the entire process of
undertaking the study to producing and dissemination of a research report
2. It is a basic for accessing research funds i.e. all potential funders of research studies request for
a proposal before funding and it is upon them being convinced that funding is provided
3. It’s a requirement for undertaking academic research because the academic research
committee must get convinced with students proposals before letting them proceed with their
research studies
4. It establishes the feasibility of the project since a researcher presents the entire idea in terms of
relevance, time and other resources to be committed to project.
5. It helps a researcher to improve on his initial idea into a workable and practical concept
understandable by other interested person.
6. It also serves as reference point both during and after a study i.e. quality of results can be
accessed during the proposal.
7. It is a basis for discussion of findings i.e. Cross referencing.
8. It is commitmentbetween a researcher and concerned authorities to have the study done the
moment a proposal is endorsed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1) It comprises of three chapters i.e.
a) Introduction
b) Literature review
c) Methodology
2) Most of it written in future tense expect literature review and the background
3) It has a proposed research budget attached
4) Only references quoted appear under reference list.
5) It has few preliminary pages i.e. title page, table of contents, and list of abbreviations only.
6) It has field work plan and data collection tool attached.

Chapters of a research proposal

 Like earlier noted, ounce a researcher gets a research topic and problem, the next stage is
to write a research proposal. A research proposal comprises of three chapters i.e.

1) Introduction
2) Literature review
3) Methodology

Outline the components of each chapter.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Research problem
1.3 Purpose and objectives of the study
1.4 Scope of the study
1.5 Significances of the study
1.6 Research questions
1.7 Hypotheses
1.8 Conceptual framework
1.9 Definition of key terms.

CHAPTER ONE
1.0INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the following items i.e. Background of the study, Research
problem, research objectives, Scope of the study,Research Hypotheses, Research
questions, Significances of the study, Conceptual framework and Definition of key
terms.
1.1 Background of the study
This is the 1st section in writing a research proposal and it gives brief facts and history
about the topic and problem under study as well as the main variables included. This
section should be developed and presented in a logical flow clearly tracing the genesis of
the issue under study through to the current facts and should be written in a way that
allows for the introduction of the research problem.
 The main purpose of the background of the study includes;
a) To orient the readers about the proposed idea for the research
b) To provide a basis upon which subsequent section s are built
c) To create a report and credibility to the message communicated (though quoting quick
facts)
d) To enable proper comprehension or perception of the situation understudy
e) To present the known and prepare the readers for the unknown about the topic
f) It presents the rationale for research to be undertaken
g) It presents the authenticity of a research to handle the study given the facts presented
h) It sets the view point from which research facts and events will be perceived and
interpreted.
1.2 Research problem
As already noted from the preceding background, a research problem always comes next to the
background to the study. The problem must be clearly stated and defined in a sense that enables
the readers to quickly identify and understand it. It should be stated with the evidence
supporting its existence such that the readers come to know what is wrong /unclear/inadequate
and unreliable in terms of the dependent and independent variables in questions so as to
warranty a study. The problem should end with how the study seeks to close the gaps
highlighted.
1.3 Objectives of the study
These come after stating the research problem. They try to answer the purpose for which the
study is being conducted. By definition objectives refer to a precise statement of what a
researcher intends to achieve at the end of the study.

Types of the study

1.3.1 General objectives;
This is a broad statement or expression of what a researcher intends to achieve in the long run.
In other wards it is a statement that summarizes all other objectives. It is simply the
restatement of the research topic in an object format. While stating the objectives we normally
start with “To” follow by other words. For general objectives we commonly use; To Assess,
Analyze, Examine, Evaluate, etc.
 Examples of general objectives

a) To access the impact of on-line procurement system of the market shares of mukwano
industries in Uganda.
b) To examine the role of electronic media in sensitization Kampala residents about the
anti-guy law.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
These are statements indicating what a researcher intends to achieve in a short run by under
taking a particular set of activities. In writing a research proposal, the general objective is
started first and the specific objectives follow in that order. It should be noted that specific
objectives follow from general objective.
- Good specific objectives should have the following characteristics or respect the SMART
criterion.

Characteristics of good research objectives

Where S – specific
M – Measurable
A – Achievable
R – Realistic / Relevancy
T – Time bond
a) By specific, an objective should be stated clearly expressing a particular target to be achieved
b) They should be measurable in sense that a researcher is able to establish a degree to which
an object was met at the end study
c)Objective should be achievable at least with in a given time frame, researcher’s skills set and
resources available for the study
d) They should be realistic and relevant to the situation being investigated and they should not
be exaggerated.
e) They should have time limit within which something should be achieved in order to evaluate
progress.
f) They should also be stated precisely and clearly.
g) They should be authentic i.e. based on empirical references
Therefore, research Objectives should be properly stated in a good, simple and straight forward,
language so as to give meaning.
While stating specific objectives we commonly use to; find out, identify, establish, define, etc.
Examples of specific objectives
a) To identify the on line system used by mukwano industries for marketing and
procurement of company products.
b) To establish the efficiency associated with the use of online procurement system to both
customers and the company
c) To establish the market shares of mukwano industries before and the installation of the
on-line procurement systems.
d) To identify challenges encountered by mukwano industries in designing and implementing
the existing on-line procurement systems.
e) To solicit for possible solutions to enhance the current on-line system for increased
market share of company products I the next five years.

