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Optical Communication
INTRODUCTION
BITS Pilani RAHUL SINGHAL
Pilani Campus
Text. Book 1
“Optical Fiber Communications”,

Gerd Keiser, 5/e
McGraw Hill Edu.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Text Book 2
“Fiber Optics Communication Systems”-G. P.

Agarwal-Wiley Publications , Third Edition,
2002
Ref. Book
“Fiber Optics & Optoelectronics”,

R P Khare,
Oxford University Press.

Evaluation Scheme:
Legend: EC = Evaluation Component; AN = After Noon Session; FN = Fore Noon
Session
No Name Type Durati Weig Day, Date, Session, Time

on ht
EC-1 Quiz-I/ Online - 10% TBA
Assignment-I
Quiz-II/ Online 10% TBA
Assignment-II
EC-2 Mid-Semester Test Closed 2 30% Friday-Sunday 11-13 March,
Book hours 2022
EC-3 Comprehensive Open 3 50% Friday-Sunday 20-22 May,
Exam Book hours 2022
Syllabus for Mid-Semester Test (Closed Book): Topics in Session Nos. 1

to 16 (Changes, if any will be notified on LMS site)
Syllabus for Comprehensive Exam (Open Book): All topics (Session Nos.
1 to 32)
Seven Layers of ISO-OSI Model
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Layered Architecture for Data Networks

Transmission medium and physical layer
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) performance
Coaxial cable performance
EM Spectrum
Optical Spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Propagation methods
Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

Radio beacons and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio
Citizens band (CB),
HF 3–30 MHz Sky
ship/aircraft communication
Sky and VHF TV,
VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite
SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication
EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation

Wireless transmission waves
Fiber Geometry

Optical fiber performance
Attenuation Spectrum of Silica Fibers.

Guided Light

FTTH

LTE vs FTTH

Fiber Optics & Optoelectronics
History
Pilani Campus
The Fiber Optics Revolution
Optical communication has its roots since

human came to know how to generate
fire. Fire and smoke signals were
commonly used to transfer coded
information for security and at war.
Mirrors were used to divert the sunlight to illuminate

darker regions in palatial architectures during day-
time.
Alike speech which is a face-to-face communication and ear is the receiver, a nod
of head in agreement or a wave of hand can be instances of optical
communication where eye is the receiver.
Before the electric telegraph, optical telegraph in form of

optical semaphores that conveyed information by means of
visual signals were invented by C. Chappe in France in 1792.

In 1840s, physicists D. Collodon and J.

Babinet demonstrated that light could be
guided through phenomenon of refraction
along jets of water for fountain displays.
In 1854, John Tyndall, a British physicist,

proved that a light signal could be bent
through a water tank set up which
demonstrated an arc of light following the
water falling down. Tyndall also mention
the phenomenon of total internal reflection
in his writings.

Photophone
In 1880, Bell and his assistant, C. S. Tainter patented the 'Photophone' to transmit
speech over optical rays. Bell considered it his most important invention and gave a
wireless demonstration of it but it seemed impractical due to being subject to
atmospheric interferences and Bell's earlier invention, the telephone, proved to be
more realistic at that time.

Around the same year, an American engineer, W. Wheeler invented light pipes with a
highly reflective coating that illuminated homes by directing light from an electric arc
lamp placed in the basement of the home.
In 1907, H. J. Round observed the phenomenon of electroluminescence in a piece of
Silicon Carbide (SiC). In 1920s, Oleg V. Losev studied the phenomena of light emitting
diodes (LEDs) in radio sets which involved a report on light emission from SiC. In 1927,
Losev published a detailed report but was credited for his work only in 1950s when
Losev papers resurfaced.
Till 1920, people in medicine used bent or curved glass rods to illuminate body areas
difficult to see e.g. in dentistry. In 1920s, Baird patented the idea of using
transparent hollow pipe arrays for image transmission through television and C. W.
Hansell patented the same for facsimiles.
H. Lamm, however, was the first person to use a bundle of hollow pipes to
illuminate inaccessible parts of the body for medical examination purposes in
1930.
In 1951, H. Moeller proposed cladding glass or plastic fibers with a transparent low-index
material. In the same year, C. H. Townes of Columbia University Conceived the idea of
maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation).
Three years later in 1954, A. Van Heel and H. H. Hopkins with N. S. Kapany proposed
imaging bundles in the British journal Nature. Van Heel later proposed a fiber system
with a low-index cladding layer to reduce signal interference and crosstalk between
fibers.
In 1954 again, Townes demonstrated the ammonia maser at Columbia University
based on theory of stimulated emission proposed by Einstein in 1917. In 1958,
Townes proposed the realization of masers for light and infrared known as optical
masers at that time.
In 1960, T. Maiman invented what is considered to be the first successful optical

laser i.e. the ruby laser at Hughes Research Laboratories. In 1962, R. Hall created
the first semiconductor laser, the GaAs laser at General Electric Labs.

In the process of developing the fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope in 1966, B.

Hirschowitz, C. W. Peters, and L. E. Curtiss of Michigan University produced the
first glass-clad fibers otherwise earlier to which fibers relied on low-index oils or
waxes as cladding material.
Prior to this, in 1963, J. Nishizawa, a scientist at Tohoku University proposed the

use of optical fibers for communications and German physicist Manfred Börner
demonstrated the first working fiber-optic data communication system at
Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965.
In 1964, C. K. Kao proposed that the attenuation in fibers is due to impurities that
could be removed and pointed out that the right material to use for such fibers is
high purity silica glass. Kao proposed that the attenuation in optical fibers could be
reduced below 20 dB/km.

Kao was felicitated with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009 for groundbreaking
achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical
communication.
C. K. Kao in his Lab

In 1970, R. D. Maurer, D. Keck, P. C. Schultz, and F. Zimar working for Corning Glass
Works demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation by doping silica glass with
titanium achieving attenuation limit below 20 dB/Km.
After two years in 1972, they again demonstrated a fiber using germanium dioxide as
the core dopant with only 4 dB/km attenuation.
The fiber-optics revolution was started.

Optical fibres


Optical Bands (Telecom)

Fiber types
Type Core Cladding Mode
50/125 50 125 Multimode, graded-index
62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded-index
100/125 100 125 Multimode, graded-index
7/125 7 125 Single-mode

Bending of light ray


Snell’s Law

Optical fiber

Propagation modes

Light Propagation

Dispersion

Fiber construction

Types of Optical Fiber
Fused Silica (SiO2) Fiber
• Can be made extremely pure, then doped to attain desired n
• Exhibits very low loss and dispersion at λ=1.55μm
Plastic Fiber
• Lossy (~102 dB/km)
• Flexible, inexpensive, lightweight
Other Glass Fiber
• Chalcogenide, fluoroaluminate, etc. for longer wavelengths

Types of Optical Fiber
Silica Fibers
• Both core and cladding are of glass.
• Very pure SiO2 or fused quartz.
• Germanium or Phosphorus to increase the index of refraction.
• Boron or Fluorine to decrease the index of refraction.
• Silica fibers mainly used due to their low intrinsic
• Absorption at wavelengths of operation.
• Any other remaining impurities cause attenuation and scattering.
Plastic Fibers
• Plastic core and plastic cladding.
• Poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA, most commonly used).
• Flexible and Light.
• Widely used in short distance applications.
Plastic-clad Fibers
• Glass as core and plastic as cladding.

Which is better? (Plastic or Silica)
• Plastic less expensive, flexible, lighter.

• Plastic is larger in diameter, so easy to connect across joints.
• Plastic is less efficient then Silica.
• Plastic has more attenuation, and less bandwidth
• More suitable for shorter distances.

Why fiber optics?

Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Bandwidth - The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit time
of fibre over other transmission media is its most significant advantage. With
the high performance single mode cable used by telephone industries for long
distance telecommunication, the bandwidth surpasses the needs of today's
applications and gives room for growth tomorrow.
• Low Power Loss - An optical fibre offers low power loss. This allows for
longer transmission distances.
• Interference - Fibre optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Size & Weight - In comparison to copper, a fibre optic cable has a cross
sectional area that is much less. Fibre optic cables are much thinner and
lighter than metal wires. They also occupy less space with cables of the same
information capacity. Lighter weight makes fibre easier to install.
• Safety - Since the fibre is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.

Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Security - As physically tapping the fibre takes great skill to do

undetected, fibre is the most secure medium available for carrying
sensitive data. As they do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions
cannot be intercepted.
• Flexibility - An optical fibre has greater tensile strength than copper or
steel fibres of the same diameter. It is flexible, bends easily and resists
most corrosive elements that attack copper cable.
• Cost - The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This
means glass can be made more cheaply than copper. Cables are
expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.

Disadvantages
• Transmission - Transmission on optical fibre requires Repeaters at distance

intervals.
• Fragile - Fibres can be broken or have transmission loses when wrapped
around curves of only a few centimetres radius.
• Protection - Optical fibres require more protection around the cable
compared to copper


Pilani Campus
Fiber Geometry


Optical Bands (Telecom)

Q1. What is the overall bandwidth (in nm)
available for telecom operators in IR region?
Q1. What is the overall bandwidth (in nm)
available for telecom operators in IR region?
Ans: 1675-1260 nm = 415 nm

Q2. If the optical power fed at input end of a 45.0 km
long fiber is -10.0 dBm and the power received at the
other end is -19.0 dBm, estimate its attenuation
coefficient in dB/km.
Q2. If the optical power fed at input end of a 45.0 km
long fiber is -10.0 dBm and the power received at the
other end is -19.0 dBm, estimate its attenuation
coefficient in dB/km.
Ans:  
 PT  PR   10   19 
 dB / km  0.2 dB / km
L 45

Optical fiber

Why fiber optics?

Optoelectronics: INTRODUCTION

Pilani Campus
What is Optoelectronics?
• Optoelectronics, the alliance of optics and electronics, is one of the most exciting
and dynamic industries of the information age.
• As a strategic enabling technology, the applications of optoelectronics extend
throughout our everyday lives, including the fields of computing, communication,
entertainment, education, electronic commerce, health care and transportation.
• Defense applications include military command and control functions, imaging,
radar, aviation sensors, and optically guided weapons.
• Optoelectronics businesses manufacture components such as lasers, optical discs,
image sensors, or optical fibers, and all sorts of equipment and systems that are
critically dependent on optoelectronics components.
• Optoelectronics technology is a key enabler of the USD$1.5 Trillion global
information industry.

Optoelectronics
Light sources Light Detectors
LED, Photodetectors
LASERS (p-i-n photodiodes,
APD, etc.)

Concept of spontaneous emission
• Consider an ‘excited’ atom

Level 2
Energy = E2 • This excited atom will relax
over some characteristic
relaxation time
• If photons are produced during
the relaxation process this is
called spontaneous emission
• This emission process is
Level 1 independent of external
Energy = E1 influences

Concept of stimulated emission
Excited Atom Incident Photon

Stimulated Transition
Incident
Photon Emitted
Photon
• An excited atom can be stimulated to emit a photon

• This process is called stimulated emission
• The stimulated photon is an exact copy of the photon that induced the transition
• A repeat of this process leads to the optical gain which represents the basis of
laser action

A laser or ‘laser oscillator’
• Stimulated emission provides optical gain

• Photons reflected by the resonator mirrors cause an avalanche of stimulated
emission along the axis of the resonator
• A high intensity beam of light thus builds up in the laser resonator
• A collimated and directional laser beam emerges from a partially transmitting
exit mirror

We can now consider “digital optoelectronics”
Lasers can be made to produce either:
- constant intensity beams, or
- sequences of discrete optical pulses or “optical digits”
Pulsed
Intensity
Continuous
Time

LED Applications
LEDs
Red LED White LED for DRLs
LED for displays LED for traffic light

LASER Applications
Diode lasers have been
used for cutting, surgery,
communication (optical
fibre), CD writing and
reading etc

BD vs. DVD
Blu-ray Disc will increase DVD capacity by five
to ten times. This is due, among other reasons,
to the usage of a blue instead of a red laser
and improved lens specifications, allowing for
a much smaller focus laser beam which
enables the recording of much smaller and
higher density pits on the disc.

