The Process of Research

Chapter 2 All events-physical, behavioral,

Theory
and mental-determined by
Research Methods in Psychology
specific , potentially knowable
causal factors

The Process of Research The Process of Research

Initial phase of research:

Theory
Determinism:

Doctrine that all events — physical, • Organized set of concepts that

Step 1
behavioral, and mental — are explains a phenomenon or set
of phenomena
“determined” by specific causal
• Psychologists use theories to
factors that are potentially knowable
formulate research questions

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 The Process of Research The Process of Research

Develop a hypothesis
Design the
• Hypothesis: A tentative
Step 2 study
and testable explanation
of the relationship
Step 3
between two (or more)
events or variables

The Process of Research

The Process of Research A Challenge to Objectivity
Scientific Method:

Set of procedures used for gathering and

interpreting objective information in a
Observer Bias

way that minimizes error and yields

dependable generalizations Distortion of evidence because of
personal motives and
expectations of viewer
Goal is to draw conclusions with
maximum objectivity

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 The Process of Research
Observer Bias: The Remedy The Process of Research
Standardization

Research Variables:
Set of uniform procedures for treating each
participant
Variables are factors in Independent Variable
experimental setting that
change in amount and
Defined in terms of the specific operation or
kind Dependent Variable
Operational definition

procedure used to determine its presence

All variables in research study must be

given operational definitions

Experimental Method: Alternative

Research Variables Explanations and Need for Control

Factor that is manipulated by researcher

Independent
Variable:

Causal part of relationship Used to overcome causal ambiguity

Experimental
Methods

Variable that experimenter measures to assess Researcher manipulates an

impact of variation in independent variable independent variable to look at its
Dependent
Variable:

Dependent outcome that is observed from effect on dependent variable

manipulation of independent variable

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 Experimental Method
Challenge to Objectivity

Confounding variables
Elements of

Alternative explanations
Experiment

to research
These can result from Expectancy effects

Placebo effect

Experimental Method Experimental Method

Confounding Variable

Expectancy Effects

Variable other than what experimenter purposely

Results occur when researchers or
introduced that affects participants behavior
observers subtly communicate to
participants kind of behavior they
expect, therefore, creating expected
Confounding variables add confusion and place
interpretation of data at risk
reaction and/or outcome

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 Experimental Method Experimental Method: The Remedy

Consistent procedures for giving

instructions, responses, and holding
all other variables constant except
Placebo Effect

Occurs when experimental Control Procedures those being systematically varied

participants change their • Double-blind control

• Placebo control
behavior in absence of any kind • Between-subjects designs
• Within-subjects designs
of experimental manipulation

Experimental Method: The Remedy Experimental Method: The Remedy

Experimental procedure Inclusion of

in which experimenter
experimental
Double-blind Control and subject are
Placebo Control condition in which
unaware as to who
received the treatment
treatment is not
administered

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Experimental Method: The Remedy Experimental Method: The Remedy

Within-subjects Design
Population:
• Each participant is his or her
• Entire set of individuals
own control Representation to which generalizations
Between-subjects Design
Sample: will be made based on
experimental sample
• Different groups of participants Sample: • Subset of population
are randomly assigned to being studied
• Subset of population
experimental conditions or to selected as participants
control conditions in an experiment

Correlational Methods

Positive and
Correlational Methods Correlational Coefficient (r)
Negative
Correlations
• Determine to what extent two • Indicates degree of relationship
variables, traits, or attributes are between two variables
related
• Do NOT imply causation

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 Psychological Measurement Psychological Measurement

Behavior
• Degree to which
test produces
identified
similar scores Extent to which test Self-report through
Reliability each time it is Validity measures what it
used was intended to test
Measures participant’s own
• Stability,
consistency observations
and reports

Psychological Measurement Psychological Measurement

Overt actions
and reactions • Behavior is
clearly visible
Naturally occurring
Behavioral Direct and is easily Naturalistic
behavior is viewed
that are observations recorded observations
without attempting

Measures • Can be aided by

to change or

observed and technology

interfere

recorded

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Psychological Measurement Psychological Measurement

• Information taken
• Intensive
from existing records
observation of

Archival • Examples include

birth and death
Case particular individual
• Case study can also
Data Study
records, weather
involve intensive
reports, voting
observation of small
patterns, and
group of individuals
attendance figures

Ethical Issues in Research Ethical Issues in Research

Factors the
Informed Risk/Gain
review board
Consent Assessment
consider:

Intentional
Debriefing
Deception

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 Ethical Issues in Research Ethical Issues in Research

Intentional
Informed Risk/Gain Deception
Consent Assessment
For some research it is not
possible to tell participants
the intention of the study
without biasing results
Research participants are asked
Risks to participants must be
to sign statements indicating they
minimized, especially in studies of
have been informed as to
more personal aspects of
potential risks and benefits of American Psychological
behavior Association has strict rules
study and consent to participate
on use of deception

Ethical Issues in Research Ethical Issues in Research

Issues in Animal
Debriefing Research

At the end of all studies each Should animals be

participant must be provided
used in psychological
with as much information
about study as possible and medical research?