1.4 Scope of the study

It’s an area where a researcher intends to focus while conducting the study in terms of
geographical coverage, time scope and conceptual terms .hence scope of the study helps a
researcher to demarcate his study and defines his main variable s precisely [unit of
manipulation], geographical area to be covered, and the period to be covered. Scope of the
study includes the following types
1.4.1. GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE
This defines the geographical area to be covered by the study i.e. one may say that the
study is going to be conducted in lubaga division, kakeeka zone in particular. he goes ahead
to outline the boundaries of that area and or key features can facilitate quick location of the
place of study
1.4.2. CONCEPTUAL SCOPE
This defines the smallest component of the main variables to be covered by the study. In
other works it defines the coverage of the study in terms of depth of analysis of variables
under investigation. For instance one may define his conceptual scope by looking at
HIV/AIDS among children particularly those below five years or the infants who are victims
of mothers to child transmission
1.2.3 TIME SCOPE
This basically defines the period in which the proposed study will be undertaken as well as
the time frame within which the variables under study will be investigated. For instance one
may say that the study will be conducted within six months effective November 2014 and it
will focus on mother to child transmission cases that occurred between 2006 to 2014 at
mulago hospital.
 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

This is tentative statement that is yet to be verified by such findings. What is required of a
student here is state his / her hypotheses

1. Recent increase in MTN call charge reduced on average call duration by customers
2. Mobile phones have made people poorer than they were before , especially in villages
3. Quality control systems improve on broadcasting services of electronic media houses. a
case study of CBS FM

1.6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research questions are a reveal of the reversal of the objectives into question format. A
researcher usually sets him/herself questions in order to guide him/her in arriving at concrete
answers. Research questions are usually associated with qualitative research whereas research
hypothesis are commonly used in quantitative research. It’s from these research questions that
a research later defines subsequent questions to respondents. While stating research
questions, we start with ‘what’ followed by other words.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Why are the existing on-line systems used by mukwano industries for marketing and
procurement of company
2. What is the market share of mukwano industries before the installation of on –line
procurement systems
3. What is market share of mukwano industries following the installation of on-line
procurement systems
4. What is market share of mukwano industries following the installation of on-line
procurement system
5. What are the challenges encountered by mukwano industries in designing and
implementing the existing on-line procurement systems
6. What solution can be generated to enhance the current on-line systems for increased
market share of company products in the next five years

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It presents how important the study is going to be to a cross section of people in society.
Researchers usually state how the proposed study will be important to the research him
/herself, policy makers, business community, and other stakeholders. It provides
justification for the study. Researchers should therefore endeavor to state how the findings
will be important and to whom; for instance;

a. ‘The study will help to present the impact of on-line procurement system on the market
share of mukwano industries in Uganda ‘
 b. It will also help to come up with possible measures to address any inefficiencies
identified in the current on –line procurement

1.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

It presents the theoretical frame work within which one’s study will be analyzed i.e. one may
choose supply management frame work within which findings to the theory and coherence in
presentation should be observed within the laws of the above framework

1.9 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

It should be noted be that some words carry different meanings when used by different
meanings when used by different persons in same or different situations. it is thus important in
research always to give operational definition to variables and other key terms in the study so
as to ensure shared meaning between the researcher and his/her audience ., for instance the
concept child in Uganda refers to a person of below 18 years , but in Britain [uk] , it is some one
of below 16 years . In light of this therefore, a researcher has to be clear and choose which
definition to adopt so as to as to ensure shared meaning across readers world over. It is this
definition that he/she should write here per key term/ concept in the study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review is a systematic process that involves critical analysis of existing body of
knowledge related to the topic/problem under study. It is a process that involves identifying,
locating, obtaining or accessing relevant information and makes critical review in relation to
variables and objectives of the study.

Literature review is not a mere reading through publications but rather to care fully take note
of the strong areas where it is due as well as analyzing weakness or loopholes that need to be
clarified by the study or exposed for other researchers’ attention.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

There are different sources for literature and at no time should a researcher ever complain
about to obtain literature relevant to variables under investigation.

THE MAIN SOURCES INLUDE;

a) The internet/incredible source

b) Research journals/reports/working papers
c) Magazines
d) Company records
e) Text books (personal/library/on-line)
f) Government documents
g) News papers and other source that can provide written materials relevant to the problem
under study.
NB: it is advisable that only authentic sources are referenced to ensure credibility of the study.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 It enables a researcher to own the study and also get familiar with is investigated
 It enables a research to get appropriate methodologies to be used in the study.
 It enables researchers to establish the known and expose the unknown as areas for
researchers’ attention.
 It helps the researchers to improve on his research problem by providing sufficient beef to what
was initially a skeletal idea, and make it appear convincing.
 It provides a basis for discussion of findings, make conclusion and relevant recommendations.
 It broadens the knowledge and understanding of the researcher as far as the problem under
study is concerned.
 It helps to avoid duplication of the people’s research efforts.
 It authenticates ones ‘study i.e. it shows that a researcher is not presenting a baseless
argument but rather a thoroughly investigated one with sufficient facts to back up existence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LITERATURE

 It should indicate sources of materials quoted.
 It should largely be quoted from latest publications should completely be ignored.
 It should be clearly demarcated into sections and subsections each with clear tittles, with
related materials put under the same titles/sub title.
 It should provide a precise back ground about the key concepts under investigation.
 It should clearly indicate strong areas and weakness of earlier researchers and writers.
 It should be properly numbered in official format
 It should be in line with the study objectives/research questions/hypothesis
 Should flow chronological/ orderly

HOW TO COMPOSE LITERATURE

a) Identify the kind of literature needed
b) Obtain and critically read through that publication(s)
c) Develop preliminary literature following research objectives
d) Develop the official literature
e) Write the tittle of the chapter and number it accordingly (2.0)
f) Most researchers usually begin by giving brief information and definition of key terms.
g) Demarcate the literature using relevant tittles not forgetting the chronological flow
h) Present a conclusion to your literature
i) Take note of any reference made in the body.

