Key Ideas/Terms - IO Midterm #1

Realists view of international organizations

 Realism views IOs as reflections of state power
 How it differs from other theories
o Institutionalism  IOs are arenas for states to act
o Constructivism  IOs shape state identity via interaction
 Waltz’s neorealist formulation posits the international system as comprising a structure
and a set of interacting units – there’s no central authority that orders the units; instead,
their relationships with regard to one another are determined by their relative power
capabilities
 Two primary reasons why states create IOs:
o 1. To help stabilize an international order and a set of political arrangements
 the most powerful states in the international system have the most say
over the design and functions of IOs and since their primary goal is to
preserve power  design IOs as instruments of their foreign policy goals
 *Realist approach
o 2. States create institutions to enhance the prospects of cooperation, overcome
problems associated with collective choice, and increase individual and collective
well-being
 Institutionalist approach
o Others: IOs are not just defenders of the power status quo but also levelers of
privilege
 Constructivism and critical theory shift attention away from interests
toward culture, norms, ideas, rules, and discourse
 They make three valuable moves, which combine to generate a more
nuanced understanding of the both conservative and reformist
tendencies of IOs
 1. These theories move away from actors and toward underlying
structures
o  how global culture shapes IOs
 2. These overlapping cultures give IOs relative autonomy
 3. IOs diffuse power
o IOs will be effective to the extent that they and their
decisions are viewed as legitimate
o IOs are valued to the extent that they operate with
efficiency, impartiality, and objectivity

Which theories say that states use international organizations for instrumental purposes and
why
 Institutionalism
 What are the twin goals of such an instrumental approach to IOs?
o 1. Centralization
   Concrete and stable organizational structure
  Administrative apparatus managing collective activities
o 2. Independence
  The ability to act with a degree of autonomy (for neutrality) in defined
spheres

How does international law consider the nature of power?

 The international legal system comprises norms, processes, and institutions
o The interaction of these elements creates international law’s authority,
legitimacy, and effectiveness
o International law is therefore implemented and given effect through the
cumulative actions of the system’s stakeholders  self-enforcing system
 Authority today is no longer given, but must be earned with an increased emphasis on
performance as a basis for legitimacy
o The state may no longer be the broker of power and interests – but it remains
the most widely accepted actor
 Power is the production, in and through social relations, of efforts on actors that shape
their capacity to control their fate
 Compulsory power:
o The conditions that allow one actor to force another actor to do something that
the latter does not believe is in its interests
o Three conditions must be met:
 1. There’s intentionality on the party of actor a
 2. There must be conflict of desires to the extent that b now feels
compelled to alter its behavior
 3. A is successful because it has material and ideational resources at its
disposal that lead B to alter its actions
 Institutional power:
o Highlights how actors are able to guide, steer, and constrain the actions and
circumstances of others through the rules that exist in structural positional
differences in formal and informal institutions
o Differs from compulsory power in two ways:
 1. Institutional power reflects indirect control
 2. Institutional power highlights the sometimes hidden power at work
even without an obvious struggle between two actors
 International law has to use power through norms, processes, and institutions to enforce
such laws because there is no complete enforcement available on an international level
in terms of police, armies, etc.
o In addition to authority delegated from states, IOs have authority because they
embody rational-legal principles that modern societies value and that are
identified with liberal values viewed as legitimate and “progressive”

How has international law evolved over time with respect to sovereignty?
  1648 –
o The Treaty of Westphalia is signed, establishing the nation-state system, of which
International Law is premised
 From 1648- the end of WWI –
o International law generally focused on strengthening the state
 Alliances, normalization of trade, the legality of war, etc.
o International sovereignty was generally sacrosanct
 Since WWI
o International law has turned focus inward, to human security
 International law today
o Is considered “cosmopolitan”
 Not just states, but also local, private and individual levels all matter
 Individuals can actually challenge states in some areas
o BUT- states still matter most
 “Hard law”: IOs and states work together (and sometimes against each
other) –
 IOs can give information to states but they can also alter state
behavior
 “Soft law”: norms shape state behavior where formal legal instruments
can/do not
o International organizations exist today because of a perceieved need to address
cross-border issues
 States used international law to creat them and IOs, in turn, have
increased the capacity of international law to meet its objectives
 These connections and relationships will deepen as international norm
development and implementation connect increasingly with domestic
political discourse and norm development
o Characteristic of today’s more globalized international law is a less hierarchical
law-making and implementation process  law and regulated behavior can
develop through networks and social movements rather than exclusively through
institutions/governments
 What are key turning points in its evolution?
o 1648 – treaty of Westphalia
o 1960s, ‘70s, and ‘80s – decolonization brought a huge number of new states into
the international system
 Rapid increase in globalization erodes nation-state sovereignty 
increasing need for global governance