Optical devices

Amplifiers
• Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)

• Thulium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (TDFA)
• Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers
(PDFA)

Decibels

Optical System

Too Much information
“The internet lives on beams of light.

One hair thin glass fiber can carry as much data as thousands of copper wires.”
Multiplexing
• Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
– E.g. Telephone lines
• Frequency-Division Multiplexing
– E.g. FM radio
WDM

Optical Communication: Basics

Pilani Campus
Light Transmission
Speed of propagation in a medium

v c
n 
• Photon Energy
E  hc

• Frequency
  2f  2c 
c = 299 792 458 m/s
h= 6.62606957 × 10-34 m2kg/s
Index of Refraction
Speed of EM waves in a medium depends on
interactions with Electric Field and Magnetic Field
cvacuum
n   
cmaterial
ε = εrε0, εr is the relative permittivity of the
material, and ε0 = 8.8541878176 × 10−12 F/m is
the vacuum permittivity
μr = μ/μ0, where μ0 = 4π × 10−7 N A−2.

Permeability is measured in henries per meter
(H·m−1), or newtons per ampere squared
(N·A−2).
Snell’s Law
n2 φ2
n1
φ1
n1 sin( 1 )  n2 sin( 2 )
Snell’s Law, n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2
c
Refractive Index, n
v
Critical Angle,
n2
sin c 
n1
n2 φ2 Φ2=90
n2
n1 n1
φ1
φ1=φc
n2
n1 Total Internal Reflection
φ1>φc φ1
Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection
Critical Angle (Φ1) occurs at Φ2=90˚
critical  sin  n2 n 
 1 
• For angles larger than the critical angle, have total
internal reflection (TIR)

Refractive Index

Total Internal Reflection

Meridional Ray
Skew Ray

G.652 https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.652/en
Critical Angle, Acceptance Cone, NA
By Snell’s Law, na sin  m  n1 sin  m  n1 cosc

Numerical Aperture,
(n12  n22 )1/ 2
NA  na sin  m  n1 cosc  (n  n ) 2
1
2 1/ 2
2
Since, cosc 
n1
n12  n22
Relative Refractive Index Difference,  
2n12
Therefore, Numerical Aperture may be rewritten as, NA  (n12  n22 )1/ 2  n1 2
Q3. If NA = 0.2000 and core index is 1.4810 for a step
index silica fiber, find critical angle (in deg) up to two
places of decimal.
Q3. If NA = 0.2000 and core index is 1.4810 for a step
index silica fiber, find critical angle (in deg) upto two
places of decimal.
Ans:
 NA 
NA  na sin  m  n1 sin  m  n1 cosc  0.2000; c  cos 
1
  82 .24 
n
 1 
Q4. If NA = 0.0940 and fiber cladding index is 1.4920,
find value of relative refractive index difference up to four
places of decimal.
Q4. If NA = 0.0940 and fiber cladding index is 1.4920,
find value of relative refractive index difference up to four
places of decimal.
Ans:
2 2
2 n1  n2 n1  n2
n1  NA2  n2  1.4950;   2
  0.0020
2n1 n1
Q5. The speed of light-wave with wavelength of 1310 nm
in a medium is 2.0200×108 m/s. Find the value of
wavelength in the medium.
Q5. The speed of light-wave with wavelength of 1310 nm
in a medium is 2.0200×108 m/s. Find the value of
wavelength in the medium.
Ans:
2.9999 108  1310
n  1.4851; m   nm  882 .096 nm
2.0200 10 8
n 1.4851
DISPERSION 1. Modal/Multipath Dispersion
2. Material Dispersion
3. Waveguide Dispersion
4. Chromatic Dispersion (1+2)
Multipath Dispersion
θm
θm
L Ln1 L / cos m Ln1 Ln1 Ln1 Ln12

t1   t2     
v c v c cos m c sin c c(n2 / n1 ) cn2
Ln12 Ln1 Ln1  n1  n2  T n1  n1  n2 

T  t 2  t1        
cn2 c c  n2  L n2  c 

For Graded Index Fiber,
1/ 2
   r   for r  a

 n1  n0 1  2  
n( r )     a  

n2  n0 1  2   nc for b  r  a
1/ 2
To appreciate ray propagation in GI Fiber,

visualize fiber as been made up of several
coaxial cylinders where RI of central cylinder is
highest and decreases for every successive
cylindrical layer.
Meridional ray takes a curved path due to
multiple refractions at successive RI interfaces.
Multipath dispersion in GI fibers is less than SI
fibers.
Rays near core axis travel shorter paths.
Parabolic profile (α = 2) ensures minimum
multipath dispersion.
For Graded Index Fiber, NA  (n12  n22 )1/ 2
1/ 2
 2 r
2
 2 
 n0 1  2    n0 1  2 
  a  
1/ 2
  r  2
 n0 21  2 
  a 
• The velocity of rays near axis will be less than

that of Meridional rays because axial rays
have to travel trough high RI region (v = c/n).
• If refractive index profile is chosen such that
time taken by Axial and Meridional ray are
same, then multipath dispersion will be
negligible.
• Parabolic RI profile reduces dispersion
considerably.
Phase velocity, v p
phase  max 2 2  
vp   
 
time t T T
phase  2  1 
vp    .  2f . 
time T T 2 k k
d 2
Group velocity, v g  where,   2f ; k 
dk 
Material Dispersion
The ratio between the speed of light c
and the phase velocity vp is known as the
Refractive index,
& Phase velocity v  vp  c / n refractive index
vp   /  where,   2f Angular frequency in radians per sec.

2 
&  where, m 
m n
β is propagation constant ; λm is wavelength of light in medium; λ is free space wavelength
c
Thus,
vp  c / n   /  or, n

Any signal superposed onto a wave does not propagate with phase velocity but travels
with a group velocity.
1
Group Velocity, v g  d / d 
d / d
In non-dispersive medium, v p  vg as v p  
But in dispersive medium, vp is a function of ω.
1
vg 
d / d
Thus, a light pulse, will travel with vg in core of fiber.
Group index, ng  c / vg
Group index, in terms of phase index or ordinary refractive index,
d d n d
ng  c c ( ) (n )
d d c d
dn
 n 
d
dn dn d
Since,  .
d d d
2c
&, 

d 2c
 2
d 
We have,
dn 2c dn  2  dn
ng  n    n     n  
d  d  2c  d
Thus,
c c
vg  
ng (n   dn )
d
A light pulse will travel through core a length L in time t,
 dn 
n   d  L
t  L / vg 
c
If light source has a wavelength spread of Δλ, the pulse will spread over a time Δt.
dt L  dn dn d 2n 
t        2  
d c  d d d 
L d 2n
   2 
c d

Relative spectral width, 

L 2 d 2n
Pulse broadening due to material dispersion,  
in terms of half power width, τ. c d2
  d 2
n
Pulse broadening per unit length,  2
L c d2
The material dispersion of
optical fibers is quoted
in terms of the material
dispersion parameter, Dm
given by
λ = λZD = 1.276 μm
 1  d 2n
Dm  
L  c d2
Combined Effect Of Multipath & Material Dispersion
τ0 τ
τ1 τ2
      
2
0
2
1 2 
2 1/ 2
1/ 2
    2 2 2
    0
2
1
2
2
2
L L L L 
In terms of rms width of received pulses,
1/ 2
    
2 2 2
   0
2 
1
2
2
2
L L L L 
Wave Propagation In Planar
Waveguides
Pilani Campus
The net electric flux through any closed surface
is equal to 1⁄ε times the net electric charge
enclosed within that closed surface.
It states that the magnetic field B has

divergence equal to zero, in other
words, it is equivalent to the statement
that magnetic monopoles do not exist.
The induced electromotive force in any

closed circuit is equal to the negative of
the time rate of change of the magnetic
flux through the circuit.
Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition states that

magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by
electrical current (this was the original "Ampère's
law") and by changing electric fields (this was
"Maxwell's addition").
Maxwell Equation I
Gauss’s law states that the net flux of an electric field through a closed (Gaussian)
surface is proportional to the enclosed electric charge and inversely proportional to
permittivity.
The electric flux is defined as the electric field passing through a given area
multiplied by the area of the surface in a plane perpendicular to the field.
Maxwell Equation II
The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero.
For a magnetic dipole, any closed surface the magnetic flux directed inward toward
the south pole will equal the flux outward from the north pole. The net flux will always
be zero for dipole sources.
If there were a magnetic monopole source, this would give a non-zero area integral.
The divergence of a vector field is proportional to the point source density, so the
form of Gauss' law for magnetic fields is then a statement that there are no magnetic
monopoles.
Maxwell Equation III
The line integral of the electric field around a closed loop is equal to the negative of
the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.
This line integral is equal to the generated voltage or emf in the loop, so Faraday's law
is the basis for electric generators. It also forms the basis for inductors and
transformers.
In a closed circuit when the current flows and the emf is induced, therefore the
phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit when magnetic flux linking with
it changes is called Electro Magnetic Induction.
Maxwell Equation IV
In the case of static electric field, the line integral of the magnetic field around a
closed loop is proportional to the electric current flowing through the loop.

Pilani Campus
DISPERSION 1. Modal/Multipath Dispersion
2. Material Dispersion
3. Waveguide Dispersion
4. Chromatic Dispersion (1+2)
Multipath Dispersion
θm
θm
L Ln1 L / cos m Ln1 Ln1 Ln1 Ln12

t1   t2     
v c v c cos m c sin c c(n2 / n1 ) cn2
Ln12 Ln1 Ln1  n1  n2  T n1  n1  n2 

T  t 2  t1        
cn2 c c  n2  L n2  c 

For Graded Index Fiber,
1/ 2
   r   for r  a

 n1  n0 1  2  
n( r )     a  

n2  n0 1  2   nc for b  r  a
1/ 2
To appreciate ray propagation in GI Fiber,

visualize fiber as been made up of several
coaxial cylinders where RI of central cylinder is
highest and decreases for every successive
cylindrical layer.
Meridional ray takes a curved path due to
multiple refractions at successive RI interfaces.
Multipath dispersion in GI fibers is less than SI
fibers.
Rays near core axis travel shorter paths.
Parabolic profile (α = 2) ensures minimum
multipath dispersion.
For Graded Index Fiber, NA  (n12  n22 )1/ 2
1/ 2
 2 r
2
 2 
 n0 1  2    n0 1  2 
  a  
1/ 2
  r  2
 n0 21  2 
  a 
• The velocity of rays near axis will be less than

that of Meridional rays because axial rays
have to travel trough high RI region (v = c/n).
• If refractive index profile is chosen such that
time taken by Axial and Meridional ray are
same, then multipath dispersion will be
negligible.
• Parabolic RI profile reduces dispersion
considerably.
Phase velocity, v p
phase  max 2 2  
vp   
 
time t T T
phase  2  1 
vp    .  2f . 
time T T 2 k k
d 2
Group velocity, v g  where,   2f ; k 
dk 
Material Dispersion
The ratio between the speed of light c
and the phase velocity vp is known as the
Refractive index,
& Phase velocity v  vp  c / n refractive index
vp   /  where,   2f Angular frequency in radians per sec.