COMMON TERMOONOLOGIES IN LITERATURE REVIEW

Foot notes
These refers to references which appear at the bottom of a journal, research proposal/paper/
report or a text book corresponding to text raised to a power in the body of literature. They are
meant to indicate the sources of idea quoted in text.
Quotations
They are both direct and indirect quotations
Direct quotation.
This is a statement extracted from a certain source or document and is presented in its original
from without any alteration. When this is done, the statement must be UT in quotation marks
“……………………………”
Indirect quotation
It is also known as paraphrasing. It is where by a researcher extracts material from certain
source and presents it in own words without changing the original meaning.
Quotations are to meant strengthen ones claim with through referring to great publishers
ET .al
This term simply mean the main author and others. It is used when a researcher is quotes a
source / literature that was composed by more one writer. for a researcher to use this term, he
is initially required to write all the writers names the first time he quotes from that publication
and for any other time he quotes from the same publication, he should just write the main
writer and put et.al in place of co-writers i.e. Namugerwa, Matovu, and Kalema (2009) for the
first time, and then Namugerwa, et.al,(2009) the rest of times the same source is quoted.
Hence every time you see et.al, it stands for other people with whom the main writer
(Namugerwa) wrote the document. Put simply, et, al means and others

CHAPTER TRREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
It describes systematic methods, procedures and techniques and tools a researcher intends to
adopt whole undertaking the proposed study .It is the 3rd chapter of a research proposal and its
techniques, data collection method and instruments data processing and analysis among
others.
Research designs
Research design is a plan /approach which a researcher seeks to adopt in under taking the
study. lt is a means or approach of obtaining data for a specific study.
 Purposes of a research design
a) It explains how the study will be organized and implemented
b) It explains how the sampling will be carried out and how to organize the group.
There are various factors behind choice of a particular research design which include;

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OR RESEARCH DESIGN

a) The purpose of the study i.e. if the results are to be applied in science the study might adopt an
experimental research design .(refer to computer science research)
b) Type of the study undertaken. Most historical studies use descriptive design whereas scientific
studies tend to adopt experimental or quantitative design.
c) The type of problem under investigation also determines the relevant research design i.e. some
are measurable whereas others are not. Similarly we have social, economic, political and
environmental categories of problems and each has the associated design.
d) They nature of variables to be manipulated since there are different types of variable
e) Availability of relevant infrastructures to support application of a particular design ie facilities in
place.
f) Skills of a researcher are also paramount in the choice a design
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
A) Experimental research design
This is research design commonly used in natural science. It involves manipulation of
independent variables in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable in a controlled
environment.
CHARACTERISTICS
.
1) Random assignment of variable into the control and experimental groups.
2) Direct manipulation of independent variable in a controlled environment or laboratory
application of experiment on control group in the study and compare the results.
3) Examination of the effect of independent variable
4) Total control of extraneous variable.
5) Hypothesis testing
B) EXPLANATORY DESIGN
This is a research design that seeks to establish why certain things occur the way they do. A
researcher should be position to generate a clear report concerning the cause effect
relationship between variables/observed situations.
C) DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
This is a research design that seeks to portray how certain phenomena manifest themselves. It
is usually done through describing the characteristics features of phenomena under study.
D) EXPLORATORY DESIGN
 This is a researcher design adopted where a researcher thinks that nothing or very less is known
about the phenomenon under study. It’s commonly used by explorers and investors.
E) CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN
This is a research design that involves in-depth study and analysis of a single unit of the
universe to make generalization about the parent population with respect to the problem
under study. The purpose of this design is to ensure exhaustive analysis so as to better
understand the underlying dynamics behind the observed situation. This is design limits its
scope to a very small area.
F) LONGITUDAL DESIGN
This is research design that seeks to study specific group of respondents or single group over
extended period of time. For instance examining the behavior of the same individuals and how
they change overtime, following the manipulation of the independent variables over dependent
variable. It can either be a trend or panel study.
G) CROSS SECTION DESIGN
This is study design covers a big portion of the universe at a single point in time.
It is associated with a variety of respondents scattered over a wider geographical area and it is
made up of heterogeneous population.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
SAMPLING: this is a process of drawing elements from universe for purposes of studying the
behavior of variables with respect to a particular problem i.e. lf one wanted to choose 20
respondents from 100 people, the process through which the 20 respondents are drawn from
100 is what is called sampling.
PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
a) It enables a researcher to manage large and dispersed population effectively.
b) It minimizes the cost of undertaking research.
c) It saves time one would spend while studying total entire population.
d) It generates high response rate and cooperation than use of entire.
e) It improves on the accuracy of findings.
f) It reduces the level of destruction.
TERMINOLOGIES IN SAMPLING
a) Sample: It refers to elements chosen to the universe during the study. In other words, a sample
constitutes objects or items chosen from the universe to represent other in studying the
problem under investigation.
A good sample should be representative in nature and free from sample bias. By
representativeness, a respect the main characteristic expected of parent population.
b) Sample errors are changes between the true value or estimated value. Random variations in
the sample estimates around the true population parameters.
c) Universe: this refers to total population of the elements from which a sample is chosen. In
research, total population is represented by (N) where as sample population is represented by
(n).
d) Sampling frame. This refers to the list of all elements in the universe or total population i.e.
electoral register provides a sample frame of all voters in a given area. Similarly, school
registers provide school enrollment in a given period of time.
e) Census: this is complete enumeration of all elements in population or universe.
f) Sample design: this is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It is also
known as a technique or procedure a researcher adopts in selecting the sample required for the
study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

a) It must result into a timely and representative sample.
b) Results generated from sample should posses a small sampling error.
c) It must be feasible in terms of funds available for the study.
d) It must be able to control for systematic bias.
e) It must be able to generate sample results that can be applied in general on universe with
reasonable confidence