What is the biggest drawback to a descriptive depiction of international organizations?

 “At its most basic, international organization refers to an instance of institutionalization”
 “International organization is a process; international organizations are representative
aspects of the phase of that process which has been reached at a given time”
  The biggest drawback to a descriptive depiction of international organizations is that
there is no perfect way to describe the process without describing specific organizations
o There is no one-size-fits-all definition for IOs since each one is different and can
serve the same, different or overlapping purposes.
o It is best to think of IOs as formal intergovernmental bureaucracies that work to
address cross-border topics, concerns, etc.
 Since each IO is different – giving too descriptive of a definition of all IOs in general leads
to overly narrowing a very complex and diverse group of organizations – limiting what
then constitutes an IO
 Chapter 1 : p. 7-10

What benefits do centralized and independent IOs provide states?

 Centralization provides:
o Stable negotiating forum
 Allows for iteration (repetition)
 Makes it possible to overcome prisoner’s dilemma
o Neutral, depoliticized or specialized forums
 Increases state capacity to deal with issues
 No state has the capacity to deal with every issue
o ‘Constitutionalizes’ state interaction
 Precise voting rules give some balance to traditional IR
o Provides ability for IOs to support states
 Staffing (secretariats)
 Administrative support
o IOs manage operational activity
o IOs are vehicles for pooling activities, assets, or risks
o IOs allow for ‘joint production’
o IOs allow for norm elaboration and coordination
 Independence provides:
o IOs need to be (somewhat) independent to be viable
 Allows for more direct criticism of state behavior
 Neutral observer/arbiter of interstate disputes
o IOs allow states to avoid domestic controversies
 Gives ‘cover’ for unpopular decisions
o IOs as community representatives
o IOs are supposed to act as the representatives of a ‘community’ of states
 This is aspirational (sometimes)
 For example, advocating for universal goals and hopes (i.e., UDHR)
o IOs also manage enforcement
 Generally not direct means of enforcement (no IO armies or police forces)
 ‘Shaming’ is a tactic IOs use to achieve compliance
What is a norm?
 (Mostly) unwritten standards of behavior
 Come from:
o Arise from interaction
o Can become institutionalized as rules
o Norms are not just interests – they have their own functions

What is a regime?
 Krasner’s definition of an international regime: “implicit or explicit principles, norms,
rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a
given area of international relations”
o International regime’s are viewed as the range of activities that are, in part,
created by behavior-shaping effects of international organizations and
institutions
 Informal institutions = regimes
o Implicit or explicit rules, norms and decision-making procedures around which
actor expectations converge in a given issue area
o Regimes provide a “permissive environment” for certain kinds of transactions
o Example: Refugee “regime” is bigger/broader than UNHCR
 What do regimes tell us about the possibility of international cooperation?
o Very optimistic – if we can agree on some things so universally, there is hope
o More optimistic than realism
o Found in neoliberalism section
o International institutions/regimes create a “zone of peace”

What does “cooperation under anarchy” mean?

 In terms of how Realists view alliances - they are an impermanent basis for cooperation
o “if particular circumstances related to relative power occur”
o Basically, people are more likely to cooperate/work together in situations that
are threatening to the way things are

What do we mean by “shaming” and how might IOs accomplish it?