2 
&  where, m 
m n
β is propagation constant ; λm is wavelength of light in medium; λ is free space wavelength
c
Thus,
vp  c / n   /  or, n

Any signal superposed onto a wave does not propagate with phase velocity but travels
with a group velocity.
1
Group Velocity, v g  d / d 
d / d
In non-dispersive medium, v p  vg as v p  
But in dispersive medium, vp is a function of ω.
1
vg 
d / d
Thus, a light pulse, will travel with vg in core of fiber.
Group index, ng  c / vg
Group index, in terms of phase index or ordinary refractive index,
d d n d
ng  c c ( ) (n )
d d c d
dn
 n 
d
dn dn d
Since,  .
d d d
2c
&, 

d 2c
 2
d 
We have,
dn 2c dn  2  dn
ng  n    n     n  
d  d  2c  d
Thus,
c c
vg  
ng (n   dn )
d
A light pulse will travel through core a length L in time t,
 dn 
n   d  L
t  L / vg 
c
If light source has a wavelength spread of Δλ, the pulse will spread over a time Δt.
dt L  dn dn d 2n 
t        2  
d c  d d d 
L d 2n
   2 
c d

Relative spectral width, 

L 2 d 2n
Pulse broadening due to material dispersion,  
in terms of half power width, τ. c d2
  d 2
n
Pulse broadening per unit length,  2
L c d2
The material dispersion of
optical fibers is quoted
in terms of the material
dispersion parameter, Dm
given by
λ = λZD = 1.276 μm
 1  d 2n
Dm  
L  c d2
Combined Effect Of Multipath & Material Dispersion
τ0 τ
τ1 τ2
      
2
0
2
1 2 
2 1/ 2
1/ 2
    2 2 2
    0
2
1
2
2
2
L L L L 
In terms of rms width of received pulses,
1/ 2
    
2 2 2
   0
2 
1
2
2
2
L L L L 
Waveguides
Pilani Campus



Maxwell Equation I
permittivity.
Maxwell Equation II
monopoles.
transformers.
Maxwell Equation IV
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
B
 E  
t
D
 H  J    
t   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
x y z
.D  
‘Del’ or Nabla Operator
.B  0
E  Electric Field Intensity V/m
D  E ; Electric Flux Density C/m 2
B  H ; Magnetic Flux Density T (Telsa or V - Sec./m2 )
H  Magnetic Field Intensity A/m
J  E ; Electric current density A/m 2
Inside an ideal dielectric, ρ = 0;σ = 0.
B
 E  
t
D
 H 
t
.D  0
  0 r ; 0  4 10 N / A 7 2
.B  0
   0 r ;  0  8.854 10 12 C 2 / Nm2
From Eq based on Gauss law,
B (  B )
    E    
t t
 (  H )   D  2D
          2
t t  t  t
But,
    E  (.E )   2 E
where,
 2
 2
 2
2  2  2  2
x y z
&, .E  .(D /  )  0
2D  2E 2E

  E   2  
2
   2
t t 2
t
2E
 E   2  0
2
t
Similarly,
2H
 H   2  0
2
t
 2

    2  0
2
t
1 In vacuum or free space,  r   r  1,

vp 
 so that v p 
1
 c  3 108 m/s

1  2
  2 2 0
2 For an isotropic medium,
v p t n   /  0   r with  r  1
Therefore, v p  c / n
n  2 2
  2 2 0
2
c t
Solution
   0 expi(t  z ) vp 


SOLUTION IN INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM
For an isotropic, linear, non-conducting, non-magnetic, but
inhomogenoeous (or heterogeneous) medium,
.(D )  .E   0. r E  0

  0 ( r ).E   r .E   0
1
.E   ( r ).E
r
From curl of Gauss Law,
2D 2E 2E
    E    2    0 0 r 2 (.E )   E    0 0 r 2
2
t t t
 2
E   0  r  0 μr  1
Rearranging,  E  (.E )   0 0 r 2  0
2
D  E   0 r E
t
Substituting, 1  2
E
 2 E  ( ( r ).E )  0 0 r 2  0
r t
Similarly,  0, for homogeneous medium as .E  0

1 2H
 H  ( ( r )  (  H )  0 0 r 2  0
2
r t
Assume n do not vary
in y and z directions
 r  n  n ( x)
2 2
y- & z- dependence of fields, exp  i (y   z )

will be, in general, of form, γ =0 without any loss of generality
E j  E j ( x) expi(t  z) j  x, y, or , z
H j  H j ( x) expi(t  z)
B H
 E     0
t t
E E
î  E z  y   ˆj  E x  E z   kˆ y  E x 
 y z  x   x y 
  z

 t
 
  0  iˆH x  ˆjH y  kˆH z 


D E E
 H    0 r   0n2
t t t
H y  H y H x 
î  H z    ˆj  H x  H z   kˆ  
 y z  
  z x   x y 
 ˆ
 
  0 n  i Ex  ˆjE y  kÊ z 
2
 t 


As, E & H do not vary with y, all terms are zero
y
   
 iˆ
z
 
E y ei (t  z )  ˆj
z
 
E x ei (t  z )  ˆj
x
 
E z ei (t  z )  kˆ
x

E y ei (t  z ) 
  
 iˆ 0 H x ei (t  z )  ˆj H y ei (t  z )  kˆ H z ei (t  z )
t t t
E
iˆi E y  ˆj i E x  E z   kˆ y  iˆ0 (i ) H x  ˆj0 (i ) H y  kˆ0 (i ) H z
 x  x

Comparing on both sides, i E y   0 (i ) H x
or,  E y    0H x
i Ex  Ez   0 (i ) H y

x
E y
   0 (i ) H z
x

Again, all terms are zero
y
   
 iˆ
z
 
H y ei (t  z )  ˆj
z
 
H x ei (t  z )  ˆj
x
 
H z ei (t  z )  kˆ
x

H y ei (t  z ) 
  
  0 n 2iˆ E x ei (t  z )   0 n 2 ˆj E y ei (t  z )   0 n 2 kˆ E z ei (t  z )
t t t
H y
iˆi H y  ˆj  i H x  H z   kˆ  ˆ
i (i n 2
) E  ˆ
j (i n 2
) E  ˆ(i n 2 ) E
k
 x  x 0 x 0 y 0 z

Comparing on both sides, i H y  (i 0 n 2 ) Ex

or, H y   0 n 2E x
H z
 i H x   (i 0 n 2 )E y
x
H y
 i 0 n 2E z
x
Modes of a Symmetric
Step-Index Planar Waveguide
E y  0H x
E y
 i 0H z
x
TE Modes, Ey component
H z
 i H x   i 0 n 2 ( x) E y Ex , Ez ,&, H y are zero and involves only Ey , H x ,&, H z
x
 H y   0 n 2 ( x) Ex
H y
 i 0 n 2 ( x) E z
x
TM Modes, Hy component i Ex  Ez  i 0H y

x
H x , H z ,&, E y are zero and involves only H y , Ex ,&, Ez
TE Modes of a Symmetric
n 2 (  x)  n 2 ( x)
     1  
 i  
 
 E  
 
 E  i  n 2
( x) E y
  0  x   i 0  x
y y 0
E y  E y (x)
d 2 Ey
  2 E y  0 0 2 n 2 ( x) E y  0
dx2
d 2Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n 2 ( x)   2 E y  0 
1 
where,  0 0  2
;& k
c c
For planar waveguide,
 n1 for x  a
n( x )  
 n2 for x  a
d 2 Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n12   2 E y  0 for x  a
d 2 Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n22   2 E y  0 for x  a
Let, u 2  k 2 n12   2  12   2

d 2 Ey
&, w   k n   
2 2 2 2 2 2  u 2 E y  0 for x  a
2 2 dx2
d 2 Ey
 w2 E y  0 for x  a
For the wave to be guided through the layer, dx2
both parameters u and w must be real. This
implies that,
12  k 2 n12    2   22  k 2 n22 

E y ( x)  E y ( x) Symmetric Modes
E y ( x)   E y ( x) Anti-symmetric Modes
Symmetric Modes
 A cosux for x  a
E y ( x)    w x
 Ce for x  a
The continuity of Ey(x) and dEy/dx at x=±a gives,
A cos(ua)  Ce wa u tan(ua)  w

 uAsin( ua)  wCe wa ua tan(ua)  wa

u 2  w2  k 2 n12   2   2  k 2 n22  k 2 n12  n22 
2
 2  2 2
A new dimensionless
waveguide parameter called
2 2 2 2 2 2
 
ua  wa  k a n1  n2    a n1  n22  
normalized frequency   
parameter, V is defined here.
 2a 
V ua2  wa2  
 n1  n2
2 2

  

ua tan(ua)  V  ua 2

2 1/ 2
Anti-symmetric Modes
 B sin ux for x  a

E y ( x)   x De w x
 x for x  a
 ua cot(ua)  wa
 ua cot(ua)  V  ua 2

2 1/ 2
From Fig. in next slide,
 
2m   V  2m  1
(m+1)Symmetric Modes
2 2 m Anti-symmetric Modes
m  0, 1, 2, ...
 
2m  1  V  2m  2 (m+1) Symmetric Modes
2 2 (m+1) Anti-symmetric
2V Modes
M

here,   ua;  wa
m=0
m=1
m=2
2 2
 2   22  ua   wa 
b 2  1     
1   2 2
V   V 
m
ua  Vc 
2
m  2a  2
 2a 
 n1  n2    n1  n2 
2
V  2 2
2   
  
m
2a 

2 n12  n22 
Problem 3.9 What should be the maximum thickness of the guide
slab of a symmetrical SI planar waveguide so that it supports only
the first 10 modes? Take n1 = 3.6, n2 = 3.58, and λ = 0.90 μm.
Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the propagation
constant , β.
Waveguides
Pilani Campus



Maxwell Equation I
permittivity.
Maxwell Equation II
monopoles.
transformers.
Maxwell Equation IV
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
B
 E  
t
D
 H  J    
t   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
x y z
.D  
‘Del’ or Nabla Operator
.B  0
E  Electric Field Intensity V/m
D  E ; Electric Flux Density C/m 2
B  H ; Magnetic Flux Density T (Telsa or V - Sec./m2 )
H  Magnetic Field Intensity A/m
J  E ; Electric current density A/m 2
Inside an ideal dielectric, ρ = 0;σ = 0.
B
 E  
t
D
 H 
t
.D  0
  0 r ; 0  4 10 N / A 7 2
.B  0
   0 r ;  0  8.854 10 12 C 2 / Nm2
From Eq based on Gauss law,
B (  B )
    E    
t t
 (  H )   D  2D
          2
t t  t  t
But,
    E  (.E )   2 E
where,
 2
 2
 2
2  2  2  2
x y z
&, .E  .(D /  )  0
2D  2E 2E

  E   2  
2
   2
t t 2
t
2E
 E   2  0
2
t
Similarly,
2H
 H   2  0
2
t
 2

    2  0
2
t
1 In vacuum or free space,  r   r  1,

vp 
 so that v p 
1
 c  3 108 m/s

1  2
  2 2 0
2 For an isotropic medium,
v p t n   /  0   r with  r  1
Therefore, v p  c / n
n  2 2
  2 2 0
2
c t
Solution
   0 expi(t  z ) vp 


SOLUTION IN INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM
For an isotropic, linear, non-conducting, non-magnetic, but
inhomogenoeous (or heterogeneous) medium,
.(D )  .E   0. r E  0

  0 ( r ).E   r .E   0
1
.E   ( r ).E
r
From curl of Gauss Law,
2D 2E 2E
    E    2    0 0 r 2 (.E )   E    0 0 r 2
2
t t t
 2
E   0  r  0 μr  1
Rearranging,  E  (.E )   0 0 r 2  0
2
D  E   0 r E
t
Substituting, 1  2
E
 2 E  ( ( r ).E )  0 0 r 2  0
r t
Similarly,  0, for homogeneous medium as .E  0

1 2H
 H  ( ( r )  (  H )  0 0 r 2  0
2
r t
Assume n do not vary
in y and z directions
 r  n  n ( x)
2 2
y- & z- dependence of fields, exp  i (y   z )

will be, in general, of form, γ =0 without any loss of generality
E j  E j ( x) expi(t  z) j  x, y, or , z
H j  H j ( x) expi(t  z)
B H
 E     0
t t
E E
î  E z  y   ˆj  E x  E z   kˆ y  E x 
 y z  x   x y 
  z

 t
 
  0  iˆH x  ˆjH y  kˆH z 


D E E
 H    0 r   0n2
t t t
H y  H y H x 
î  H z    ˆj  H x  H z   kˆ  
 y z  
  z x   x y 
 ˆ
 
  0 n  i Ex  ˆjE y  kÊ z 
2
 t 


As, E & H do not vary with y, all terms are zero
y
   
 iˆ
z
 
E y ei (t  z )  ˆj
z
 
E x ei (t  z )  ˆj
x
 
E z ei (t  z )  kˆ
x

E y ei (t  z ) 
  
 iˆ 0 H x ei (t  z )  ˆj H y ei (t  z )  kˆ H z ei (t  z )
t t t
E
iˆi E y  ˆj i E x  E z   kˆ y  iˆ0 (i ) H x  ˆj0 (i ) H y  kˆ0 (i ) H z
 x  x