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING METHOD

a) The type and purpose of research
b) Size and nature of population to be sampled i.e. homogenous, heterogeneous or dispersed
population
c) Availability of appropriate sampling frame.
d) Resources available for research.
e) Time limitation which a study is supposed to be completed
f) The type of research design used i.e. experimental or non-experimental
g) Size of the area of study in geographical terms i.e. wide or small
h) Parameter of interest

SAMPLING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

These are broadly two categories/types:

1) Probability sampling techniques/random sampling

It’s also known as random sampling. It represents methods that offer equal chance to all
elements in the universe to be included in the sample i.e. every item in the universe has known
chance of being included in the sample. The probability that each element stands to be chosen
in the sample is known.

2) Non probability sampling technique

This represents methods that are subjective in selecting samples. These techniques however
offer faster, cheap and less complicated approach to sampling i.e. non probability sampling
 represents methods which have no basis for stabling the likelihood of including every item in
the sample.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

a) Random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Cluster sampling
d) Systematic sampling

A) Random sampling
This is a sampling technique that involves selecting a sample in such any that all individuals in
the universe are given equal independent chance of inclusion in the sample. The technique can
be applied in two ways i.e. through:
i) Lottery or fish bowel method
j) Table of random numbers

a) Lottery or fish bowel method

The fish bowl method involves giving all elements in the universe identity numbers or marks in
form of letter codes/names written on pieces of paper for each element in the universe. They
are tightly folded, placed in a container and shaken side ways to intermingle. There after, a
research/neutral person starts picking one paper at a time from container while blind folded
until when the desired sample is obtained. This can be with or without replacement. All
elements whose papers are chosen then qualify for inclusion in the sample

ii) Table of random numbers

This is consists of digitized numbers that are randomly generated by the computer which
a researcher uses to draw the desired sample for the study. it involves the following steps:
 Define the total population
 Determine the sample size
 List all elements in the universe
 Assign each element a number of five digits
 Start selecting numbers as they as generated by the computer and check for corresponding
items/elements in the population. This implies that all elements whose numbers are drawn by
the computer qualify for inclusion in the sample.

B) Stratified sampling
This is sampling technique that involves diving the population into sub group called strata from
which samples are drawn either proportionately or disproportionately. After creating the
subgroups, each group is sampled `randomly to avoid bias. With proportionate stratified
sampling, we first calculate for sampling fraction (n/N) which stratum/ group/category
 Example:
Given that there are 90 students in a research class with the following courses from which 30
students are needed for a study sample. The research class is then stratified according to
courses as follows;
a) DBA 40
b) DM 05
c) UDA 35
d) DPSM 10
1) Use proportionate stratified sampling to choose the desired sample
Solution
Desired sample n=30
Total population N=90
Sampling fraction n/N =30/90 =1/3
Then multiply the sample fraction through each stratum
DBA 1/3 *40 =13.33 =13
UDA 1/3*35 =11.66 = 12
DM 1/3*05 = 1.66 =03
DPMS 1/3 *10 =3.33 =03
Total sample =30
NB: when we use disproportionate sampling, the sample fraction becomes inapplicable but
the sample population is chosen from stratum accordingly.

C) Systematic sampling
This is sampling technique or method in which individuals are selected from the universe by
taking every kth element systematic sampling and other kinds of techniques is that once the
first element is selected, all other elements to include in the sample are automatically
determined within the range/interval of numbers equal to “x-1 +k”.
 The procedure of using this method involves determining total population
 Determining desired sample size
 Divide the total by sample size to get the value of ‘k’ (K=N/n)
 Select some random point for initial element to include in the sample
 Then count from that point and take kth element until the desired sample size is obtained
 If the end of the list is reached before realizing the required sample size, then go back to where
you started from i.e. the top /middle until the sample achieved.

NB: this method is applicable where a definite sample frame is available. It is difficult to use in an
unknown population.

D) Cluster sampling
 This is sampling technique that involves diving the total population into groups called clusters
and then a researcher samples from among the clusters themselves. These cluster can be
created basing on distinguishing characteristics e.g. tribe, income ,education levels ,political
boundaries etc. the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is a certain
cluster(s) is chosen to be part of the sample, all its elements are then included in the sample in
the sample. This of sampling techniques follows the following procedures

 Define the total population

 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify and define the average cluster size (N/no. of clusters)
 Make a list of all clusters in the population
 Estimate the average number of clusters needed to obtain the desired sample i.e. Divide the
sample size by the average cluster size (n/average cluster size)
 Randomly select the desired number of cluster either using lottery/fish bowl technique or table
of numbers
 Once a cluster is chosen, all its elements are included in the sample.

Cluster sampling can be done at one level or at various levels. Cluster sampling done at
successive levels is called multi stage cluster sampling.
This is conducted at successive stages until when the final sub cluster is chosen whose elements
are considered in the sample. For example if one wanted 100 respondents from Uganda using
this method , he/she would divide the country into regions and from regions , choose districts ,
then counties , and finally sub counties/parishes/villages/households, whose entire population
automatically qualify for inclusion in the sample.