 Shaming is an enforcement tactic IOs can use to pressure actors into complying with
what they want

What was important about the 1950s and especially the 1960s when it comes to international
organization?
 Decolonization brought a huge number of new states into the international system
o Most of these states were underdeveloped and not fans of the LIEO
o Globalization erodes nation-state sovereignty, increasing need for global
governance
 Empowered the UN
  That a forum like the UN was available to new states to set and
pursue decolonization show how existence of a structure created
by states facilitated the pursuit of a new agenda and substantive
norms

What does “diffusion” mean when we speak of “diffusion of power” with respect to
international organizations?
 IOs diffuse power  move power away from nation-states and toward a more equitable
distribution
 How is this accomplished?
o Compulsory power: changing behavior
 IOs can exhibit compulsory power when:
 IO wants to influence states or non-state actors
 Conflict between what the state and the IO want
 If the IO resources (material or ideational) account for the change
in behavior of the target actor
o Institutional power: guiding/shaping behavior of others through rules
 Mediation between A and B
 Rules matter and who sets the rules matters as well
o IOs use their positions of authority and symbolic resources as frames
 IOs have expertise that states sometimes lack
 IOs are (supposedly) depoliticized
o  Essentially, IOs diffuse power away from traditional nation-states and toward
other venues
 Example: The diffusion of authority in international relations is best seen in UN system
o “Deliberate, facilitated interdependence” (p 61)
o UN charter was supposed to regulate international affairs
o How well has the UN accomplished this goal?
 Not very well, considering international relations is historically messy
 It is meant to govern or slow down international relations
 Where this failed – the Cold War
 Limits to the diffusion of authority
o There is still no global government
 Nation-state security is still paramount
 It’s the driving force of international security and governance
o Examples:
 Efforts to reform security arrangements to make more multilateral have
run up against “dominant interests”
 Aka – powerful member states of the UN
 New threats seem to demand a multilateral response
  i.e., modern day terrorism – but US “go it alone” strategy can be
problematic for international law
 international environmental problems demand international cooperation
and coordination

What were the four major developments of the 1980s and 1990s which made states think
harder about cooperating globally?
 1. Globalization
 2. Privatization and deregulation
 3. New information and communications technologies
 4. End of the cold war

What is agenda setting?

 The process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose importance and
attention
 Where does it apply, and why does it matter?
o Applies in the changing architecture of global governance
o State actors and major IOs used to be the primary agenda-setters but now NGOs,
individuals, TANs, the media, etc. are gaining relevance and importance in
determining what the key issues around the world are and how they should be
addressed

What purpose do alliances serve in international organization?

 International organization by definition means the process of organizing within
international organizations  alliances serve to guide this process of organization of
actors
 With which theory are they most associated?
o Realism

What is “new” about the “new liberalism” in international relations, as portrayed by Jönsson?
 Neoliberalism is the flavor of liberalism that speaks most visibly about international
institutions
o International institutions “regularize” behavior
 Core principles of liberalism and institutionalism
o States are the dominant actors
o Define security in self-interested terms
o Anarchies are necessary self-help systems
 Similar to realism in core premises, but comes to different conclusions
o More economic-focused than realism
o More “optimistic” than realism with respect to the possibility of cooperation
 There is a subtle but important distinction between formal and informal international
institutions
o Informal institutions referred to as “regimes”
  Implicit or explicit rules, norms, and decision-making procedures around
which actor expectations coverage in a given issue area
 After the end of WWII  the removal of a vast number of barriers to trade, successive
waves of democratization, and the proliferation of international organizations  liberal
internationalism went from being a prospective ideology to an analytical framework 
neoliberalism

What are TANs?

