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Romit Combined2
Romit Combined2
Investigatory
Report
ON
SemiConductors
Submitted By :-
Abhishek Singh
Class: XII M2
Roll No : 1
Certificate
This is to certify that Abhishek Singh student of Class
XII M2, Sant Atulanand Residential Academy, has
completed the project titled ‘‘SemiConductors’’ during the
academic year 2022-2023 and submitted satisfactory
report, as compiled in the following pages, under my
supervision.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
my teacher Mr Romit Kumar who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic
SemiConductors, which also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and I came to know about so many new things I
am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and
friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
DISCOVERY
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAMS
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Barrier Formation in P-N Junction Diode P-
N JUNCTION DIODE
P-N JUNCTION AS A RECTIFIER
SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES
^ Zener diode
^ Photo diode
^ Light emitting diodes
^ Solar cell
Transistor
TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE
(i) Transistor as a switch
(ii) Transistor as an amplifier
IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRODUCTION
DISCOVERY
First Transistor Invented At Bell Labs
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• A semiconductor, which is in its extremely pure form, is known as
anintrinsic semiconductor. Silicon and germanium are the most widely
used intrinsic semiconductors.
• Both silicon and germanium are
tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons
(valence electrons) in their outermost
shell.
• Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four
immediate neighbours, so that each atom is involved in four covalent
bonds.
•When the temperature of an intrinsic semiconductor is increased,beyond
room temperature a large number of electronhole pairs are generated.
• Since the electron and holes are generated in pairs so,
Free electron concentration (ne)
= concentration of holes (nh) =
Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni )
=nh=ni
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOn e
R
•Pure semiconductors have negligible conductivity at room
temperature. To increase the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor,
some impurity is added. The resulting semiconductor is called impure
or extrinsic semiconductor.
• Impurities are added at the rate of ~ one atom per 10 6 to 10 10
semiconductor atoms. The purpose of adding impurity is to increase
either the number of free electrons or holes in a semiconductor.
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Depletion Region
(a) It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any mobile
charge carriers.
(b) The depletion region depends on:
(i) the type of biasing
(ii) extent of doping
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into
light.
(iii) Photo voltaic devices which convert optical radiation into electricity
(solar cells).
(ii) Light emitting diodes: The light emitting diode or LED is one
of the most popular types of diode. When forward biased
with current flowing through the junction, light is produced.
The diodes use component semiconductors, and can
produce a variety of colours, although the original colour
was red. There are also very many new LED
developments that are changing the way displays can be
used and manufactured. High output LEDs and OLEDs
are two examples.
LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low
power lamps:
(iii) Solar cell: A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates
emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same
principle (photo voltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external
bias is applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation
to be incident because we are interested in more power.
In a transistor, only three terminals are available, viz., Emitter (E), Base
(B) and Collector (C). Therefore, in a circuit the input/output connections
have to be such that one of these (E, B or C) is common to both the input
and the output. Accordingly, the transistor can be connected in either of
the following three configurations:
Common Emitter (CE), Common Base (CB), Common Collector (CC)
The output characteristics show that initially for very small values of V CE ,
I C increases almost linearly. This happens because the basecollector
junction is not reverse biased and the transistor is not in active state. In
fact, the transistor is in the saturation state and the current is controlled by
the supply voltage V CC (=V CE ) in this part of the characteristic. When V CE
is more than that required to reverse bias the base-collector junction,I C
increases very little with V CE . The reciprocal of the slope of the linear part
of the output characteristic gives the values of ro. The output resistance of
the transistor is mainly controlled by the bias of the base-collector
junction. The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100
kΩ) is due to the reverse-biased state of this diode. This also explains
why the resistance at the initial part of the characteristic,when the
transistor is in saturation state, is very low.
V i = I B R B + V BE and
V o = V CC – I C R C
We have, V o = V CC – I C R C Therefore,
∆V o = 0 – R C ∆ I C
Similarly, from V i = I B R B + V BE
∆V i = R B ∆I B + ∆V BE
A V = – R C ∆ I C / R B ∆I B
= –β ac (R C /R B )
where β ac is equal to ∆ I C /∆I B .
Thus the linear portion of the active region of the transistor can be
exploited for the use in amplifiers.
IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR
The End