NON PROBABILTY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

This includes convenient sampling, purposive sampling snow ball sampling quota sampling.
a) Convenient sampling
It is sometimes called accidental sampling and basically involves using elements a researcher
lands on with much ease/convenience. Some other people call haphazard sampling technique.
The sample is being selected on the basis of how accessible and cooperative an element is.
b) Judgment sampling
It is also known as purposive sampling and it is where by a research selects a sample he/she
believers to be representatives of a given population and highly knowledgeable about a
problem under study i.e. a research uses his expert judgment to select representative sample.
c) Quota sampling
It is a technique that is used where the study is going to cover a big area such that the entire
area of study is divided into different portions called quotas with each quota comprising of a
large number of persons/elements of a given characteristics spread over a wider area.
d) Snow ball sampling
It is a sampling technique that involves a researcher initially selecting a few respondents with
desired characteristics for inclusion in the sample , and these later assist him/her to obtain
their colleagues who posses similar or same characteristics as desired by the researcher, to
constitute the total sample. For instance if the desired sample is 40 students, a researcher may
choose the first five (5) students , and then 5 help him to get the remaining 35 students in order
to register the desired total of 40 students.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TOOLS

These refer to systematic means through which a researcher obtains response from target population
about the problem under study. In research, there are different methods of data collection ranging
from:
 Observation
 Questionnaire
 Focus group discussion and,
 Documentary analysis
Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages associated with it
1) OBSERAVATION METHOD
It is a method of data collection that involves physical appearance of a researcher within the
environment of the studied. It is therefore commonly applied in the field of science and
humanities i.e. one can carry out a laboratory experiment and observe how variables under
investigation react to one another when they come into contact and records the findings.
Similarly, a researcher can go in the field and observe how certain things occur or being done by
different people. It is facilitated by a research tool or instrument known as observation guide,
which is a list of issues about which a researcher needs to gather information through
observation. This guide helps top improve the quality of findings by specifying the observation
criteria. Other tools that facilitate observation method include video recording and photograph
cameras etc.
Types of observation
i) Participant observation
It is where by a researcher carries out his study by participating in the activities of the people
being observed /studied /investigated. A person who wants to study how teaching is done at
BRIBTE may decide to enroll and pretend to be a student such that the end of his study period,
he has observed the way everything is done and sufficient information already gathered to
enable him writes a report.
ii) Non participant observation
It is where by a researcher does not directly participate in activities of the elements/people
being studied but keeps watching everything done from an external view point so as the gather
required responses to answer the problem under investigation.
 Advantages of observation
a) It gives more reliable and accurate information.
b) It gives 1st had impressions that remove doubts
c) It generates high response rate since it is about the presence of a researcher and start
observing the studied.
d) It enables a researcher to clarify more on information through other methods.
e) Data is collected there and then with least inconvenience.
f) It enables a researcher to evaluate circumstances in which respondents are living
g) It serves well to individuals who can not express themselves verbally
Disadvantages
a) It is expensive especially when a researcher takes participant approach.
b) Unforeseen factor may interfere with the reality
c) Data collected from observation is very limited.
d) It consumes a lot of time since it requires of a researcher.
e) It depends very much on researcher perception i.e. it’s subjective.
2) QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
A questionnaire is data collection method and at the same time a tool used in collection of
responses to different questions about the problem under. In other wards, a questionnaire is a
set of related questions designed by researcher and administered to respondents so as get their
responses about the problem under study. There are different types of questionnaire which
include:
a) Close ended questionnaire.
It is of questionnaire where a researcher where a researcher provides different answer
categories to each and every question from which the respondent chooses the most ones
corresponding to his/her answer(s) to particular questions.
Advantages
h) It provides standard questions across all respondents
i) Data generates thought this type of questionnaire is easy to process and analyze.
j) It is easy for respondents to answer the questions.
k) It takes less time to fill.
Disadvantages
i) It provides higher chances of guessing answers
ii) It restricts respondents’ choices i.e. one has to choose from the alternatives given (expect when
he is allowed to attach his answers if they are not listed in the questionnaire)
iii) It is not always easy for a researcher to develop exhaustive answer categories.
b) Open ended questionnaires
It is a type of questionnaire designed in a way that a researcher sets questions and leaves
spaces in which respondents write/fill in their answers.
 Advantages
i) It gives respondents freedom to fully express their views.
ii) It is applicable when a researcher does not have possible answers to different questions about
the problem.
iii) Respondents give their independent answers without any clue like the case for closed
questionnaire.
iv) It generates large volume of data.
v) It easy to design. By a researcher.
Disadvantages
i) Generates bulky data which poses a challenge during data processing
ii) It takes a lot of time for the respondents to fill in the questionnaire.
iii) It consumes a lot of resources i.e. papers hence more money.
iv) Some respondents do not easily give answers where questions are not standardized.
v) It is not fit people with hand writing.
NB; A researcher is free to use or not to use close ended and open ended and open ended
questionnaire together.
c) Self-administered questionnaire.
It is sometimes known as mailed questionnaire. It is where by a researcher designs and sends a
copy of questionnaire to respondents for filling and send them back accordingly.
There are different ways of administering mailed questionnaire which include;
a) Sending through post office and carrier services
b) Writing the questionnaire through recipient’s email address
c) Physically delivered or end it to work place.
d) Group administered questionnaire.
It is a type of questionnaire that involves a researcher getting a group of people to respond to a
questionnaire.