Comparing on both sides, i E y   0 (i ) H x
or,  E y    0H x
i Ex  Ez   0 (i ) H y

x
E y
   0 (i ) H z
x

Again, all terms are zero
y
   
 iˆ
z
 
H y ei (t  z )  ˆj
z
 
H x ei (t  z )  ˆj
x
 
H z ei (t  z )  kˆ
x

H y ei (t  z ) 
  
  0 n 2iˆ E x ei (t  z )   0 n 2 ˆj E y ei (t  z )   0 n 2 kˆ E z ei (t  z )
t t t
H y
iˆi H y  ˆj  i H x  H z   kˆ  ˆ
i (i n 2
) E  ˆ
j (i n 2
) E  ˆ(i n 2 ) E
k
 x  x 0 x 0 y 0 z

Comparing on both sides, i H y  (i 0 n 2 ) Ex

or, H y   0 n 2E x
H z
 i H x   (i 0 n 2 )E y
x
H y
 i 0 n 2E z
x
Modes of a Symmetric
E y  0H x
E y
 i 0H z
x
TE Modes, Ey component
H z
 i H x   i 0 n 2 ( x) E y Ex , Ez ,&, H y are zero and involves only Ey , H x ,&, H z
x
 H y   0 n 2 ( x) Ex
H y
 i 0 n 2 ( x) E z
x
TM Modes, Hy component i Ex  Ez  i 0H y

x
H x , H z ,&, E y are zero and involves only H y , Ex ,&, Ez
TE Modes of a Symmetric
n 2 (  x)  n 2 ( x)
     1  
 i  
 
 E  
 
 E  i  n 2
( x) E y
  0  x   i 0  x
y y 0
E y  E y (x)
d 2 Ey
  2 E y  0 0 2 n 2 ( x) E y  0
dx2
d 2Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n 2 ( x)   2 E y  0 
1 
where,  0 0  2
;& k
c c
For planar waveguide,
 n1 for x  a
n( x )  
 n2 for x  a
d 2 Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n12   2 E y  0 for x  a
d 2 Ey
dx 2

 k 2 n22   2 E y  0 for x  a
Let, u 2  k 2 n12   2  12   2

d 2 Ey
&, w   k n   
2 2 2 2 2 2  u 2 E y  0 for x  a
2 2 dx2
d 2 Ey
 w2 E y  0 for x  a
For the wave to be guided through the layer, dx2
both parameters u and w must be real. This
implies that,
12  k 2 n12    2   22  k 2 n22 

E y ( x)  E y ( x) Symmetric Modes
E y ( x)   E y ( x) Anti-symmetric Modes
Symmetric Modes
 A cosux for x  a
E y ( x)    w x
 Ce for x  a
The continuity of Ey(x) and dEy/dx at x=±a gives,
A cos(ua)  Ce wa u tan(ua)  w

 uAsin( ua)  wCe wa ua tan(ua)  wa

u 2  w2  k 2 n12   2   2  k 2 n22  k 2 n12  n22 
2
 2  2 2
A new dimensionless
waveguide parameter called
2 2 2 2 2 2
 
ua  wa  k a n1  n2    a n1  n22  
normalized frequency   
parameter, V is defined here.
 2a 
V ua2  wa2  
 n1  n2
2 2

  

ua tan(ua)  V  ua 2

2 1/ 2
Anti-symmetric Modes
 B sin ux for x  a

E y ( x)   x De w x
 x for x  a
 ua cot(ua)  wa
 ua cot(ua)  V  ua 2

2 1/ 2
From Fig. in next slide,
 
2m   V  2m  1
(m+1)Symmetric Modes
2 2 m Anti-symmetric Modes
m  0, 1, 2, ...
 
2m  1  V  2m  2 (m+1) Symmetric Modes
2 2 (m+1) Anti-symmetric
2V Modes
M

m=0
m=1
m=2
2 2
 2   22  ua   wa 
b 2  1     
1   2 2
V   V 
m
ua  Vc 
2
m  2a  2
 2a 
 n1  n2    n1  n2 
2
V  2 2
2   
  
m
2a 

2 n12  n22 
Problem 3.9 What should be the maximum thickness of the guide
slab of a symmetrical SI planar waveguide so that it supports only
the first 10 modes? Take n1 = 3.6, n2 = 3.58, and λ = 0.90 μm.
Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the propagation
constant , β.
Power Distribution And Confinement Factor
The power flow is given by Poynting vector defined by

S = E × H where E and H are expressed in complex form but the actual fields are the
real part of the complex form. Thus taking Time Average of the Poynting vector,
1
S  Re E  Re H  Re E  H *
2
where H* is complex conjugate of H. Thus, time average of S along z-direction will

be given by
1
Sz  (E x H y  H x E y )
2
For TE modes

Hx   Ey
 0
therefore,
1  2
Sz  Ey
2  0
For a particular mode, the power associated per unit area per unit length in
the y-direction will thus be given by

1  2
P  E y dx
2 0 x  
The power inside the guide layer (core)
1 
a
2
Pin   E y dx
2 0 x   a
and the power inside the cladding (or outside the guide layer)
1   a
2

2 
Pout    E y dx   E y dx
2 0  x x a 
For symmetric TE modes,
 A cosux, x a
E y ( x)    w x
Ce , x a
1   2 1
a a
Thus,
2 A cosux dx  A  (1  cos 2ux)dx
2
Pin 
2 0 0 0 0 2
or,
a
 2 1   2 1 
Pin  A  x  sin 2ux  A a  sin 2ua)
0  2u  0 20  2u 
Similarly,

1   

2  2  1 w x 
2   Ce
w x
Pout  dx  C  e 
2 0  a  0  2 w a
 2  1 2 wa 
or, Pout  C  e 
 0  2 w
Total Power, P
 2 1   2  1  2 wa 
P  Pin  Pout  A a  sin 2ua  C  e 
2 0  2u  0  2 w
  1  C  1  2 wa 
2
 A a 
2
sin 2ua    e 
2  0  2u  A w 
Substitute C / A  ewa cosua
  1 1 
P A2 a  sin 2ua  cos2 ua
20  2u w 
  2 2 sin ua cos ua 2 sin 2

ua 
 A2  2 a   
40  w u w 


 2  2 sin ua cosua
A2  2a    wa  ua tan ua   A2  a  1 
40  w uwa  20  w
Since, ua tan ua  wa
A similar expression can be calculated for asymmetric modes.

The fraction of power confined within the guide layer,
called the confinement factor G, may be calculated as follows:
1
a sin 2ua
Pin 2u
G 
Pin  Pout  1   1  2 wa  C 
2
 a  sin 2ua   e   
2u  w  A 
Again, Substitute C / A  ewa cosua
1 1
a  sin 2ua a sin 2ua
2u  2u
G
 1  1 

 a 
1
2u
sin 2ua 
  w e 
  1  2 wa wa
e cos ua 
2
  a 
2u
sin 2ua 
  w cos2
ua 
A similar expression may be derived for anti symmetric modes.

1
 1 1  1
 a  sin 2 ua  cos 2
ua  a  sin 2ua
G 2u w  2u
1 
 a  sin 2ua   1  1 
 a  sin 2ua 
  w cos 2
ua 
 2u  2u
1
 cos ua 2

G  1  
 wa 1  sin ua  cos ua  / ua
Salient Points about confinement factor:
• As core layer thickness, a tends to zero, G tends to zero.
• G depends on u and w, hence on m. G will vary with mode number.
• Plot a curve for thickness of guide layer vs G for a given mode number.
G increases rapidly first, and then gradually.
Example 3.2 What should be the maximum thickness of the guide slab
of a symmetrical SI planar waveguide so that it supports only the fundamental
TE mode?
Take n1 = 3.6, n2 = 3.56, and λ = 0.85 μm
Example 3.4 Calculate the G-factor for the fundamental TE mode supported
by the waveguide of Example 3.2.
wa = 1.262
ua = 0.934
Planar Optical Waveguide
z
x
x
1  n1k  x  1 sin 
+a
 n1
x=0  z
 z   0  1 cos
-a
n2
As the RI within the guide layer is 

n1, the wavelength of light in the m 
2 2n1 n1
layer is reduced to m = /n1. 1    n1k
2
The propagation constant also m  k
increases to

2 2n1
Propagation constant, 1    n1k
m 
Effective propagation constant in z-direction    z  1 cos 

Min value of prop. constt can be determined by maximum value of  = m,
n2
sin c  cos m  n2
n1  min  1 cos m  1  n2 k   2
n1
Max value of prop. constt can be determined by minimum value of  =0,
 max  1
The component of 1 in x-direction,  x  1 sin   n1k sin 
2
where, k
2  
or, x  sin  where, m 
m n1
This component is reflected at the core-cladding interface.

The stable field pattern in x-direction with only
periodic z-dependence is known as mode.
1  n1k  x  1 sin 
+a
 n1
x=0  z
 z   0  1 cos
-a
a + 2a + a n2
Only a finite number of discrete


4a x  2i  i  0, 1, 2, 3, ...
modes which satisfy 2< I < 1,
will propagate through guide.
Since,  
2
sin  So, 4a sin i  im
m
x
Each value of θi,
4a sin  m 4an1 sin  m 4a
 
corresponds to a particular 2 1/ 2
mode with its own βi, in z- M  imax    n 2
n
m  
1 2
direction.
Requirement for ith mode to be propagated through guide is i

4a

n
2
1 n 2
2 1/ 2
Mode corresponding imax is refracted at interface,

& may propagate in cladding – is called a radiation mode
Fiber Optics & Optoelectronics:
CYLINDRICAL WAVEGUIDES
Pilani Campus
Maxwell’s Equations

 B where, Nabla (Del) operator is defined as
 E     
t   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
 x y z
 D
 H  J    0 r ; 0  4 10 7 N/A 2or H/m
t

.D      0 r ;  0  8.854 1012 C2 /Nm 2

.B  0 
 B
 E  
t

 D
 H 
Inside an ideal dielectric, ρ=0,& σ=0
t

.D  0

.B  0
40
For an isotropic, linear, non-conducting, non-magnetic,
but inhomogenous medium,
  
.D  .E   0.( r E )  0
 
  0 [.( r E )   r .E ]  0   1  
.E    ( r ).E
 r 
 
  D 2
 E
2 
    E    2    0 0 r 2  (.E )   2 E
t t

  E
2
(.E )   E    0 0 r 2
2
t

  E
2
(.E )   2 E    0 0 r 2
t

  E 2
 E  (.E )   0 0 r 2  0
2
t 41

 1   E 2
 E    ( r ).E    0 0 r 2  0
2
 r  t
1  2H
 H   ( r )  (  H )   0 0 r 2  0
2
 r  t
 n1 r  a
For cylindrical waveguide, n
n2 r  a
But, there is a discontinuity at r = a. Assume Δ <<1, weakly guiding approximation,
The second term in above equations may be ignored and
 2

    0 0 n
2 2
t 2 Where Ψ represents scalar E & H field
42
In cylindrical coordinates (r, φ, z), we may re-write,
 2

    0 0 n
2 2
0
t 2
 2  1  1  2   2   2

  2  2   0 0 n 2
0
r 2
r r r  2
z t 2
Since n depend on transverse coordinates r,φ, though it usually depends on r,

We may write solution as
(r ,  , z, t )  (r ,  )ei (t  z )
 2  1  1  2   2  2  
2
Substitute Ψ in      0 0 n 0
r 2 r r r 2  2 z 2 t 2
We get,  2  1 i (t  z )  1 i (t  z )  2 

ei (t  z )  e  2e
r 2
r r r  2
 (  2 )ei (t  z )   0 0 n 2 ( 2 )ei (t  z )  0 43
 2 1  1  2
or    [   2 2
n   2
]  0
r r r 
0 0
r 2 2 2
 2 1  1  2 1 
or    [ n 2 2
k   2
]  0  0 0  2 ;  k
r 2
r r r 
2 2
c c
Since the fiber has cylindrical symmetry, the variable may be separated,
 (r,  )  R(r )( )
 2 R 1 R R  2 
 2    2  [ n 2 2
k   2
] R  0
r r r r  2
Since the derivatives involve are dependent on r or φ only,

