INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

AND DRAWING

MVJ Second Chapter

Mihir P. Shah
“DESIGN MEANS TO TAKE DECISION”

It requires
 Experience
 Ability to make proper decision
 Creative Imaginations
It consists of
 Decision to arrange units and parts in
machine, which determine the form and
materials of separate parts.
 Putting decision into drawing and
explanatory notes with design
calculations.
 REQUIREMENT OF AN EQUIPMENT
DESIGN
1. It must meet all requirements of
specifications and existing conditions.
2. Selection of material and size is such that it
should secure reliability, safety through out
life period.
3. Arrangement of parts such that - easy
assembling and dismantling.
4. Easy control of operation.
5. Proper casing, sealing and minimizing of
noise.
6. Minimum cost of finished machine and less
maintenance.
TYPES OF DESIGN
 Design an equipment that does not exist.

 Improve an existing equipment.

 Design separate parts of equipment.

SPECIFICATION
 Initial data supplied to the customer.
 Basic information like input and output
characteristics, normal condition of operations
and extremes
 Also includes limits in the choice of material of
construction and also manufacturing methods
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DESIGN OF THE EQUIPMENT
 Strength
 Rigidity
 Resistance to corrosion
 Ability to withstand high temperature
 Durability
 Method of fabrication
 Cost
 Safety
 Friction characteristics and wear properties
 Form
 Size
 Weight
 Flexibility
 Control
 Tolerance
 Character of surface
 Appearance
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
 Materials of constructions --- Lower
cost but not affect the quantity of the
machine, reliability and safety;
comparison and choice of proper material.
 Method of Manufacturing --- Must
consider the effect of method on
mechanical properties, cost of finished
product, labor required.
 Dimensions of parts --- It should be
optimum and easy to dismantled at the
time of replacement.
DESIGN & DRAWING
 Design involves calculation.
 Drawing involves consideration of Reference
values based on this calculation.
DESIGN CALCULATION
 Calculation must be absolutely correct.
 Steps should be clearly expressed & arranged.
 Assumptions are properly grounded.
 Equations used should as simple as possible.
 Try to avoid figures in calculations.
DRAWING
 ASSEMBLY --- Horn parts are assembled,
details of parts & Rough sketches.
 UNIT DETAILS
 UNIT: Drawing of separate parts of machine.
 DETAILED: All data of drawing, considering
way of manufacturing & factors affecting.
 LAYOUT --- Determination of space required
& mounting.

Drawing sequence
Draft drawing  Assembly + some unit
Technical project  detailed drawing  Layout.
 SELECTION OF MATERIAL OF
CONSTRUCTION
 Mechanical properties
 Corrosion resistance
 Heat resistance
 Thermal resistance
 Thermal conductivity
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
 Casting and forging characteristics
 Machinability.

Proper material is defined as one which performs the function

required, this does not imply that the highest price material is
best. It should not endanger the safety of machine operation or
affect the output and quality of the product.
Material Advantage Disadvantage
Very poor resistance to acids and stronger
Low cost, easy to fabricate, abundant, most common
Carbon Steel alkaline streams. More brittle than other
material. Resists most alkaline environments well.
materials, especially at low temperatures.
Relatively low cost, still easy to fabricate. Resist a wider
No resistance to chlorides, and resistance
Stainless Steel variety of environments than carbon steel. Available is
decreases significantly at higher temperatures.
many different types.
Moderate cost, still easy to fabricate. Resistance is better
Little resistance to chlorides, and resistance at
254 SMO (Avesta) over a wider range of concentrations and temperatures
higher temperatures could be improved.
compared to stainless steel.
Very good resistance to chlorides (widely used in seawater While the material is moderately expensive,
Titanium applications). Strength allows it to be fabricated at smaller fabrication is difficult. Much of cost will be in
thicknesses. welding labor.
Superior resistance to chlorides, even at higher
Pd stabilized Very expensive material and fabrication is
temperatures. Is often used on sea water application
Titanium again difficult and expensive.
where Titanium's resistance may not be acceptable.

Nickel Very good resistance to high temperature caustic streams. Moderate to high expense. Difficult to weld.

Very wide range to choose from. Some have been

Fairly expensive alloys. Their use must be
Hastelloy Alloy specifically developed for acid services where other
justified. Most are easy to weld.
materials have failed.
Brittle, very expensive, and very difficult to
One of the few materials capable of withstanding weak HCl fabricate. Some stream components have been
Graphite
streams. know to diffusion through some types of
graphites.