Principles of questionnaire construction

a) Questionnaire flow/order
It should be designed in a way that it flows chronologically i.e. it should ideally begin with bio
data questions followed by factual and opinion questions. In simple case, a questionnaire
should begin with familiar questions and continue with challenging or sensitive questions to
easen answering of the questions.

b) Question content
A researcher should include only questions that will help him to generate desired data. Then
while designing a questionnaire, a researcher should take note of the following;-
Need for data i.e. ability of questions to generate desired data,
Ability of the respondents answer the questions accurately, and
Willingness by the respondent to cooperate over such questions
 Likely factors that would make a researcher include questions that are not relevant to the
research topic and within the scope of the study include need to orient respondents.
Otherwise avoid questions that have no connection with the problem under study.
c) Questionnaire wording
A researcher is advised to develop questions in a language that the target respondents
understand most. Questions must be direct and clear in order to give meaning to respondent
and facilitate response. Researchers are advised to avoid use of unofficial words, jargons, slangs
etc. they should the keep wording simple and avoid double barreled questions. Also, questions
should not be over loaded and they should in no way be worded in a leading from ‘leading
questions’
NB; avoid use of vocabularies since not all people understand them, and when technical terms
are used, they should be properly defined from respondents to understand them before giving
their responses.
d) Questionnaire format
It basically looks at the nature of questions a researcher intends to use. There are different
questions relating to this. Some could be close ended whereas others are open ended format.
Where closed format is used, a researcher should provide exhaustive answer categories to each
question from which respondents choose the most appropriate answers.
e) Questionnaire pretest
This is the act subjecting the draft questionnaire to a field test so as to establish its
appropriateness in generating the desired responses. A researcher administers the
questionnaire in a population similar to that he /she intends to study, shares a copy with other
researchers , and supervisor, who later make comments regarding how they have interfaced
with the questionnaire. Key issues to focus on in questionnaire pretest include;
i) Exhaustiveness of answer categories
ii) Clarity of questions
iii) Adequacy of questions
iv) Readability of questions
v) Etc.
3) Interview method
This is a method of data collection that involves direct interaction between a researcher and
the respondents in an attempt to gather information about the problem under investigation. It
can be face-to-face (physical appearance) or via electronic gadgets i.e. phone interview, video
conferencing or via the internet. When face to face interview is used in data collection, a
researcher must physically avail him or herself at respective places of appointment with
respondents, for interview. For both approaches, the researcher directly talks to the
respondents.
 Advantages of interview
a) It provides room for probing i.e. act of digging out the details from the respondents if show
potential to give information about the studied.
b) It provides 1st hand information about the studied.
c) A researcher can control the environment in which the interview is conducted
d) It can be used together with other methods of data collection i.e. observation which helps in
concretization of findings.
e) It is convenient to people who can neither read nor write.
f) It provides room for recording responses either on video or audio recorders and voices can be
replayed while processing data.

Disadvantages of inerview.
a) It takes a lot of time to reach out to all respondents (esp. face-to-face interview)
b) It needs a lot of resources moving to different places or calling people on phone.
c) There are high chances of a researcher biasing respondents either by appearance or through
asking questions.
d) There is less anonymity between a researcher and respondents.
e) Interview may not be suitable to some respondents over sensitive and threating issues.
f) It is not convenient to people with tight or very busy schedule.
g) It requires a person who is highly skilled and can easily attract respondents’ attention to answer
the questions.
h) Interviews generate massive data which is some times difficult to process.
i) In face to face interview, there are some communities which are hostile which limits the degree
to which this method can be applied.
Types of interview
a) Face to face interview.
This is where by a person physically appears to engage the respondents in a conversation
intended to elicit their responses to the problem under investigation.
b) Formal and informal interview
A formal interview is one conducted by a researcher with the aid interview schedule. On the
other hand an informal interview is the one where researcher uses an interview guide to ask
questions about the problem under investigation.
c) Electronic interview
This is whereby a researcher conducts the interview through use of electronic devices to reach
out to the respondents. It conducts interview on phone, videoconference, Skype, etc.

Aids and tools to successful interview exercise.

For one to carry out a successful interview it’s wise to be equipped with the
following tools.
a) Interview schedule or guide.
b) Writing materials likes pens, pencils and notebook.
c) Recorders whether video or audio
d) Attentive listening and probing for details.