1 d 2 R 1 dR 1 1  2 
   [ n 2 2
k   2
]0
R dr 2 Rr dr r 2   2
Where, l is a
r 2  d 2 R 1 dR  2 2 2 1  2 2 constant, known as
 2    r [n k   ]  
2
l
R  dr r dr    2
azimuthal eigen value
44
The dependence of Φ on φ will be of form eilφ.
(  2 )  ( ), l  0,1,2,3...
Therefore,
(r ,  , z, t )  R(r )eil ei (t  z )

The radial part,
r 2  d 2 R 1 dR  2 2 2
 2    r [n k   2 ]  l 2
R  dr r dr 
d 2R dR
r 2
2
 r  [ r 2
( n 2 2
k   2
)  l 2
]R  0
dr dr
45
 n1 r  a
n
n2 r  a
2
d R dR
r 2
2
 r  [ r 2
( n1
2 2
k   2
)  l 2
]R  0, r  a
dr dr
2
d R dR
r 2
2
 r  [ r 2
( n2
2 2
k   2
)  l 2
]R  0, r  a
dr dr

u  k n  a
2 2 2
1
2
 2 V  (u 2  w 2 )1/ 2  ka (n12  n22 )1/ 2
  n a 2
To simplify
w2 2
 k2 2
2
2
V a (n12  n22 )1/ 2

d 2
R dR  u 2 2
r 2
r 2
2
r   2  l  R  0, r  a
dr dr  a 
d 2
R dR  w 2 2
r 2
r 2
2
r   2  l  RR  0, r  a
dr dr  a  46
Equations finally turn up to second order differential equations and hence
posses two independent solutions.
d 2R dR  u 2 r 2 2 
r 2
2
r   2  l  R  0, r  a
dr dr  a 
The solution for above equation will be Bessel function and
modified Bessel function of first kind.
d 2R dR  w2 r 2 2 
r 2
2
r   2  l  R  0, r  a
dr dr  a 
The solution for above equation will be Bessel function and

modified Bessel function of second kind.
47
Bessel Functions First Kind Bessel Functions Second kind
Modified Bessel first kind Modified Bessel Second kind 48

The modified bessel function of first kind has a discontinuity at origin
And the Bessel function of second kind has an asymptotic form.
Hence, these are discarded in solutions for fiber modes.
For solutions to be finite at r = 0 and tend to zero as r tends to infinity,

u and w should be real.
Therefore, the solutions,
 ur 
R(r )  AJ l  , r  a Bessel function of first
a kind of order l.
 wr 
R(r )  BKl  , r  a Modified Bessel function
of second kind of order l.
 a 
Read RB, Eqn 4.21 – 4.38 or {Appdx C (RB)} to know more on Jl and Kl
49
Since Ψ is continuous at r = a, R(r) must be continuous at r = a. Thus,
Constants A & B can be calculated from following eqns.
R(a)  AJ l u , r  a
R(a)  BKl w, r  a
We Know,
 (r,  )  R(r )( )
Substituting values of R and Φ, we get transverse dependence of the modal fields,
 ur  cos(l ); r  a
 (r ,  )  AJ l   
 a  sin( l )
 wr  cos(l ); r  a
 (r ,  )  BKl   
 a  sin( l )

u 2  k 2 n12   2 a 2 
  n a
where,
w2 2
 k2 2
2
2
50
 (r,  )  R(r )( )
R(a)  AJ l u , r  a
R(a)  BKl w, r  a
 ur  cos l
 (r ,  )  AJ l    ra
 a   sin l
 wr  cosl
 (r ,  )  BKl    ra
 a   sin l
Differentiating partially ψ(r,ϕ) as ∂ψ/ ∂r is continuous at r = a and,
substituting value of A and B followed by equating both equations, we get,
uJ l 1 (u ) K l 1 ( w)
w
J l (u ) K l ( w) 

 The values of u and w for various values of l and

uJ l 1 (u ) K l 1 ( w)  the corresponding values of β may be obtained.
 w 
J l (u ) K l ( w) 51
For Guided Modes,  2    1
0  b 1
 22 ( n12 k 2 )   2  12 ( n22 k 2 )

 2   22  2  n22 k 2
b 2  2 2
1   2 n1 k  n22 k 2
2
u 2 w2
b  1 2  2
V V
For Radiation Modes,
 2   22 ( n22 k 2 )
Mode Cut-off,   2
  2;
b  0, w  0,
u  V  Vc 52
Cut-off frequencies for first few LP modes
uJ l 1 (u ) K l 1 ( w)
w l m
J l (u ) K l ( w)
1 2 3 4
For l = 0, 0 0 3.832 7.106 10.172

1 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.790
uJ1 (u ) K1 ( w)
w 2 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324
J 0 (u ) K 0 ( w) 3 5.136 8.417 11.620 14.796
At cut  off, b  0, w  0, u  V  Vc J 1 (3.8)  0
Vc J1 (Vc )
0
J 0 (Vc )
J1 (Vc )  0
Roots of above equation give values of cut-
off frequency for l = 0 , and m = 1, 2,3 …
53
uJ l 1 (u ) K l 1 ( w) Cut-off frequencies for first few LP modes
 w
J l (u ) K l ( w) l m
1 2 3 4
For l = 1, 0 0 3.832 7.106 10.172
uJ 0 (u ) K 0 ( w)
 w 1 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.790
J1 (u ) K1 ( w)
2 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324
At cut  off, b  0, w  0, u  V  Vc 3 5.136 8.417 11.620 14.796
J 0 (2.4)  0
Vc J 0 (Vc )
0
J1 (Vc )
J 0 (Vc )  0
Roots of above equation give values of
cut-off frequency for l = 1 , and m = 1,
2,3 …
54
For l ≥ 2,
J l 1 (Vc )  0, Vc  0
For l ≥ 2, the root Vc = 0 must not be included because,
J l 1 (Vc )
V
lim 0V 0 For l ≥ 2
J l (Vc )
Cut-off frequencies for first few LP modes
l m
1 2 3 4
0 0 3.832 7.106 10.172
1 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.790
2 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324
3 5.136 8.417 11.620 14.796
55
K l ( wx)  e  wx ; wx   and,
K l ( wx)  0 as x  ;
 w  0    2
The radial part R(r) in the core is given by Jl(ux), which is oscillatory in nature.
Inside the core, u must be real,
  1
 22 ( n12 k 2 )   2  12 ( n22 k 2 )
 2   22  2  n22 k 2
b 2  2 2
1   2 n1 k  n22 k 2
2
u 2 w2
b  1 2  2
V V
Each allowed value of β is
characterized by two integers l and m
where l is associated with azimuthal
part while m is associated with radial
part of the solution. These are known
as guided modes. 56
The fiber boundary conditions have cylindrical symmetry and we assume that
The direction of propagation of the EM waves is along the axis of the fiber, which
we take to be the z-axis.
In the scalar wave approximation, the modes may be assumed to be nearly

transverse and they may possess an arbitrary state of Polarization.
These linearly polarized modes are referred to as LP modes.
The propagation constants of the TE and TM modes are nearly equal.
Among the modes that can propagate in step-index fibers, there are,
TE modes (electric field transverse to the propagation direction),

TM modes (magnetic field transverse to the propagation direction), and
hybrid modes (HEmn and EHmn modes, these modes have electric and magnetic
fields along the propagation direction).
57
For typical fibers used in telecommunication and data communication, the refractive index difference between
core and cladding, n1-n2, is so small (~0.002-0.008) that most of the TE, TM, and hybrid modes are degenerate and
it is sufficient to use a single notation for all these modes – the LP notation.
An LP mode is referred to as LPlm, where the l and m subscripts are related to the number of radial and azimuthal
zeros of a particular mode. The fundamental mode is LP01 mode and it is the only mode that can propagate in a
single mode fiber.
The following picture shows the LP modes power distribution pattern.
58
59
Guided Modes:
There exists m allowed solutions of β for each value of l.
Therefore, each value of allowed β is characterized by two integers l and m.
l is associated with azimuthal part of solution and m is associated with radial part.
An LP mode is referred to as LPlm
The fundamental mode is LP01 mode
60
Example 4.1: A SI Fiber has a core diameter of 7.2 μm, a core index of 1.46,
and a Δ of 1%. A light of wavelength 1.55 μm is used to excite modes in the fiber.
Find (a) V, (b) βlm, and (c) vp.
V = 3.01
2
V a (n12  n22 )1/ 2

b01=0.62 LP01
V
 lm2   22  lm2  n22 k 2

blm  2  2 2
1   2 n1 k  n22 k 2
2
b11=0.18 LP11
 2c
v   
 lm lm
p lm
61
Single mode fiber
Pilani Campus
Guided Modes:
There exists m allowed solutions of β for each value of l.
Therefore, each value of allowed β is characterized by two integers l and m.
l is associated with azimuthal part of solution and m is associated with radial part.
An LP mode is referred to as LPlm
The fundamental mode is LP01 mode
2
Example 4.1: A SI Fiber has a core diameter of 7.2 μm, a core index of 1.46,
and a Δ of 1%. A light of wavelength 1.55 μm is used to excite modes in the fiber.
Find (a) V, (b) βlm, and (c) vp.
V = 3.01
2
V a (n12  n22 )1/ 2

b01=0.62 LP01
V
 lm2   22  lm2  n22 k 2

blm  2  2 2
1   2 n1 k  n22 k 2
2
b11=0.18 LP11
 2c
v   
 lm lm
p lm
3
Fractional Modal Power Distribution
2 2
a 
Pclad  (Const.)   (r, ) rdrd
2
Pcore  (Const.)   (r, )
2
rdrd
r 0 r a
0  0
2 2
J l2 (ur / a)rdr 2  K l2 ( wr / a)
 (Const.)R(a)   (Const.)R(a) 
a
2
2  0 ld
cos2
2
rdr  cos2ld
r 0 J l (u ) r a K l ( w)  0
where, value of ψ(r,ϕ) is substituted and ϕ-dependence is taken to be of form cos(lϕ).
 K l 1 ( w) K l 1 ( w) 
2
J l 1(u ) J l 1 (u )  Pclad  Ca  2
 1
Pcore  Ca 1   K 2
( w)
 J l
2
(u )   l 
where, C is constant.
PT  Pcore  Pclad
 K l 1 ( w) K l 1 ( w)  w2 
PT  Ca  2
2
1  2 
 K l ( w)  u  4
Pcore  u 2 K l2 ( w) w2 
  2  2 
PT  V K l 1 ( w) K l 1 ( w) V 
Pclad Pcore u 2  K l2 ( w) 
 1 
 2 1  
PT PT V  K l 1 ( w) K l 1 ( w) 
It is interesting to note that for the first two lower modes, power flow is mostly in cladding
near cut off e.g. for LP01, Vc = 0 and Pclad/PT = 1; for LP11, Vc = 2.4 , again Pclad/PT = 1
As V  Vc , w  0, and u  Vc
Pcore 
0 lfor l  0 and 1
  1
PT for l  2

 l
For instance, for l =2 i.e. say

LP21, at Vc = 3.8,
i.e. for l = 2,
Pcore
 0.5 l – 1/l = 2-1/2
PT = 1/2
5
Example 2 (TB)
LP01 LP11
0.347
0.11
V = 3.01 6
Graded Index Fibers

n(r )  n0 1  2(r / a) 
 1/ 2
, ra
n(r )  n0 1  2
1/ 2
 nclad , ra
(n0  nclad )
where,   (n  n
2
0
2
clad ) / 2n 
2
0 ,   1
n0
n0 is refractive index at r = 0,
nclad is the refractive index of cladding
α is the core refractive index profile parameter
Propagation constant of pth mode in GI Fiber,

