Construction Methods & Management

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS & OPERATIONS Load and Shrinkage Factors

Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from Pay yard (or meter) is the volume unit specified as the
one location to another and processing it so that it basis for payment in an earthmoving contract.
meets construction requirements of location, elevation,
density, moisture content, and so on. Load Factor:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Load Factor =
Production of Earthmoving Equipment 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour or
1
(Volume/hr) Load Factor =
1+𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

Where,
Volume per cycle = the average volume of material
Shrinkage Factor:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
moved per equipment cycle Shrinkage Factor =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Cycles per hour = number of cycles achieved per hour or
considering appropriate efficiency factors Shrinkage Factor = 1 − 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
Cost per unit of production = Spoil Banks
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
Spoil bank is a bank composed of excavated earth.
Earthmoving Materials Angle of repose is the angle that the sides of a spoil
Trafficability is the ability of a soil to support the weight bank or pile naturally form with the horizontal when the
of vehicles under repeated traffic. excavated soil is dumped onto the pile.
Loadability is a measure of the difficulty in excavating
and loading a soil. EXCAVATING & LIFTING

Moisture Content =
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
× 100% *Hydraulic Excavator
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour
(Volume/hr)
Soil Volume-Change Characteristics
Production Estimating
Soil Conditions: Production (LCM/h) = 𝐶 × 𝑆 × 𝑉 × 𝐵 × 𝐸
Bank: Material in its natural state before disturbance.
Often referred to as “in-place” or “in situ”. A unit volume Where: C = cycles/hr (Table 1)
is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic S = swing-depth factor (Table 2)
meter (BCM). V = heaped bucket volume (LCY or LCM)
Loose: Material that has been excavated or loaded. A B = bucket fill factor (Table 3)
unit volume is identified as a loose cubic yard (LCY) or E = job efficiency
loose cubic meter (LCM).
Compacted: Material after compaction. A unit volume *Hydraulic Shovel
is identified as a compacted cubic yard (CCY) or Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour
compacted cubic meter (CCM). (Volume/hr)
Swell: Production Estimating
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Swell (%) = ( − 1) × 100% Production (LCM/h) = 𝐶 × 𝑆 × 𝑉 × 𝐵 × 𝐸
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Shrinkage: Where: C = cycles/hr (Table 4)

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 S = swing factor (Table 4)
Shrinkage (% ) = (1 − ) × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 V = heaped bucket volume (LCY or LCM)
B = bucket fill factor (Table 3)
E = job efficiency
*Draglines

*Clamshells

Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour

(Volume/hr)
*Effect of Altitude
Derating factor is used express percentage of
*Trenching And Trenchless Technology
reduction in rated vehicle power at various altitudes.
*Cranes

LOADING & HAULING

Estimating Equipment Travel Time *Loaders

Cycle Time = Fixed Time + Variable Time
Fixed time represents those components of cycle time
other than travel time. It includes spot time (moving the
unit into position to begin loading), load time, maneuver
time, and dump time.
Variable time represents the travel time required for a
unit to haul material to the unloading site and return.
Total Resistance = Grade Resistance + Rolling Resistance
(lb or kg)
A tractor equipped with a front-end bucket is called a
loader, front-end loader, or bucket loader.
Estimating Loader Production
Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour
(Volume/hr)
*Trucks & Wagons
Wagons are earthmoving trailers pulled by tractors or
truck-tractors.

Rolling Resistance Determining Number of Haul Units Needed

Rolling resistance is primarily due to tire flexing and
penetration of the travel surface.

Rolling Resistance Factor = 40 + (30 x in. penetration)

(lb/ton)
Rolling Resistance Factor = 20 + (6 x cm penetration)
(kg/t)

Grade Resistance
Grade resistance represents that component of vehicle
weight which acts parallel to an inclined surface.

Grade Resistance Factor = 20 x grade (%)

(lb/ton)
Grade Resistance Factor = 10 x grade (%)
(kg/t)