Factors necessary for having successful interviews

a) Make appointments with target participants in advance.
b) Prepare interview tools /aid before the day of interview.
c) Secure a convenient place/venue that facilitates effective listening to one another.
d) Use the language respondents understand most.
e) Records responses in short hand without changing the meaning.
f) Avoid asking leading questions.
g) Introduce yourself before the interview starts and explain the purpose of the investigation.
h) Guide the respondents along the course of the interview in order to avoid unnecessary
deviations.
i) Set your self-time in which the interview should end and stick to it.
j) Every time a person appears to be not opening up well, whereas issues is important to study
problem, probe for details.
k) Attentive listening and recording of responses.
l) Installing confidence in respondents that their details will remain confidential and for study
purpose only.
Application of interview
Interviews are commonly applied when;
a) One wishes to know about something in details.
b) The sample population is illiterate
c) The sample is small and limited in accessible geographical area.
d) The type of researcher conducted requires 1st hand information from respondents
NB a researcher should always avoid being while under taking study using interview method.
4) DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS.
This is method of data collection that involves using existing data to gather the information
needed about the problem under investigation. This method is normally associated with
secondary research. However, it is sometimes used to supplement other data collection
methods in research.
Advantages of documentary
a) It is not too expensive because data is already available
b) It provides large mass data from which a researcher can concretize his idea.
c) It allows for comparisons between variables overtime (trend)
 Disadvantages
a) Data is not always accessible though available in most cases.
b) Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may set in to hamper the exercise.
c) Information may be incomplete and there is no body to account for the gaps.
d) Effect of information decay might affect the findings
e) Errors and biases of earlier researchers/ compilers are inherited which affect the quality of
findings.
5) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGDs).
This is a participatory method of data collection that involves a researcher creating groups of
people to discuss the problem under investigation with guidance of a moderator .FGDs are
more effective when the size of the group is small and manageable for every member to
actively contribute. The recommended average size for FGD ranges between three (3) to seven
(7) persons.
This method of data collection is associated with presenting of the topic by the moderator
followed by generation of opinions by the group members. The ideas are later discussed in
details by the group to reach agreement reflecting the most appropriate answers to the
questions raised. The ideas are later ranked from the best to the least.
Advantages of focus group discussion
a) They usually involve who are directly concerned ‘real stake holders’ which improves on the
quality of responses.
b) They involves homogenous respondents which leads consensus and at same time minimizing
insubordination because of seniority.
c) It generates high responses rate since members are usually knowledgeable about the problem
at hand.
d) It provides quality answers because members check on other’s response and in the end
improve on it accordingly (in case of illogical ideas).
e) It generates a wide range of responses to the problem under investigation.
f) Members help one another to recall important issues to refine the ideas generated and to
affirm important facts.
Disadvantages of focus group discuss.
a) There are some issues that are highly confidential to mention in a group, whereas a respondent
would feel to mention them while responding in an independent environment.
b) Being in group may sometimes influence generate of desirable ideas only.
c) There is no anonymity in focus group discussion.
d) Dominancy of some members by others especially where the moderator fails to control the
group.
 Points to consider while in focus group discussion
a) Recruit participants with similar characteristics.
b) Get a key informant to help you identify people with desirable characteristics.
c) Convenient physical arrangements to facilitate a freewheeling discussion.
d) Prepare a discussion guide highlighting issues the groups shall discuss.
e) Constitute a group and get a moderator in each group to guide the discussion.
f) After putting in place the above, the moderator would set off the session and as the secretary
clearly writes down ideas that come from the group.
g) Discuss the ideas in details and do ranking thereafter.
h) Write a group summary and submit to the researcher.
Functions of a moderator
a) He introduces the session and informs the members what the discussion is all about.
b) He encourages all members to take active role in the discussion.
c) He creates space for the analysis and discussion of issues and reaches a conclusion.
d) He carefully deals with sensitive issues to ensure that they are responded to without any kind
of damages to members.
e) To build rapport and emphasis amongst members.
f) To control the rhythm of the group
g) To summarize the responses and check for agreement from the participants.
h) Listen to additional comments that take place after the official group discussion.
In general, a moderator stimulates and supports the discussion.

a) Research Procedure
It is basically presents the logical flow of the from the time the proposal is accepted though the
production of final report i.e. the stages that will be followed by the researcher after having
approved the proposal e.g. researcher must get an introductory letter from concerned
authorities, make appointment with respondents, collect data, process and analyze data and
finally write a research report for which a draft copy will be submitted to the supervisor.

b) Research Budget
This spells out the proposed requirement for undertaking proposed study in monetary term.
A researcher is supposed to tabulate the items that will be needed in pursuit of the study their
unit’s prices and quantities so as to come up with the total cost of proposed study.

c) Research work plan

This schedules the activities from proposal writing though to the production of the final
research report. It indicates the activities to be done and respective dates within the period
during which the entire study should be completed. Use a Gantt Chart or Activity flow chart.
d) Reference List.
This represents some of the literature resources a researcher could have used in writing a
proposal or complication of the researcher report. It majorly relates on secondary data sources
and only literature quoted in the body of the report is the one whose reference appeared here.
- A list of reference therefore presents source of the all citations presented I the researcher’s
work.

Reference list is compiled is in with the following consideration.

i) Write the full name of author(s) beginning with the sir name(s), followed by the year of
literature publication in the brackets.
ii) It is a page where a researcher appreciates the contribution of persons who could assisted him
or her in undertaking a study. A researcher can include different categories op people i.e. the
parents who could have sponsored the project, respondents who provided the information, the
supervision team who provide guidance and any other persons whom the research may wish to
thank.
e) Dedication
It’s a page where a researcher decides who to dedicate his report to. It is an optimal page but
some researchers sometimes dedicate their findings to those special persons in their life as a
way of recognizing their input in what a researcher is. It does not matter whether someone is
dead or living, friend or relative as long as a researcher realizes need to dedicate this piece of
work to that person.
f) Table of contents

It is a page that captures titles and subtitles of what is contained in a research report together
with corresponding page numbers of location in the body of a report. It quickens the
identification of a reader and its location in text.

g) List of tables and figures

It captures different visualillustrations that have used in presentation of findings and respective
pages of locations in the body of a report. This page shows things like the tables, graphs, charts
and other visual aid a researcher could have employed to facilitate quick presentation and
interpretation of finding by the readers.

h) Acronyms

It’s a list of all abbreviations a researcher could have used in his proposal/ report. It is common
for people to find themselves using themselves using long words more often which appears
inconveniencing thus the importance of writing them in short form once they are written in full
for the 1st time.

Components of research report in details

 Preliminary pages

These include the title page, declaration page, Approval page Acknowledgment page,
Dedication Page table of contents List of figures and table abstract or executive summary and
acrimonies list of abbreviations.

a) Title page

It is also known as a cover page or front page. It is a page that indicates the topic of study. The
case study ,name of a researcher, purpose of motive researcher month and year of study and
any other particular of study.