1/ 2
  p 
 p   0 1  2 

  Mg 
Using WKB (Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin) approximation (Gloge & Marcatalli 1973)
7
1/ 2
  p  p  1,2,3,..., M g
 p   0 1  2 

where,
 0  kn0
  Mg 
Mg represents total number of guided modes given by,
  
M g  k 2 n02 a 2  
  2 
Substituting the values of Δ and k,
2
1    2 1/ 2 
Mg    a(n0  nclad ) 
2 2
2    2   
For GI fiber,
 
 n 2 (r )  n 2 1/ 2 for r  a V2   
NA   clad Mg   
 0 for r  a 2   2 
NA  (n02  nclad
2
)1/ 2 8
For a SI fiber, α = ∞, n0 = n1 and nclad = n2
2
1  2  V 2
M s   a(n12  n22 )1/ 2  
2   2
Cut-off Frequency to support a single mode in a GI fiber is given by,
1/ 2
 2
Vc  2.4051   (Okamoto & Okoshi 1976)
 
9
Limitations of MM Fibers
T n1  n1  n2  n1
Pulse dispersion for SI fiber (α= ∞)   
L n2  c  c
T n0 2
Pulse dispersion for GI fiber (α= 2)  
L 2c
T n0 2
Pulse dispersion for GI fiber (αoptimum= 2-2Δ)  
L 8c
Pulse broadening due to intra-modal dispersion/multipath dispersion,

Varies from 0.05nm/km to 80nm/km, depending on α and n0.
Light has several spectral components and group velocity of a mode

varies with frequency. – Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD) or intramodal
dispersion
10
Single Mode Fibers
Merits
• Largest Transmission Bandwidth (low dispersion*)
• High Quality transfer of signal
• Absence of Modal Noise
• Low Attenuation
• Compatibility with Integrated Optics Technology
• Reliable
Most widely used fiber type, esp. for long-haul communications
* Dispersion is what it is called when the signal spreads out either temporally or spatially -- that is, send in a pulse and that
pulse spreads out. Temporal dispersion happens when different frequencies travel at different speeds, and spatial dispersion
happens when there are multiple paths by which the signal can travel the same distance.
Single Mode Fibers
• Fiber that supports LP01 (or HE11) only.
• SMF (SI), Vc =2.405
• SMF (SI), 0 < V < 2.405
2a 2a
V (n  n )
2 2 1/ 2
 n1 (2)1/ 2
 
1 2
For any λ, to make V < 2.405, a or Δ needs to be reduced.

Practical difficulties inculcate by reducing a or Δ.
Reducing a leads to large coupling losses (source-to-fiber, or fiber-to-fiber).
Reducing Δ means new material combinations for propagation of light.
Single Mode Fibers
• To get higher values of Vc and large core diameters,
GI fiber may be used.
1/ 2
 2
Vc  2.4051  
 
• Vc increases by a factor of √2 for α = 2 and by a

factor of √3 for α = 1.
• For lower Δ and V-values, the modal field extend well
into cladding.
Pclad
 0 .5
P
V = 1.4 To ensure that the power propagating in the cladding is not lost
the thickness of cladding > 50 μm.
Characteristic Parameters of SMFs
• Mode Field Diameter

• Fiber birefringence
• Dispersion
– GVD
– Waveguide Dispersion
– Material Dispersion
– PMD
• Attenuation
– Material Absorption Losses
– Scattering losses
– Bending losses
– Joint losses
Mode Field Diameter (MFD)
In SMFs, radial distribution of optical power in fundamental mode is significant to study

Mode field diameter (MFD) is also known as mode spot size.
For SI & GI SMFs, the field distribution of fundamental mode is approx. Gaussian.
(  r 2 / w2 )
 (r )   0 e
Ψ(r) is electric/magentic field at radius r,

Ψ0 is the field at r = 0,
w is the mode field radius, radial distance from axis at which Ψ0 drops to Ψ0/e.
As the power is proportional to Ψ2, MFD is radial distance between 1/e2 power points.
Thus, MFD is 2w.
For a SI fiber, mode field radius w is approx. expressed as:
 1.619 2.879 
w  a 0.65  3 / 2 
 V V 6 
Expression give w-values within 1%

for V-values between 0.8-2.5.
Normalized spot size increases as,
V becomes smaller.
SMFs are designed such that operating

wavelength is close to cut-off wavelength.
A more complex definition for MFD was defined by Peterman (1983) and is
called Peterman 2 Spot Size. (wP is called Peterman-2 radius).
Dispersion, joint losses due to offset is related to wP.
An expression that give wP-values within 1% for V-values between 1.5-2.5

was given by (Hussey & Martinez, 1985).
 1.567 
wP  w  a 0.016  7 
 V 
 1.619 2.879 
where, w  a 0.65  3 / 2 
 V V 6 
Fiber birefringence
1. l = 0 modes have two fold degeneracy corresponding to two orthogonal
linearly polarized states.
2. l ≥ 1 modes have four-fold degeneracy as each polarization state may have
coslφ or sinlφ dependence.
HE11
A SMF supports two orthogonal LP modes that are degenerate.

Mode degeneracy = modes that can exist
concurrently and independently
LP01 degeneracy:
LP11 degeneracy:
In a SMF of perfect circular core of uniform diameter, degenerate modes have

same mode index, n and same propagation constant, β.
But, in practice the SMF core is not perfectly circular and is non-uniform
throughout the length of the fiber. Therefore, degenerate modes have different
propagation constants. The fiber becomes birefringent.
Fiber birefringence
Modal birefringence is defined as
n  nx  n y
Birefringence if n1x and n1y are different.

Change in propagation constants
2
  n

2
Beat length, Lp, is fiber length over which the Lp 
polarization rotates through an angle of 2π 
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
PMD arises due to birefringence
Time Delay
L L
T  
v gx v gy Equation assumes constant birefringence
SMFs have birefringence that varies randomly, so above equation is not valid for SMFs.
An approximate estimate is
T  DPMD L
where,
DPMD is measure in ps/√km, and is average PMD parameter. 0.01 ≥ DPMD ≥ 10 ps/√km
Dispersion in SMFs
The multipath time dispersion per unit length derived by calculating the
Delay difference between the fastest(axial) and slowest (most oblique) ray
in ray propagation model is called intermodal dispersion in mode theory.
In SMFs, intermodal dispersion is absent. However pulse broadening do
not vanish. The fundamental mode has a number of spectral components
and group velocity of fundamental mode varies with frequency resulting in
GVD or intramodal dispersion.
Assume a SMF of length L and a pulse is launched at one Group Velocity,

end of the fiber. Then a spectral component of a given
1
frequency, ω would travel with a group velocity, Vg. Vg 
d / d
After travelling length L this component would arrive
Group delay time,
at the other end of fiber after time τg, known as the
group delay time.
L d
g  L
Vg d
GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION (GVD)
If the spectral width of the pulse is not too wide, the delay
difference per unit frequency along the propagation length
may be expressed as ,
d g / d
For spectral components that are Δω apart, the total delay difference
ΔT over length L is given by
d g d  d 
T    L  Since,
d d   d  g 
L
L
d
Vg d
 d 2 
T  L 2   L 2  d 2
 d  2 
d 2
β2 is GVD parameter that determines the magnitude of pulse broadening.
GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION (GVD)
If the spectral spread is measured in terms of the wavelength range Δλ,
2c 2c
    
 2
ΔT may re-written as,
d g d  L 
  L d  1



T   
d d  Vg 
 d V
 g


1 d g d  1   2c

D  
L d d  Vg   2 2

The factor D, is called dispersion parameter. It is defined as pulse spread
per unit length per unit spectral width of the source. (ps nm-1 km-1)
It is the combined effect of waveguide Dispersion Dw and material dispersion
Dm present together. It can be written to a very good approximation that,
D  Dw  Dm
Waveguide Dispersion
• When an electromagnetic wave is confined in a structure, the fields will structure themselves into
regular patterns called "modes," which are inner solutions to Maxwell's equations.
• The modes can correspond to angles at which the electromagnetic wave travels in the waveguide
(optical fiber or electrical cable).
• For a TEM mode (transverse electromagnetic) such as that found in a copper cable or coaxial cable, the
angle is the same no matter what frequency you operate at, but for higher modes (such as that in a
microwave waveguide or optical fiber) the angle will change with frequency.
• The angle at which the wave moves through the waveguide will determine its speed, so if one
frequency component of the signal moves at one speed but another frequency component moves at
another speed then the signal will spread out as it moves.
• Since copper cable sends a signal via transverse electromagnetic waves, it is not subject to waveguide
dispersion, but signals over optical fibers are subject to it.
u 2  2   22  2  n22 k 2 (  / k ) 2  n22
b  1 2  2  2 2 
V 1   2 n1 k  n2 k
2 2 2
n12  n22
β/k = n, mode index
n 2  n22 (n  n2 )(n  n2 )
b 2 
n1  n2 (n1  n2 )(n2  n2 )
2
n1  n2
(n  n2 )
b
(n1  n2 )
mode index
n  n2  b(n1  n2 )
 
 n n2  b(n1  n2 ) 
c c
1 d 1  db
  n2  b(n1  n2 )   n1  n2 
Vg d c c d  
 n n2  b(n1  n2 ) 
n2  b(n1  n2 )   n1  n2  db dV
1 c c

c c dV d
2 
V a(n12  n22 )1/ 2  a(n12  n22 )1/ 2
 c
dV a 2 V
 (n1  n2 ) 
2 1/ 2
d c 
1 1 1 db
 n2  b(n1  n2 )   n1  n2  V
Vg c c dV
1 n2 n1  n2   d 
   dV bV 
Vg c c  
1 n2  n1  n2   d 
 1   bV 
Vg c  n2  dV 
1 n2  n1  n2   d 
 1   bV 
Vg c  n2  dV 
1 n2   d
 1   bV 
Vg c   dV 
Group Velocity varies with V, hence with ω, even in the absence of material dispersion.
This is called Waveguide Dispersion. Thus, the group delay,
L n   d 
w  L 2 1    bV 
Vg c   dV 
For a spectral width Δλ,
d g  n2 d 2 dV 
 w     L  bV 
d  c dV
2
d 
d g  n2 d 2 dV 
 w     L  bV 
d  c dV
2
d 
2 d 2 V
V an1 (2)1/ 2 V   2 an1 (2)1/ 2  
 d  
n2 1  d 2 
 w   L  V (bV )  
c   dV 2

 w n2   d 2 
 V (bV )    Dw 
L c  dV 2

n2   d 2 
Dw   V (bV )  Waveguide Dispersion Parameter
c  dV 2 
 d2 
V 2
(bV )   0 . 080  0 . 549 ( 2 . 834  V ) 2
Marcuse, 1979
 dV 
Dw depends on n2, Δ, λ, V and,
 d2 
V 2
(bV ) 
 dV 
 d2  is positive for V-values in range 0.5 – 3, which means for SMFs,

V 2
(bV )
 dV  Dw will remain negative for wavelengths in 1000-1700 nm range
Example:
A step index single mode fiber has a core index of 1.45, a relative refractive
index difference of 0.3 %, and a core diameter of 8.2 μm. Calculate the
waveguide dispersion parameter for this fiber at λ = 1.30 μm and 1.55 μm.
Material Dispersion
 d 2n
Dm  
c d2
Dm can also be expressed by an approximate empirical relation (Agarwal 2002)

For a wavelength range of 1250 – 1660 nm
   ZD  1.276 μm
Dm  1221  ZD 
   Zero Dispersion Wavelength
Dw depends on n2, Δ, λ, V, a, etc. Therefore it is possible to shift λZD to 1550 nm
Note that standard fiber has zero dispersion near 1300nm, but dispersion-shifted fiber has it at zero near
1500nm. Dispersion shifting is done by tailoring waveguide dispersion to counteract chromatic dispersion
D  Dw  Dm
DSFs, DFFs
Low loss 0.24 dB/km,
zero dispersion but
high bending losses
To avoid bending losses
Low loss 0.21 dB/km,

zero dispersion but high
bending losses
Multi-index designs
DSFs are prone
to
nonlinearities
like FWM so no
longer deployed
Design of SMFs
Matched MCFs DCFs

Depressed
Cladding
Cladding Fibers
Fibers (MCFs)
(DCFs)
DSFs
Dispersion
Shifted Fibers
(DSFs)
Dispersion
Flattened Fibers
(DFFs) DFFs
Large
Effective
Area Fibers
(LEAFs)
Single mode fiber
Pilani Campus
ATTENUATION IN SMF
Signal attenuation reduce the optical power reaching to the receiver.