 TANs  Transnational Advocacy Networks
o They are networks bound together by common purposes
o For an issue to have a TAN attached, there must be a form of oppression
involved, typically by the government
 TANs may comprise some or all of the following actors
o International and domestic nongovernmental research/advocacy organizations
o Local social movements
o Foundations
o The media
o Churches, trade unions, consumer organizations and intellectuals
o Parts of regional and international intergovernmental organizations
o Parts of the executive and/or parliamentary branches of government
 What TANs do:
o Turn local issues into international issues
o Allow groups to share information
o Frame issues to fit agenda of group
 How TANs work
o Not “powerful” in traditional sense
 They are powerful through their influence – ability to persuade the
people in power to believe in their issue
o Have to use influence through
 Persuasion
 Socialization
 Pressure
o TANs accomplish this through:
 1. Information Politics
 networks allow members to communicate with each other
 networks serve as alternate sources of information
 networks attempt to uncover and investigate problems
 2. Symbolic politics
 symbols become powerful tools for these networks
 3. Accountability Politics
 once a government commits to a position, network activists
attempt to “hold its feet to the fire”
 o “expose the distance between discourse and practice”
 Boomerang effect very important in getting around domestic
politics blocks in less-open countries
 Why do they matter to international organizations?
o Because they have influence in:
 Issue creation and agenda setting
 Influence on discursive positions of states and IOs
 Influence on institutional procedures
 Influence on policy changes in ‘target actors’
 States
 IOs
 Private actors
 Influence on state behavior

What is the “boomerang pattern” and how might IOs figure in to it?
 The Boomerang pattern of TAN (Transnational Advocacy Networks) influence



 Example: in Brazil in the ‘80s the process of deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest was
brought to light through an activist in Brazil who was publicizing the actions of the
deforestation (Chico Mendez) trying to get the Brazilian government (state A) to do
something about the illegal/unethical destruction of the rainforest he was able to use
NGOs to get information from Brazil to another state that does not have the same
blockage (state B; the US)  the US was able to put direct pressure on Brazil as well as
through IOs
 IOs can help by putting pressure on to oppressing forces because issues that have TANs
attached to them require oppressor(s) and the ones being oppressed

What are “symbolic politics” and why are they important?

 The use of symbols as powerful tools of influence and persuade people
o Commonly used by TANs
o Symbols become powerful tools for networks, especially when they are highly
recognizable
 Example: Amnesty international – symbol is a candle with barbed wire
around it signifying the importance of being the light in the dark
  Example: WWF – the panda is a charismatic megafauna, specifically used
for these traits because of how people react so well to it

What is special about multilateralism as used by constructivists?

 The concepts of international regimes or international organizations do not capture
what makes multilateral action distinct
o The purposes of the basis on which multilateral forms organize and order
relations among states are what make multilateral institutions distinctive
o Multilateralism is a generic institutional form of modern international life
o Social purposes of governance arrangements is important
 Example: the post WWII explosion of multilateral arrangements were the
result less of US hegemony than the fact that it was US hegemony 
hence why GATT, IMF, and WB are multilateral institutions designed to
serve particularly liberal social and economic purposes
o International arrangements of multilateral form have adaptive and reproductive
capacities that other forms lack
 Helps to explain the role of multilateral institutions in stabilizing
subsequent international transformation
 Shared norms may socialize actors, who internalize new ideas and act accordingly
 Intersubjective social understandings are essential for global governance
 Power and social purpose are fused
 Multilateralism is important as used by constructivists because it questions traditional IR
givens, and the existence of states and other formal actors
 Why norms matter
o Wendt: Identities are the basis of interests
 An institution is a relatively stable set or ‘structure’ of idententies and
interests
o Onuf: Two “logics” drive actors in international system
 Logic of consequence
 Basis of rational choice
 Logic of appropriateness
 Action driven by rules of appropriate behavior
 How does their definition differ from that of liberals?
o Constructivisms founding questions:
 Anarchy
 Anarchy of what states make of it
 Sovereignty
 Sovereignty and the social construction of the state are not
natural concepts – in fact, they are contested concepts that are
redefined over time
o The constructivist challenge: realism and institutionalism share similar
assumptions about agents:
 States are the dominant actors
 Define security in self-interested terms
 Anarchies are necessarily self-help systems
o The constructivist response:
 Both realism and institutionalism are WRONG
 There is not “logic of anarchy” that dictates that states must act or
will act in a self-help manner apart from the practices that create
and instantiate one structure of identities and interests
 Structure has no existence or casual powers apart from process.
Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential features
of anarchy  anarchy is what states make of it