Superior resistance to very harsh services where no other Extremely expensive, must be absolutely
Tantalum
material is acceptable. necessary.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR
MATERIAL SELECTION
1. Select material based on functional suitability to
service, expected life and reasonable cost.
2. Designing apparatus with several materials,
consider all materials properties as integrated entity
such as mechanically advantageous properties &
corrosion resistance.
3. Materials with short life span should not be used
with those of long life in non-repairable assemblies.
4. Apparatus for which heat transfer is important,
material prone to scaling or fouling should not be
used.
5. Environment in which erosion is anticipated, wall
thickness of apparatus should be increased and
where this can not be possible material having more
resistance to corrosion should be used.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR
MATERIAL SELECTION
6. Non-metallic materials should have
certain characteristics: low moisture
absorption, resistance to micro-
organisms, stability to expected
temperature range, resistance to flame
and arc, compatibility with other
materials, resistance to weathering,
etc…
7. Fragile or ductile materials whose
designing does not provide any special
protection should not be employed under
corrosion prone conditions.
8. In humid environment use cheap
structural materials with some
additional protections.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR
MATERIAL SELECTION
9. Dry environment many materials can be used
without any special protections even when
pollutants are
presents.
10. Fully corrosion resistance materials are nor
always the best choice, optimize relation
between capital cost and cost of maintenance
over entire estimated life of equipment.
11. Special considerations should be given to
special treatments that can improve corrosion
resistance. (e.g. special type welding,
blasting, stress relieving, metal lining,
sealing of welds.)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 Properties arise from crystalline structure [due to
different types of bonds present].
 This will tell behavior of metal under applied
forces and loads [depends on types of bonding
and structure arrangement].
 By applying certain processes and operations
structural arrangement can be changed to
generate number of different properties which
will suite requirement of the process to produce
product.
PROPERTIES TO BE CONSIDERED
Mechanical Properties Mechanical Properties

 Strength  Ultimate stress

 Stiffness/ Rigidity  Ductile vs Brittle

 Elasticity - Plasticity materials

 Proportional limit  Resilience

 Elastic limit – Plastic  Toughness

Limit  Hardness

 Yield stress  Fatigue

 Proof stress  Creep

STRENGTH
 Capacity of material to withstand
external forces.
 Tensile, compressive, shear and impact.

 External forces are resisted by material

and therefore it induce stresses and
deformation.
 Stress ( or ) = internal resistance to
force per unit area (unit of pressure)
 Strain () = deformation in the original
size and/or shape of material
(dimensionless).
LINEAR – NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION
 Linear deformation : elastic region
Strain = stress/ Constant
 = /E
Where E = constant = modulus of elasticity
 Non-linear deformation : Plastic Region
n
f
  

Where  = Pseudoplastic modulus
n =constant
STRESS VS. STRAIN
STRESS VS STRAIN CURVE
STRESS VS STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS VS STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR
POLYMERS
HOW TO CALCULATE STRESS AND
STRAIN?
 Mechanical properties of any material of
construction (MoC) are dependent on their
chemical composition & method of
manufacturing.
 The choice of MoC depends on both chemistry
and physics of them.
 Most MoC used in chemical industries are
metals or alloys of various composition.
 First choice of MoC dictated by chemistry point
of view and the ultimate choice from among
various options, which satisfy chemistry
consideration, is on the physics of MoC.
SPECIMEN TEST
 Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
 A specimen piece of MoC is held firm between
two jaws of UTM and can be subjected to either
tensile or compressive load. Material behavior
can be studied under known applied load and its
properties derived.
 Cycle of load with known amplitude and
frequency can also been applied.
SPECIMEN TEST
 Two important parameters strain and stress will
be quantified from this test.
For tensile load
 Strain = increase in length of piece/original
length of the specimen.
 Stress = applied load per unit cross
section area of the specimen.
ELASTICITY
 When there is no load – no stress and strain
 When small load is applied, the strain can be
measured and stress derived.
 If load is removed, the specimen returns to its
original shape.
 There is no residual or permanent strain in the
body.
 This situation continues up to certain level of
stress.
 A stress-strain curve in this region is also a
straight line (stress is proportional to strain).
 This region is called as elastic region and level up
to which it exhibits is called elastic limit.
PLASTICITY
 As the tensile load is increased further, a
situation arises when the specimen does not
return to its original dimension even when load is
withdrawn.
 This is the load level at which the stress-strain
curve begins to deviate from the hook’s law.
 Metal has undergone permanent deformation.
YIELD STRESS
 Most metals exhibit an erratic and
uncertain stress-strain pattern as load
increased further.
 The highest stress that metal can
withstand under sustained load without
continuing to elongate under same load is
called upper yield stress and there is
cluster of lower stress values at which
there is accelerated strain called lower
yield stress.
 Upper yield point depends upon chemistry
of MoC and fabrication method where as
lower yield point depends up on physics of
PROOF STRESS
 It is very difficult to measure the yield
stress so proof stress is used to calculate
the yield stress values.
 Also called 0.2% proof stress.
 It is the stress value for 0.002 strain on
stress-strain diagram.
 It is the stress value obtained from the
intersection with the actual stress strain
curve of a line drawn parallel to the
elastic line from the point representing
0.2% strain on the strain coordinate.
RESILIENCE
 It is elastic energy released by the material, as a
result of stress removal.
 It is measured by finding area under the curve in
stress-strain curve in elastic region.
 The stress can be tensile, compressive or shear.
HARDNESS
 It is a measure of resistance of material to
penetration by a pointed tool (indenter) passed on
tested material.
 Two types
 Rockwell Hardness
 Read off machine
 Different scales RA, RB and RC – defined by different
indenter tools and forces
 Brinell Hardness
 Proportional to indenting force per indentation area
 Correlated to ultimate strength of material