NB. This should be properlydistributed over the whole page that makes that makes it attractive.

b) Declaration Page
It is a second page of a research report and it is where aresearcher declares ownership and
originality of findings.
A researcher authenticates this page by appending his or her signature together with the date
of sighing the report, which makes his fully liable for his findings there in.
c) Approval page

It is the third page of a research report and it’s where the supervisorapproves the study of
findings of his students as being satisfactory and that they were gathered under his supervision
and guidance. He does this by appending (Supervisor) his signature of approval and the data of
signing the report. Ounce this done a supervisor has then approve the ownership and originality
of findings as well, and this adds liability to a report and now ready for official consideration.

d) Acknowledgment
a) Indicates the title of the publication and other details that can help the readers to easily
identify the source quoted.
b) Arrange reference in alphabetical order of author’s names
c) Right indent reference to allow for quick perusal though the authors
d) Leave ample space between two successive references
e) Do not number the references

Appendix

This includes all relevant documents that are necessary for one who wants to make further
consultation. It provides details which are relevant to the proposal that could not be put in in
the body/ text of the document. It includes items like data collection tools e.g. interview guide,
questioner, tables etc.
 RESEARCH REPORT
A research report is a final document a research compiles to convey findings of his study. It’s a
report though which a researcher presents his finds to target audience or concerned authorities
and this document follows data collection process. It makes the end of research study and leds
to determination of the findings.

By its appearance a research report is made up of

i) Preliminary pages
(5) chapters (3) of which constitute research proposal i.e.
a) Introduction
b) Literature review,
c) Methodology
d) Presentation and discussion of findings ,
e) Conclusion and Recommendations
References and Appendix.

This helps a researcher to summarizes these long words and get them a page where they are
written in full to guide readers to understand what they represent in they are found
anywhere in text. E.g.

ADB: Africa Development Bank

BRIBTE: Buganda Royal Institute of Business and technical Education
MUK: Makerere University Kampala

i) Executive summary.
It is also abstract page and it is a page where a researcher gives a summary of key findings of his
study.it is intended to facilitate quick access to major findings just in case one did not have
ample time to read the entire report. This summary should not exceed a maximum of one page
and where possible it should be a half page.

Body of a report
I comes after preliminary pages as eerier noted the first three chapters of a report adjust the
direct translation of research proposal i.e. introduction, literature review and methodology into
a report language.
However when we are writing them in a report, the following points should be noted carefully.
a) The tense changes from future to pasttense
b) Research problem is redesigned to reflect therealsituation in the field.
c) The language should change to reflect actual application and findings in the field
i.e.where the researcher anticipatedcertain limitations at the time of writing a proposal,
is now expected to write the actual limitations encountered while in the field
d) Also the methods used should be presented the way they were used but necessarily the
way they were earlier on proposed especially where some could have change.
There is some other part of the proposal that could not change i.e.
 i. Significance of the study which remains in feature
ii) Literature review

OTHER ISSUES TO SPELL OUT IN METHODOLOGY (FOR DCS & DIT STUDENTS ONLY)
1. System design software
2. How you intend to implement the proposed system (System implementation). Will you use php.
Apache web server (and of what version, where and when), MySQL, HTML etc.
3. How you intend to test the system (system testing). This basically involves system verification,
validation, and credulity.
 Verification involves determining whether the system performs to expectations in terms of all
aspects e.g. flow charts , data retrieval, etch
 Validation is a process of determining whether a conceptual prototype is valid or accurately
represent the system that is under study. The test results are compared to establish the degree
of their conformity to actual results that the system should ideally yield.

CHAPTER FOUR: SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

1. This chapter presents an analysis of the existing systems, their challenges and strengths so as to
come up a new system proposal that can best answer the pending issues.
2. It also presents the proposed system with the associated requirements from different
viewpoints of users, functional and non-functional requirements of the system.
3. Lastly ,it spells out how the designing of the proposed system will be done
A. Analysis of the existing systems
This is where by a researcher is expected to critically look through and analyze the existing
system about the issue under investigation so as to identify weak areas that his research to
address whilst harnessing the strengths and opportunities that exit. Each of these components
should be listed down to guide the study, especially when developing the new system. The
analysis should end with presenting the proposed system, its strengths over the existing
system, weaknesses, and how these can be mitigated.
NB: The proposed system should ideally be more superior to the existing ones. Otherwise, there
would be no any reason for charging the system.
B. System requirements.
This is where a research analyses in details the requirements to support the installation and
operationalization of the proposed system. The requirements may include;
a) User requirements i.e. required of the system by the users. E.g. to provide timely and reliable
automated monthly reports about the variable of concern, to provide quick interface between
the clients and the company etc.
b) Functional requirements. This focuses on the desired behavior of the system and this can be
expressed as a task/function the system is required to perform. These may include; providing
search engine for on-line clients by the marketing officer or any other company authorities ; to
 send notifications to clients once their consignments are cleared and enroute to customers
destinations , to validate input data before proceeding next stage etc.
c) Nonfunctional requirements; these basically concern with hardware, software and time
constraint. For instance to provide controlled access to any data upon authorization (PW,
access rights): system is to operate in an environment that is well kept and supported by
internet / server /UPS etc.
C) System design
This section presents the architecture, components, their functionality, interface, and proposed
data flow processes.
a) System architecture: this book at layout from the end view, middle view and the back view of
the system.
b) Flow charts and diagrams: this focuses on the through process of the raw data/command up to
output. It involves presenting the system data source, imputing, and output mechanisms of the
system, expressed in a flow chart. This may involve charts,models,quarries,case,diagrams for
different players in the system,etc.
c) Creating a database;

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONLUSIONAND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 summaries

Appendices