Receiver requires certain minimum incident power for decision.
Loss provided by fiber decides maximum distance between two repeaters.

Hence, no. of repeaters between source transmitter and receiver destination.
Attenuation of optical power, P with distance z is given by,
dP
 P
dz
where, α is coefficient of attenuation. α varies with λ and material of fiber.
The expression above includes only absorption losses not scattering or bending losses.
L 10 P
Pout  Pin e  (dB / km) 
L
log10 in
Pout
Absorption Losses
Intrinsic absorption – light absorbed by one or more major components of glass.
Electronic resonances (UV), Vibrational resonances (IR).
Intrinsic Material Absorption - Intrinsic absorption is caused by interaction of the

propagating lightwave with one more more major components of glass that
constitute the fiber’s material composition.
These results a fundamental minimum to the attainable loss and can be

overcome only by changing the fiber material.
An example of such an interaction is the infrared absorption band of SiO2

Extrinsic impurity ions absorption is caused by the presence of minute quantity of
metallic ions (such as Fe2+, Cu2+, Cr3+) and the OH- ion from water dissolved in
glass.
Extrinsic absorption- absorption due to Impurities within the glass.
Cr3+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Mn2+, etc. absorb strongly in range of 0.6-
1.6 μm.
Impurity content < 1 ppb in order to achieve loss <1 dB/km.
Impurity Ion Loss due to 1ppm of Absorption Peak

impurity (dB/km) Wavelength (um)
2+
Fe 0.68 1.1
2+
Fe 0.15 0.4
2+
Cu 1.1 0.85
3+
Cr 1.6 0.625
-
OH 1 0.95
-
OH 4 1.38
Another source of extrinsic absorption is OH- ions.
OH- ions gets incorporated during Manufacturing processes for fiber
OH- Vibrational resonance at 2.73 μm and overtones at 0.72, 0.95, and 1.38 μm.
OH- Impurity content < 10 ppb in order to achieve loss <10 dB/km at 1.38 μm.
Scattering losses
Rayleigh scattering - Due to density variations of fiber material, α 1/λ4.
Mie scattering - irregularities at core-cladding interface, change in core diameter, etc.
Linear or Non-Linear Scattering

Linear
Rayleigh
Mie
Non-Linear
Brillouin Scattering
Stimulated Raman Scattering
linear scattering and nonlinear
scattering
For linear scattering, the amount of light power that is transferred from a wave
is proportional to the power in the wave. It is characterized by having no
change in frequency in the scattered wave.
On the other hand, nonlinear scattering is accompanied by a frequency shift of

the scattered light. Nonlinear scattering is caused by high values of electric field
within the fiber (modest to high amount of optical power). Nonlinear scattering
causes significant power to be scattered in the forward, backward, or sideways
directions.
Rayleigh scattering (named after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh) is the
main type of linear scattering. It is caused by small-scale (small compared
with the wavelength of the lightwave) inhomogeneities that are produced in
the fiber fabrication process.
Examples of inhomogeneities are glass composition fluctuations (which

results in minute refractive index change) and density fluctuations
(fundamental and not improvable).
Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96% of attenuation in optical fiber.

Mie scattering is named after German physicist Gustav Mie. This theory describes
scattering of electromagnetic radiation by particles that are comparable in size to
a wavelength (larger than 10% of wavelength).
For glass fibers, Mie scattering occurs in in-homogeneities such as core-cladding

refractive index variations over the length of the fiber, impurities at the core-
cladding interface, strains or bubbles in the fiber, or diameter fluctuations.
Mie scattering can be reduced by carefully removing imperfections from the glass
material, carefully controlling the quality and cleanliness of the manufacturing
process. In commercial fibers, the effects of Mie scattering are insignificant.
Bending Losses
Microbend loss
Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. This is due to
the energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the
cladding and hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy
to be radiated from the fiber. The part of the mode which is on the outside of the
bend is required to travel faster than that on the inside so that a wave-front
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is maintained. Hence, part of the mode
in the cladding needs to travel faster than the velocity of light in that medium. As this
is not possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through
radiation.
The loss can generally be represented by
αr = c1 exp(−c2R),
where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber
bend and c1, c2 are constants which are
independent of R.
Furthermore, large bending
losses tend to occur in
multimode fibers at a critical
radius of curvature Rc which
may be estimated as follows:
It may be observed that potential macro-bending losses may be reduced
by:
(a) designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences;
(b) operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
The above criteria for the reduction of bend losses also apply to single-mode
fibers. A theory based on the concept of a single quasi-guided mode, provides
an expression from which the critical radius of curvature for a single-mode fiber
Rcs can be estimated as:
where λc is the cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber. Hence again, for a
specific single-mode fiber (i.e. a fixed relative index difference and cutoff
wavelength), the critical wavelength of the radiated light becomes
progressively shorter as the bend radius is decreased.
Thus it is essential that sharp bends, with a radius of curvature approaching the
critical radius, are avoided when optical fiber cables are installed.
Bend loss vs core radius
100 turns wound over
Radius 3.75 cm
Joint Losses
Permanent Joints – Splices
Demountable Joints - Connectors
2
 y 
Losslat (dB)  4.34   1.567 
w  wP  w  a 0.016  7 
 p  V 
 1.619 2.879 
where, w  a 0.65  3 / 2 
 V V 6 
Fiber-to-fiber misalignment losses,
Loss Process
Coupling
Loss
Junction
Loss
Input Impurities
Output
Macro
Absorption or
Loss Scattering
Injection micro
Loss
Loss bending
loss
Scattering
loss
Fiber Optic Link Power Budget
Fiber Development
Pilani Campus
Fiber Fabrication Methods
FIBER FABRICATION
Two basic techniques in fabrication of all glass optical
waveguides.
1. Direct melt methods
2. Chemical Vapor Deposition
Direct Melt Methods Vapor –phase Oxidation (Chemical Vapor

Deposition)Process
-Optical fibers are made
directly from the molten state -Highly pure vapors of metal halides react with O2 to
of purified components of form white powder of SiO2 particles.
silica glasses. -The particles are then collected on the surface of a
bulk glass and are sintered to form a glass rod.
-This rod or tube is called a preform.
-Typically 10-25 mm dia and 60-120 cm long.
-Fibers are drawn from preform
Nowadays most optical fibers are made from the
preform. There are three steps in this method:
1. Fabrication of the preform
2. Drawing the fiber from the preform
3. Coating and jacketing process
Preform Fabrication: Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

1. Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
2. Plasma Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (PMCVD)
3. Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
4. Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)
5. Vapor-phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
1. All these methods are based on thermal chemical vapor
reaction that forms oxides
2. They are deposited as layers of glass particles called soot
3. Starting materials are solutions of SiCl4, GeCl4, POCl3, and
gaseous BCl3.
4. These liquids are evaporated within oxygen stream and form
silica and other
oxides. ZrO2
5. Chemical reactions proceed as follows: TiO2
Al2O3
SiCl4 + O2 -> SiO2 + 2 Cl2

GeCl4 + O2 -> GeO2 + 2 Cl2
4 POCl3 + 3 O2 -> 2 P2O5 + 6 Cl2
4 BCl3 + 3 O2 -> 2 B2O3 + 6 Cl2
- Germanium dioxide and phosphorus pentoxide increase the

refractive index of glass
- Boron oxide decreases the refractive index of glass.
- These oxides are known as dopants.
- Changing composition of the mixture during the process influences
refractive index profile of the preform.
Double Crucible Method:
1. Glass rods for the core and cladding materials are

first made separately by melting mixtures of
purified powders. These rods are used as
feedstock for each of two concentric crucibles.
2. The inner crucible contains the molten core glass
and outer contains cladding glass.
3. The fibers are drawn from the molten state
through orifices in the bottom of the two
concentric crucibles in a continuous production
process.
4. Long fibres can be produced (providing you don't
let the content of the crucibles run dry!).
5. Step-index fibres and graded-index fibres can be
drawn with this method. Silica, Chalcogenide* and
Halide glass fibers can also be made.
6. Attention must be paid to avoid contaminants
arise from furnace environment and from the
crucible.
* Chalcogenide glasses are based on the

chalcogen elements S, Se, and Te (sulfur,
selenium and tellurium), but excluding
oxygen. ZBLAN fiber ( ZrF4-BaF2-LaF3-
AlF3-NaF )
Drawing the fibre
1. The tip of the preform is heated to about 2000°C in a

furnace. As the glass softens, a thin strand of softened
glass falls by gravity and cools down while shrinking in
diameter into a desired diameter strand.
2. The fibre diameter is constantly monitored as it is
drawn and is controlled continuously during the
drawing process. Diameter drift cannot exceed 0.1%.
3. The drawing process must be integrated with the
coating process to avoid contamination of fiber surface.
The strand is subjected to a series of coating applicators
immediately after drawing.
4. Dual coating, soft inner and hard outer, is needed to
avoid microbending and protect against impact and
crushing forces in either manufacturing process or
installation.
5. The coating protects the fibre from dust and moisture.
6. The fiber with coatings is pulled down and then
wrapped around a spool.
FIBER CABLES
Fiber Is Everywhere!
It’s how we communicate…
Fiber Optic Installation - Outside Plant
Fiber Optic Installation -Premises
FIBER CONNECTORS
Fiber Optic Connectors
• Terminates the fibers
• Connects to other fibers or transmission
equipment
Fiber Optic Connectors & Splices
• Connectors
– Demountable
terminations for fiber
– Connect to transmitters
and receivers
• Splices
– Permanent termination
of two fibers
Connectors
A mechanical or optical device that provides a
demountable connection between two fibers or
a fiber and a source or detector.
34
Optical Fiber Connectors
• Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as
follows:
1- low coupling losses
2- Interchangeability
3- Ease of assembly
4- Low environmental sensitivity
5- Low-cost and reliable construction
6- Ease of connection
Optical Fiber Connectors
Principle requirements of a good connector design are as

follows:
Coupling loss:
The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment tolerances to
ensure low mating losses. The losses should be around 2 to 5 percent (0.1 to 0.2
dB) and must not change significantly during operation and after numerous
connects and disconnects.
Interchangeability:
Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one manufacturer to
another.
Ease of assembly:
A service technician should be able to install the connector in a field
environment, that is, in a location other than the connector attachment
factory.
Low environmental sensitivity:
Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture should have a small effect
on connector loss variations.
Low cost and reliable construction:

The connector must have a precision suitable to the application, but it must
be reliable and its cost must not be a major factor in the system.
Ease of connection:
Except for certain unique applications, one should be able to mate and
disconnect the connector simply and by hand.
There are numerous connector styles and configurations.

The main ones are ST, SC, FC, LC, MU, MT-RJ, MPO, and variations on
MPO.
Connector components
• Connector are available in designs that screw on, twist on, or snap into
place
• Most commonly used are twist on, or snap on designs
• These include single channel and multi channel assemblies
• The basic coupling mechanism is either a Butt joint or an expanded beam
class
• Butt joint connectors employ a metal, ceramic or a molded plastic Ferrule
for each fiber
Butt-joint connector
Connector components
• Expanded beam connector employs lenses on the end of the fibers.