 Steels: SU = 0.45HB (kpsi) or 3.10HB(MPa)

 Gray cast iron SU = 0.23HB – 12.5 (kpsi) or 1.58HB – 86

(Mpa)
ULTIMATE STRESS
 Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is that
value of stress beyond which plastic
instability sets in.
 The greatest stress at which failure of
material takes place.
 The region between YTS and UTS is
called plastic region.
 Stress-strain curve

 Hook’s law is not applicable to this region

and deformation produced is permanent.
 DUCTILE VS BRITTLE MATERIAL
 L fr  L0 
% El    100
Ductile Material:  L0 
%EL >= 5
Low carbon steel = 37%
Medium carbon steel = 30%
High carbon steel = 25%
Absorb shocks
Deform before failing (Manifest danger is
important)
Relieve stress concentrations (Partially)
DUCTILE VS BRITTLE MATERIAL
 Brittle Material
 %EL < 5
 Gray cast iron % EL is very small
 Fail Catastrophically
LOAD APPLICATION
 Sustained
Failure under sustained load due to plastic instability
was because the load carrying cross section diminished
to compensate for elongation, which led to higher
stresses causing further elongation etc. these failures
are termed as catastrophic failure. These occur almost
suddenly as soon as the load crosses a threshold.
 Cyclic sustained load
Damage done to the grain structure of the specimen
due to prolonged application of sustained load and/or
tensile or compressive load cycles. The history of the
applied load plays an important role. The failure is
said to be due to Fatigue.
TYPES OF FATIGUE
 Static Fatigue (Change in the flow rate at bends)
- specimen fails under a sustained load, which it has
withstood for a considerable length of time.
- the total time for which the load was applied is
important, whereas it was applied continuously or in
installment is not important.
- Eg.if material undergoes static fatigue failure
under a sustained load of say X in say 1000hrs it
would do so irrespective of whethere
1) Load was applied continuously for 1000hrs
2) Load was applied for 10hrs and then with drawn for
14hrs each day for 100days
3) Load was applied for 5rhs and then with drawn for
19hrs each day for 200days
TYPES OF FATIGUE
 Cyclic Fatigue (Change in the Temperature)
- Specimen fails under a load cycle, which it has
withstood for a considerable number of times.
- Total number of cycles for which load was applied is
important here. Whether cycle was frequent or
infrequent is not important.
- Eg if a material undergoes cyclic fatigue failure
under a load cycle of amplitude say X in say
1000cycles, it would do so irrespective of whether
1) The cyclic load was applied once every day for
1000days
2) Cyclic load was applied twice every day for 500days.
3) Cyclic load was applied with cycle time of 1min and
for 1000min
 Cyclic Fatigue
- Normally any equipment is designed for cyclic
load it should be 7000cycles.
- This value corresponds to the amplitude value of
equal to yield point of material.
- The material changes it properties from ductile to
brittle due to change in internal grain.
OTHER PROPERTIES
 Factor of safety (MVJ)
 Poisson’s ratio (SBT)

 Moment of Inertia (SBT)

 Modulus of elasticity (IITB)

 Bending Moment (SBT)

 Radius of Gyration

 Section Modulus