• The lenses collimate the light emerging from the transmitting fiber and
focuses the beam on the receiving fiber
• The fiber to lens distance is equal to the focal length
• As the beam is collimated so even a separation between the fibers will not
make a difference
• Connector is less dependent on the lateral alignment
• Beam splitters or switches can be inserted between the fibers
Expanded beam connector

Optical Connector Types ST
ST is derived from the words straight tip, which refers to the ferrule
configuration.
ST connector
Optical Connector Types SC
SC mean subscriber connector or square connector, although now the
connectors are not known by those names.
SC connector
Optical Connector Types FC
A connector designed specifically for Fibre Channel applications was
designated by the letters FC.
FC connector
Optical Connector Types LC
Since Lucent developed a specific connector type, they obviously
nicknamed it the LC connector.
LC connector
Optical Connector Types
MT-RJ The designation MT-RJ is an acronym for media termination—

recommended jack.
MPO The letters MPO were selected to indicate a multiple-fiber, push-

on/pull-off connecting function.
MT-RJ
MPO
Connectors - contd.
Type: SC, FC, ST, MU, SMA
• Favored with single-mode fibre
• Multimode fibre (50/125um) and (62.5/125um)
• Loss 0.15 - 0.3 dB
• Return loss 55 dB (SMF), 25 dB (MMF)
Single fibre connector
MU, Miniature Unit

Fiber Splices
1. Fusion Splices,
2. Mechanical splices
End-Face Preparation
Cleaning Fiber Optic Connectors
• The importance of cleaning fiber connectors

Combination Cleaning (wet dry)
Before Cleaning After Cleaning
Oil & Dust Wet Dry Method
49
Cross Contamination
Clean Connector Dirty connector
before being before being Connector # 1 after
connected to dirty connected to clean being mated to dirty
connector # 2 connector # 1 connector # 2
Connector # 1 Connector # 2
Burnt Connector
Burning will happen at power

levels higher than a +15 dBm
Mechanical splicing
Open V-grooved splice
A glass or ceramic alignment tube for

mechanical splicing
Spring V-grooved mechanical splice
The Elastomeric splice (still available from Corning)
uses soft elastomers to hold the fibers in position.
It's similar to a v-groove, but the grooves are soft so

they accommodate slight variations in fiber diameter
easily.
Multiple Splices Physical contact (PC) connectors
APC (angled) connectors

Connection Losses
1. Losses due to extrinsic parameters
2. Losses due to intrinsic parameters
Losses due to extrinsic parameters

1. Fresnel reflection
2. Misalignment – longitudinal, lateral, angular
3. End-facets flatness
Fresnel reflection,
2
n n
R   1 
 n1  n 
2
n n 4k
T  1  R  1   1  
 n1  n  k  12
k  n1 / n
Coupling Efficiency (compatible fibers),
4k 4k 16k 2
F  . 
k  1 k  1 k  14
2 2
Coupling Efficiency (non-compatible fibers),
4k 4k '
k  n1 / n
F  .
k  1 k '12
2
k '  n1 ' / n
Loss (dB),
LF  10 log10 ( F )
LF '  10 log10 ( F ' )

To minimize losses due to Fresnel reflection, index matching liquids are used.
 zNA 
lo  1 
 4an 
1/ 2
2  1  y   y   y  
2
lat  cos     1    

   2a   2a   2a  
 n 
 ang  1 
 NA 
Connection Losses due to intrinsic factors
1. Core diameter
2. NA or Δ
3. Refractive index profile
2
d / 4  d 2 
2
 2
   for d 2  d1
 cd  d / 4  d1 
1
2
 1 for d 2  d1

2
 NA2  for NA2  NA1
 
 NA   NA1 
 1 for NA2  NA1

 1  2 / 1 
  for  2  1
   1  2 /  2 
 1 for  2  1

Cable, Connector & Splice Testing
• Continuity testing with

visual tracer/fault locator
• Insertion loss with source
and meter
• OTDR testing
Measuring Optical Power Levels
• Use a power meter with the correct wavelength and
dynamic range to measure power in a live network
– At transmitter
– At patch panel
– At receiver
 Coupling of the fiber/connector via an air gap to a photodiode

Adapter Air gap Photodiode
Fiber
2014 test adapters

Power Meter
Measuring Power Levels - PON/FTTx
• Three wavelengths on one fiber
– Downstream at 1490 and 1550 nm
– Upstream at 1310 nm
1490 / 1550 nm 1490 / 1550 nm
OLT ONT
1310 nm
1310 nm
Meter Meter Meter

3 1 22
1310 nm 1490 nm 1550 nm OLP-57:
Provides 3 power
meters in one
Measuring Insertion Loss
• The insertion loss measurement over a complete link requires a
calibrated source and a power meter.
• This is a unidirectional measurement, however could be
performed bi-directionally for operation purposes
Calibrated Light Source Optical power meter

Perm
>2s
m
B
dW
B
d
m
B
B
d
d
el
nc
Ca
u
n
e
M
Pt Pr
It is the difference between the transmitted power and the received power at
the each end of the link
This measurements is the most important test to be

performed, as each combination of transmitter/receiver has
power range limit.
Measuring Insertion Loss
Single Direction Insertion Loss Measurement with a Source and Power Meter
Reference first!
Light Power
Source Meter
0dB
Reference Measurement
Light Power
Source Meter -1.5dB
Insertion Loss Measurement
1, 2, or 3 jumper references can be performed – 2 jumper shown

Optical Return Loss
• Ratio between the transmitted power and the received power
at the fiber origin
• 2 different test methods:
– Optical Continuous Wave Reflectometry (OCWR): A laser source and a
power meter, using the same test port, are connected to the fiber under
test.
– Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (OTDR)
OCWR method OTDR method

Measuring Optical Return Loss
Fiber under test

Non-reflective
Termination
Optical signal sent of know power

Measure returned power
Difference is return loss
• Bad • Good
– Sent: 0 dBm – Sent: 0 dBm
– Returned: -20 dBm – Returned: -45 dBm
– Return loss: 20 dB – Return loss: 45 dB
 A high amount of return loss is a good thing!

Advanced Tests
• Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR)
– Detect, locate, and measure events at any location on
the fiber link
• Fiber Characterization
– Determines the services that the fiber can be carry
– Basic tests plus:
• Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
• Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
• Optical Spectrum Analysis (OSA)
– Spectral analysis for Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM) systems
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
<1 minute
Fiber Optic Data Links
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Allows Transmitting Multiple Signals
Q6. Assume a step-index multimode planar optical waveguide with core index of 1.5022 and
cladding index of 1.4897. The thickness of core is considered to be 10000 nm. Assume
operating wavelength to be 1276 nm.
A. Find pulse broadening per unit length due to multipath dispersion.
B. Estimate pulse broadening per unit length due to material dispersion if spectral width of
source is 50 nm and material dispersion parameter Dm is 2.5 ps/nm.km
C. Calculate overall pulse broadening per unit length due to both multipath and material
dispersion if initial pulse width per unit length of transmitted pulse is 10 ps/km
D. Estimate the number of modes propagating within the optical waveguide.

E. Find the value of normalized frequency parameter, V.

F. Find the value of normalized propagation constants for modes propagating in the waveguide
slab.
Q6. Solution
Assume a step-index multimode planar optical waveguide with core index of 1.5022 and
Q6. Solution
T n1  n1  n2  1.5022  1.5022  1.4897 
      42 ns km -1
L n2  c  1.4897  3 108 m / s 
Q6. Solution
T n1  n1  n2  1.5022  1.5022  1.4897 
      42 ns km -1
L n2  c  1.4897  3 108 m / s 
Q6. Solution
T n1  n1  n2  1.5022  1.5022  1.4897 
      42 ns km -1
L n2  c  1.4897  3 108 m / s 
 T
  Dm   2.5 ps nm -1 km -1  50 nm  125 ps km -1
L L
Q6. Solution
T n1  n1  n2  1.5022  1.5022  1.4897 
      42 ns km -1
L n2  c  1.4897  3 108 m / s 
 T
  Dm   2.5 ps nm -1 km -1  50 nm  125 ps km -1
L L
Q6. Solution
T n1  n1  n2  1.5022  1.5022  1.4897 
      42 ns km -1
L n2  c  1.4897  3 108 m / s 
 T
  Dm   2.5 ps nm -1 km -1  50 nm  125 ps km -1
L L
2
 p 
2 2
s    
  0    m    
L L  L  L
 10ps/km 2  125ps/km 2  42ns/km 2  42 ns km -1
Q6. Solution
Assume a step-index multimode waveguide slab with core index of 1.5022 and cladding index
of 1.4897. The thickness of core is considered to be 10000 nm. Assume operating wavelength
to be 1276 nm.

Q6. Solution
to be 1276 nm.
4a 2 2 4 10 m
M n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  3.03  3
 1.276 m
Q6. Solution
to be 1276 nm.
4a 2 2 4 10 m
M n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  3.03  3
 1.276 m

Q6. Solution
to be 1276 nm.
4a 2 2 4 10 m
M n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  3.03  3
 1.276 m
2a 2  10 m
2
V n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  4.76
 1.276 m
Q6. Solution
to be 1276 nm.
4a 2 2 4 10 m
M n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  3.03  3
 1.276 m
2a 2  10 m
2
V n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  4.76
 1.276 m
slab.
Q6. Solution
to be 1276 nm.
4a 2 2 4  5m
M n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  3.03  3
 1.276 m
2a 2  10 m
2
V n1  n2  1.5022 2  1.4897 2  4.76
 1.276 m
slab.
From Fig 3.6 (TB), b0  0.84, b1  0.6, b2  0.3, b3  0.02

Q7. Two compatible multimode step-index fibers are spliced with a lateral offset of 2 µm, an
angular misalignment of the core axes by 2°, and a small air gap due to longitudinal offset of
1µm. If the core of each fiber has a refractive index of 1.478, a relative refractive index
difference of 2%, and a diameter of 50 µm, calculate the following:
A. the coupling efficiency due to Fresnel reflection
B. the coupling efficiency due to longitudinal misalignment
C. the coupling efficiency due to lateral misalignment
D. the coupling efficiency due to angular misalignment
E. the total insertion loss (dB) at the splice
Q7. Solution
Two compatible multimode step-index fibers are spliced with a lateral offset of 2 µm, an

Q7. Solution

4k 4k 16k 2 16 1.4782
F  .    0.9270
k  1 k  1 k  1 1.478  1
2 2 4 4
Q7. Solution

4k 4k 16k 2 16 1.4782
F  .    0.9270
k  1 k  1 k  1 1.478  1
2 2 4 4

Q7. Solution

4k 4k 16k 2 16 1.4782
F  .    0.9270
k  1 k  1 k  1 1.478  1
2 2 4 4

NA  n1 2  1.478 2  0.02  0.2956
 zNA   1m0.2956  
lo  1    1    0.9970
 4an   2  50 m 1 
Q7. Solution

4k 4k 16k 2 16 1.4782
F  .    0.9270
k  1 k  1 k  1 1.478  1
2 2 4 4

NA  n1 2  1.478 2  0.02  0.2956
 zNA   1m0.2956  
lo  1    1    0.9970
 4an   2  50 m 1 
Q7. Solution

4k 4k 16k 2 16 1.4782
F  .    0.9270
k  1 k  1 k  1 1.478  1
2 2 4 4

NA  n1 2  1.478 2  0.02  0.2956
 zNA   1m0.2956  
lo  1    1    0.9970
 4an   2  50 m 1 
 2 2
1
2  1  y   y   y    2  2 2
 
1
lat  cos     1       1.5308  0.04  1  0.04    0.9491
  2a   2a   2a      
 
Here, cos -1 (y / 2a ) is expressed in radians

 n   1 0.035 
 ang  1    1    0.9623
 NA     0.2956 
 n   1 0.035 
 ang  1    1    0.9623
 NA     0.2956 
 n   1 0.035 
 ang  1    1    0.9623
 NA     0.2956 
LT  10 log10 (T )  10 log10 ( F lo lat  ang )  0.74 dB

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Optical Communication

“Optical Fiber Communications”,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

“Fiber Optics Communication Systems”-G. P.

“Fiber Optics & Optoelectronics”,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

No Name Type Durati Weig Day, Date, Session, Time

Syllabus for Mid-Semester Test (Closed Book): Topics in Session Nos. 1

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Attenuation Spectrum of Silica Fibers.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Optical communication has its roots since

Mirrors were used to divert the sunlight to illuminate

Before the electric telegraph, optical telegraph in form of

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In 1840s, physicists D. Collodon and J.

In 1854, John Tyndall, a British physicist,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In 1960, T. Maiman invented what is considered to be the first successful optical

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In the process of developing the fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope in 1966, B.

Prior to this, in 1963, J. Nishizawa, a scientist at Tohoku University proposed the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

C. K. Kao in his Lab

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The fiber-optics revolution was started.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Type Core Cladding Mode

50/125 50 125 Multimode, graded-index

62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded-index

100/125 100 125 Multimode, graded-index

7/125 7 125 Single-mode

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

• Plastic less expensive, flexible, lighter.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

• Security - As physically tapping the fibre takes great skill to do

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

• Transmission - Transmission on optical fibre requires Repeaters at distance

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

BITS Pilani RAHUL SINGHAL